Dissertation-Communication Management.pdf

MSc Project Management M. Azeem Qureshi
Dissertation SID: @00579163
“THE ROLE OF COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT IN
PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND PROJECT SUCCESS”
An analysis of communication management and its impact on project’s management and
success
Muhammad Azeem Qureshi
Student ID: @00579163
Effective word count: 16,954
Dissertation
February 2022
A dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of The University of
Salford for the degree of MSc Project Management

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DISSERTATION
"The role of communication management in project management and project
success"
An analysis of communication management and its impact on project's
management and success
MSc Project Management
Supervisor: Dr Dave Wheeler

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DECLARATION

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ABSTRACT
For decades, the function of communication in project management has been
intensively contested and examined from a variety of angles in the project
management literature. Communication is regarded as a requisite to success, and
its ineffectiveness is cited as a reason for the failure of several projects.
Researchers believe that communication is a crucial skill and a necessary skill set
for project managers, even if some researches have seen it as a trivial success
element in project management. There seems to be a need to provide contextual
and empirical data on the influence of communication on project outcomes. With
the evolution of information and communication technology, it is critical that the
most effective communication’s methods and tools to be identified to ensure
effective communication. The purpose of this dissertation is to examine and
analyse the relation between communication and project management
performFance.
More than 500 journal articles and publications on communication’s role in project
management were critically assessed. Qualitative research method was used to
have a better understanding of how project teams communicate nowadays. A
survey questionnaire was sent out to project management professionals via social
media. An overwhelming majority (567) of those who took part in the survey felt
that effective communication was directly linked to better project outcomes.
Key words: Communication, Project Management, Information and
communication technology, Communication barriers, Communication models.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to convey my heartfelt appreciation to a number of people who
played a significant part in this study thesis.
First and foremost, I want to thank God for allowing me to complete my thesis.
In addition, I want to thank my research supervisor, Dr. Dave Wheeler, for his
modest advice, supervision support, and valuable professional assistance,
which included reviewing, critiquing, and suggesting my work multiple times.
My family and friends, who have been at my side during the study process,
deserve special thanks.

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION......................................................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................................... 1
List of Figures........................................................................................................................ 5
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... 6
List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................ 7
1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................... 8
1.1. Research methodology ..........................................................................................9
1.1.1. Research philosophy......................................................................................9
1.1.2. Research approach ......................................................................................10
1.1.3. Research strategies......................................................................................10
1.1.4. Research choice ...........................................................................................11
1.1.5. Research sample ..........................................................................................11
1.2. Research aim and objectives..............................................................................12
1.2.1 Objectives.......................................................................................................13
1.3. Time horizon ..........................................................................................................13
1.4. Structure.................................................................................................................14
1.5. Delimitations ..........................................................................................................15
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 16
2.1. Communication models .......................................................................................17
2.1.1. Lasswell Model (1948) .................................................................................20
2.1.2. Shannon and Weaver Model (1949)..........................................................21
2.1.3. Galle's Model of Communication................................................................22
2.1.4. Osgood and Schramm circular model .......................................................23
2.1.5. Barnlund's Transactional Model .................................................................24
2.1.6. Conclusion .....................................................................................................26
2.2. Communication and Project Management........................................................27
2.2.1. Communication Process and role of Project Manager and Team ........29
2.2.2. Communication Management Plan............................................................30
2.3. Communication levels and methods..................................................................32
2.3.1. Project communication levels .....................................................................33
2.3.2. Project communication methods ................................................................34
2.3.3. Communication hierarchy............................................................................36
2.4. Role of Information Technology in communication management.................37

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2.4.1. Globalisation and virtual team.....................................................................38
2.4.2. Information technology and virtual team ...................................................38
2.5. Communication challenges .................................................................................39
2.6. Case studies..........................................................................................................41
2.6.1. Mars Climate Orbiter mishap investigation...............................................43
2.6.2. Communication problems causing Kuwait Government projects delay44
2.6.3. Persian Gulf projects – Inter-cultural communication issues.................45
2.7. Conclusion .............................................................................................................46
3. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 49
3.1. Research philosophy............................................................................................50
3.2. Research approach ..............................................................................................51
3.3. Research choice ...................................................................................................53
3.4. Research strategies..............................................................................................54
3.4.1 Grounded theory ...........................................................................................55
3.4.2 Ethnography...................................................................................................55
3.4.3 Case study research.....................................................................................56
3.5. Sample....................................................................................................................57
3.6. Time horizon ..........................................................................................................59
3.7. Data collection.......................................................................................................59
3.7.1 Reliability and validity.........................................................................................60
3.8. Conclusion .............................................................................................................63
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................... 65
4.1. Search criteria .......................................................................................................67
4.2. Literature and journals coding.............................................................................69
4.2.1. Initial or open coding ....................................................................................69
4.2.2. Axial coding....................................................................................................70
4.2.3. Selective coding............................................................................................70
4.3. Journal, articles coding ........................................................................................71
4.4. Discussion – Communication literature.............................................................72
4.4.1. Communication challenges .........................................................................73
4.4.2. Methods and types of communication.......................................................78
4.4.3. Impact of information and communication technology (ICT) .................81
4.4.4. The richness of commination medium.......................................................82
4.5. Survey and semi-structured interviews: results and discussion....................84
4.5.1. Survey questionnaire....................................................................................85

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4.5.1.1. Characteristics of respondents ...............................................................86
4.5.1.2. Discussion – Survey responses .............................................................87
4.5.2. Discussion – Semi-structured interviews ..................................................97
4.6. Chapter conclusion.............................................................................................102
5. Conclusion and recommendations.................................................................. 107
5.1. Conclusion ...........................................................................................................107
5.2. Recommendations..............................................................................................108
5.3. Evaluation of study and scope for further research.......................................111
6. REFERENCE LIST................................................................................................. 112
7. APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 122
Survey Questionnaire.......................................................................................................... 123
Ethics Approval Application Form.................................................................................... 126

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List of Figures
Fig 2. 1 Literature collection and synthesis process (Author) 16
Fig 2. 2 Linear and Non-linear Communication Model representation (Narula, 2006). 18
Fig 2. 3 Graphical representation of Lasswell Communication Model (Mcquail and
Windahl, 2015). 20
Fig 2. 4 Graphical representation of Shannon and Weaver communication model
(Mcquail and Windahl, 2015). 21
Fig 2. 5 Graphical representation of Galle's model (McKay, Marshall and Grainger,
2014). 23
Fig 2. 6 Graphical representation of Osgood and Schramm model (Mcquail and
Windahl, 2015). 24
Fig 2. 7 Graphical representation of Barnlund's model (Kunzar and Yager, 2020) 25
Fig 2. 8 PMI Communication model (A guide to the project management body of
knowledge, 2017) 27
Fig 2. 9 Graphical representation of Communication levels (Ramsing, 2009) 34
Fig 2. 10 Construction project failure due to poor communication (Gamil and Rahman,
2017) 41
Fig 2. 11 Success rate of projects due to effective communication (Pulse of the
Profession, 2013) 42
Fig 3. 1 Research onion (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019) 49
Fig 3. 2 Methodological choice (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019) 53
Fig 3. 3 Triangulation method (Bowen, 2005). 63
Fig 3. 4 Research Methodology – Graphical representation (Author) 64
Fig 4. 1 Qualitative data analysis process flow (Author) 65
Fig 4. 2 Data search process graphical representation (Author) 67
Fig 4. 3 Articles search chart (Author) 68
Fig 4. 4 Graphical representation of selective coding process (Author) 70
Fig 4. 5 Research journal articles coding graphical representation (Author) 72
Fig 4. 6 Graphical representation of Communication types (Author) 81
Fig 4. 7 Survey respondents gender classification (Author) 86
Fig 4. 8 Respondents’ classification based on roles and responsibility (Author) 87
Fig 4. 9 Survey question 1 result (Author) 88

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List of Tables
Table 2. 1 Characteristics of Communication Models (Author) 19
Table 2. 2Table 2.2 Critical Success Factors of a project (Nyandongo and Davids,
2020). 29
Table 3. 1 Deduction, Induction, Abduction (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019) 52
Table 4. 1 Database screening criteria (Author) 68
Table 4. 2 Communication media richness level (Weimann, Hinz, Scott and Pollock,
2010). 83
Table 4. 3 Task-media advice rules (Weimann, Hinz, Scott and Pollock, 2010) 84
Table 4. 4 Detailed interview participants details (Author) 99
Table 4. 5 Literature review Vs survey findings (Author) 103
Table 4. 6 Literature review Vs interview findings (Author) 105

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List of abbreviations
I.T. Information Technology
ICT Information and communication technology
PMI Project Management Institute
PMBOK Project Management Body of Knowledge

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1. INTRODUCTION
The definitions of a project vary, but most definitions have the three
components common, i.e., temporary endeavour, unique nature, time-bound,
and the end result could be a service or a tangible product (PMBOK, 2013).
The result is constantly changing and unique; it could be the process, the team
performance, and the results (Vidal and Marle, 2008). The concept of modern
project management emerged during World War II (Vidal and Marle, 2008). The
modern form of project management started in 1950; as the realisation of work
coordination, resource management, and focus on the project objective
matured, a more robust approach to project management emerged
(Introduction to Project Management, 2021).
In the corporate world, project management is a must. Almost every company
is working on a project nowadays, and the demand for project management
skills is higher than ever. Furthermore, according to Craig (1999),
communication does not have a distinct theory from which it may be studied
compared to other management themes such as culture or leadership.
Tuan C (2021) writes in an article that evidence of written language appears in
Americas around 600 B.C., in China around 1200 B.C., and the inscription in
Kish tablet dated 3500 B.C is considered to be the first form of alphabets by
some experts. It's a Latin word "communicare" from which the term
communication was derived. "Communicare" translates to "to make common,"

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and that's because when individuals interact, they form a common
understanding (Cleary et al., 2009). Barrett (2006) defines communication as
the verbal or nonverbal conveyance of meaning from one person to another or
a group of people.
1.1.Research methodology
Based on Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2019) research onion, the research
methodology will consist of the following:
1.1.1. Research philosophy
I shall adopt interpretivism epistemology for this research dissertation, as the
research requires qualitative data analysis based on the following:
• Survey
• Semi-structured interviews – facilitated with the interview questionnaire
• Follow-up interviews
• Review of peer-reviewed literature
• Case studies
During the research, theories of various models related to communication shall
be viewed. The project management journals, and literature review shall be
"coded" for meaningful information and integration into the research topic.
In this philosophy approach, a sample group shall be selected for the
questionnaire, and their responses shall be evaluated. The group shall
comprise of:

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• Project Managers
• Design Discipline Managers
• Project Engineers
• Design Engineers
• Site Engineers
• Project Coordinators
Due to the Covid pandemic, interviews shall be conducted via phone or
Microsoft Team.
1.1.2. Research approach
An inductive approach (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019) shall help build
and understand communication management and its challenges based on
reviewing theories, journals, and literature. This approach provides a flexible
structure for changes happening during the research. In addition, an inductive
approach allows collecting qualitative data, which helps build a pattern, if any,
and relate to existing theories.
1.1.3. Research strategies
For achieving the data following activities shall be conducted:
• Survey
A survey shall be conducted with a sample group of individuals involved in
the project during the research, which shall help achieve the objective and
finalise the study's conclusion. The plan is to use Google Form or
SurveyMonkey platform for the survey.

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• Ethnography
Interviews with the group of persons indicated in the "Research Philosophy"
will be done in a semi-structured fashion. A semi-structured interview
questionnaire shall be developed for the research. Due to the pandemic,
the interviews will be conducted over the phone or Microsoft Team.
• Case study
As part of this research dissertation, three case studies shall be selected to
establish an impact of communication management on the projects. Due to
confidentiality, the review of case studies shall be limited to the material
available on the internet. However, the case studies shall give insight about
issues with communication management and add what will be known
through surveys, semi-structured interviews, and literature review.
1.1.4. Research choice
The choice of research is "qualitative". Survey, semi-structured interview,
archived literature review and case studies shall link together and lead to
building argument and analysis to conclude.
1.1.5. Research sample
• Survey sample group
The survey sample group shall comprise engineering and construction
project management individuals. Social media shall be used to invite the

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individuals for their participation; however, a criteria shall be defined for
participants to choose if they qualify to participate in the survey.
The target is to select a sample group of 100 respondents.
• Semi-structured interview group
In the semi-structured interview group, the following professionals shall be
interviewed via phone call:
o Project Managers – 3 numbers
o Design Discipline Managers – 3 numbers
o Project Engineers – 3 numbers
o Design Engineers – 4 numbers
o Site Engineers – 2 numbers
Based on the semi-structured interviews, 5 in-depth follow-up interviews
shall be conducted, one per category as mentioned above.
• Literature and International journals
For the research, literature and international journals shall be reviewed. The
focus will be on communication management. For this purpose, Google
Scholar and the University of Salford's library shall be utilised. The time
duration will be from 2005 to 2021.
1.2. Research aim and objectives
The author aims to investigate communication theories, the effects of face-to-
face and electronic communication on projects, and if I.T. advancement has
bridged the gap between face-to-face and written communication.

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1.2.1 Objectives
• Learn about the latest research on project management and the
significance of communication management in project management.
• To review and analyse literature about the famous communication models.
• To provide suggestion and findings based on a survey of literature on the
problems of electronic and face-to-face communication.
1.3. Time horizon
The time horizon for this research is a cross-sectional study, spanned across
three months, though case studies shall be reviewed, which is a somewhat
longitudinal study (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019).
• Time scale
The research shall be completed in three months based on a phased
approach
o Phase 1: 4 weeks duration: During Phase 1, data gathering, literature
review, case study review, selection and review of communication
theories, preparation of survey and semi-structured questionnaire,
consent form, research introduction, and any other preliminary steps
shall be completed.
o Phase 2: 4 weeks duration: Phase 2 shall overlap with Phase 1, and
during this phase, evaluation of data, the start of methodology,
completion of remaining items in Phase 1, and discussion with the
supervisor about outcomes of Phase 1 shall be covered.

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o Phase 3: 6 weeks duration: Phase 3 will overlap with Phase 2, and
during this phase, the focus will be on completing the methodology
section, documenting analysis, summarising the conclusions and
findings, draft dissertation, presentation of the report, revision of drafted
dissertation, and submission of the final dissertation.
1.4. Structure
After the scene set up in the "Introduction", the next is "Literature review"
outlining major aspects of communication. The literature explains the academic
aspect of communication management since it describes several well-known
models and theories by various well-known authors. How communication can
cause issues in the project life shall be discussed with real-life case studies
later in this chapter, and then closes with the study's overview by discussing
why this type of research was conducted.
The "Methodology" chapter goes on to detail the research methodologies used
to perform the study, like interviewing people (the ethnographic technique) and
reviewing previously researched case studies. For this study to achieve its aims
and objectives, the methodology specifies the research philosophy embraced
and the research techniques employed to acquire qualitative data.
“Results and Discussion" chapter is where all of the obtained data is thoroughly
reviewed and connected back to the author's literature results, enabling the
comparison between the literature and external data. This section highlights
the evidence to support the thesis and the goals/objectives, whereas the

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research in this section depicts the obtained data and provides it in graph or
transcript form.
"Conclusion" is the final chapter of the author's dissertation, which is not just
the repetition of the study findings but the further analysis of the data, including
the final opinion based on the research data collected, the literature studied
and analysed, and the interviews conducted during the study.
1.5.Delimitations
Within 3 months’ time constraint, the study shall focus on communication
management within the project management world. Only the most well-known
communication models will be included in the research dissertation. In this
study, communication amongst project team members will be a focus of the
research. A major focus of the research will be on how people and resources
are coordinated within a projectized environment via the use of communication
technologies. The function of ICT will be examined but comparing and
evaluating ICT tools will not be part of the study's scope.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter concludes the communication and communication management
based on literature review and understanding. Critically accessing literature
serves as the basis for developing research (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,
2009). The discussion covers communication paradigms, project management,
and the impact of IT on communication. Some case studies are discussed
highlighting the laps of communication causing projects failure.
Fig 2. 1 Literature collection and synthesis process (Author)
Fig 2.1 illustrates that the literature review will be a 3-overlaping phase process,
• In the literature collection phase, literature related communication, the
role of communication in project management, and the impact of ICT on

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communication will be collected using the University of Salford Library
and Emerald Insight database.
• In the literature analysis phase, the collected data will be screened and
coded to narrow down the literature relevant to the research objectives.
• The core category will be selected, reviewed, and concluded in the
literature conclusion phase.
2.1. Communication models
Aristotle saw communication through a rhetorical lens, that is, communicating
to the people to influence them. Aristotle's model constitutes three elements
who-what-whom or speaker-speech-audience of communication, and this is
considered the first model of communication (Kapur, 2020). Harold D. Lasswell
refined the model in 1948. As per Lasswell, communication is defined by
answering who, said what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect
(Lasswell, 1948).
Communication models help in understanding the concept and mechanism of
communication. Communication is complex, and that makes the understanding
of communication models crucial. Communication becomes effective when the
communication models are implemented effectively. So far, not a single model
of communication is accepted vastly.
Linear and Non-linear are two basic types of the communication model. The
linear model can be vertical or horizontal, and in this model, the flow of
information is unidirectional, from speaker to audience with or without effect.
Whereas in the Non-linear model, which is built on the Linear model, the flow

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of information is multidirectional, following the cybernetic principle, having the
elements of information, feedback, networks, and purpose (Narula, 2006).
Fig 2. 2 Linear and Non-linear Communication Model representation (Narula,
2006).
In the 1950s, sender-channel-message-receiver simple linear communication
models were further developed based on the interest and human
communication and essential components of communication like feedback
(Mcquail and Windahl, 2015).
Kunzar, Yager (2020) and Narula (2006) have classified renowned
communication models into three main categories, i.e. Action Models (Sender
oriented) and Transactional models. The Action model focuses on how the
sender code, act or speak to transfer the message to the receiver for the
desired results. Feedback is missing in the Action or Linear models as it
focuses on one-way interaction. Transactional models fill the feedback gap as
these models focus on two-way communication and feedback. Finally, in

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transactional models, the sender transmits the message, whereas the receiver
is compelled to provide feedback which can be direct or indirect. In Table 2.1,
some famous models are categories based on the two former mentioned
classifications.
Table 2. 1 Characteristics of Communication Models (Author)
Year Model Characteristics of model
Action (Sender oriented) Model
300/400
BC
Aristotle The sender sends the message, no feedback
from the receiver
1948 Lasswell This model accounts for WHO said, WHAT is
said (content), through which CHANNEL
(written media, audio/video, data), WHOM,
and what is the EFFECT on the receiver.
1949 Shannon and
Weaver
This model considers noise and distortion in
message transmission.
1960 Berlo's SMCR This model discusses the sender, message
content, channel, receiver, effect on the
receiver, and message interpretation.
Transactional Models
1954 Osgood and
Schramm
This model considers reciprocal process in
communication between communicators
1959 Riley and Riley This model considers the influence of the
social group on the interpretation of model
1970 Barnlund's
Transactional
model
This model considers communication as a
multi-layered process with feedback between
communicators.
Lasswell Model (1948), Shannon and Weaver Model (1949), Galle's Model
(1999), Charles Osgood's Model (1954), and Barlunds Transactional Model
(1970) gained prominence. These models are briefly discussed in this
chapter.

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2.1.1. Lasswell Model (1948)
Harold D. Lasswell is well known for his contribution to communication,
philosophy, sociology, anthropology, economics, and a few others. Sapienza,
Iyer and Veenstra (2015) have discussed variants of the Lasswell model,
although the most prominent variant concept is who is saying what, to whom,
which channel is used for communication, and what impact the message has
on the receiver.
Fig 2. 3 Graphical representation of Lasswell Communication Model (Mcquail
and Windahl, 2015).
Lasswell model is considered a classic example of the sender-receiver model
because of its focus on the sender, message content, and channel used for
transmitting the message. Lesswell model is not much different from the
Aristotle model, but it suggests that more than one channel can be used for
transmission.
Comment:
Lasswell model is criticised based on the fact that feedback is missing. In
addition, another critical factor, i.e., noise, is not considered, which could distort
the message.

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2.1.2. Shannon and Weaver Model (1949)
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver's communication model is considered
the first significant model and steppingstone for future models.
Shannon and Weaver were not concerned about the social aspect but
attempted to create a communication system that could bring efficiency in the
communication system like telephone lines. Their model, like Lasswell, is not
much different from Aristotle's but brought a concept of noise to the horizon
(Mcquail and Windahl, 2015).
Fig 2. 4 Graphical representation of Shannon and Weaver communication
model (Mcquail and Windahl, 2015).
The component in their model includes the information source which produces
the message, a transmitter that transfers the message in the form of a signal,
a channel that can lead the message to the receiver, noise source in the system
which can distort the message, a receiver which can interpret the message.
This exciting concept of noise makes the message signal vulnerable as it can
result in a difference in the encoded and decoded message (Kunzar and Yager,
2020). Besides the fact that Shannon and Weaver were solving an engineering
problem in the communication system, the communication theorists picked the
concept to develop it into new models.

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Comment:
In the Shannon and Weaver model, the feedback mechanism was missing,
which was criticised by many theorists, and the inability of communicators to
realise the integrity of the message because of the noise. The model also does
not account for the sender and receiver background (field of experience), which
is covered in C.E. Osgood and Wilburn Schramm (1954) model. In face-to-face
communication, the noise could be semantic, as the choice of words for the
sender can have specific meanings to the sender but can have a different
meaning for the receiver, which also depends on the language.
2.1.3. Galle's Model of Communication
P. Galle (1999) presented a communication model with the concept of
artefaction as a communication process. Galle's model considers the final
artefact as a result of communication activities, including the production and
communication of ideas, specifications, representations before the final
artefact.
Galle's viewpoint on communication seems to be a good fit for expanding our
understanding of communication. In the context of project management,
according to Galle's theory, the communication process includes the creation
and interpretation of ideas amongst stakeholders, backed by suitable artefacts
(McKay, Marshall and Grainger, 2014).

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Fig 2. 5 Graphical representation of Galle's model (McKay, Marshall and
Grainger, 2014).
Comment:
McKay et al. (2010) argue that Galle's model becomes complex as more and
more stakeholders are added to communication. Galle's model as well does
not account for the contextual meanings, social, political, and cultural aspects
of communication.
2.1.4. Osgood and Schramm circular model
Charles Osgood and Wilbur Schramm (1954) consider reciprocating
commination between the communicators, and it does not end but continues.
The model can be considered an attempt to improve the previous
communication models.

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Fig 2. 6 Graphical representation of Osgood and Schramm model (Mcquail
and Windahl, 2015).
The model represents that the communicators reciprocate identically while
encoding, interpreting, and decoding, creating meaningful communication.
Wilbur Schramm added another dimension to this model by considering the
background and experience of the communicators.
Comment:
Like the Shannon and Weaver model, Osgood and Schramm didn't account
for the semantic noise, like context, culture, command on the language, and
environmental factors at encoding and decoding.
2.1.5. Barnlund's Transactional Model
After Osgood and Schramm (1954), John Riley and Matilda Riley (1959), the
trend of the interactive and reciprocal communication model continues in
Dean C. Barnlund's transactional model. The model is based on behaviour,

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private, public, and nonverbal cues. Such cues are available to the
communicators in a subsection at a given time, and meaning becomes
comprehensive with each new perceived cue (Barnlund, 1970). The model
perceives communication as a multi-layered process that includes feedback.
The model has eight elements as shown in Fig 2.7:
• Person
• Encoding
• Decoding
• Public cues
• Private cues
• Verbal, behavioural cues
• Nonverbal behavioural cues
• Message
Fig 2. 7 Graphical representation of Barnlund's model (Kunzar and Yager,
2020)

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Comment:
As per Barnlund (1970), communication is continuous, complex, dynamic, and
irreversible. His model explains that communication understanding depends
not only on the verbal or nonverbal message but also on time, place,
personality, circumstances, and verbal and nonverbal cues. The model can be
simplified and, at the same time, can be over complicated.
2.1.6. Conclusion
Variants of the Shannon and Weaver model and Galles's communication are
prominently used in the project management world. Even PMI's (A guide to the
project management body of knowledge, 2017) communication model is based
on Shannon and Weaver model. Schramm and Roberts (1954) as well many
others, critiqued Shannon and Weaver's models arguing failure to account the
feedback, context, communicator experience, culture and so on, but PMI (A
guide to the project management body of knowledge, 2017) holds sender
responsible for the completeness, correctness, and confirmation that the
receiver understood the message clearly as intended.

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Fig 2. 8 PMI Communication model (A guide to the project management body
of knowledge, 2017)
Galle's model recognises the complex and reciprocal communication activities
and reliance on various artefacts. The model focuses on producing and
interpreting ideas among the stakeholders in the project environment with the
support of relevant artefacts. Though Galle's model does not give insight into
the language and context of communicators, this can be managed by bonding
among the stakeholders and agreements.
2.2. Communication and Project Management
The link between communication and project management has been
extensively studied in the literature on the function and relevance of
communication. As a result,

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the success or failure of a project is now directly tied to its communication (Yeo,
2002; Soderlund, 2011). Robbins (1993) view of communication is the
transmission of information, data, and knowledge. Individuals acquire
knowledge via personal experience, in which facts are linked to interpretations,
observations, and judgements. Data consists of facts and numbers; however,
when information combine with practical situations and experience, it creates
knowledge (Alavi and Leidner, 2001). So, information generates knowledge,
while data creates information. Communication in project management has
gained substantial attention in the literature owing to its importance and
influence on project success, particularly in IT projects with dispersed teams
(Muszynska et al., 2015). Organisations are now organised on project-based
approaches. Taking a unique approach to project completion and management
is essential for the effective conclusion of projects. A project's success depends
on the effectiveness of its project management (Meredith, Mantel and Shafer,
2017). Nyandongo and Davids (2020) summarised the studies of critical factors
contributing to the success or failure of the project in the following Table 2.2,
indicating that communication is considered a critical success factor
unanimously.

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Table 2. 2 Critical Success Factors of a project (Nyandongo and Davids,
2020).
2.2.1. Communication Process and role of Project Manager and Team
To communicate effectively, one must first obtain and comprehend all relevant
information in an effective manner before providing it to others who may need
it. Project teams must work together, integrate their knowledge and abilities to
accomplish project objectives. A basic communication process involves a
sender who codes the message, transmit it through a medium using the verbal
or non-verbal method, and a receiver who decodes the message. Noise or
misunderstanding can be eliminated if all components function together. The

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project team communicate for several reasons, and a few amongst them are,
acquiring information, coordination, progress reporting, changes updates and
communication, giving instructions. One fundamental purpose of project
communication is the collaboration, coordination, and understanding of project
scope and objective among the project team; that is why Olsson and
Johansson (2011) consider communication as the nervous system and the glue
that hold together the organisation. The information and control system for a
project relies on the project manager and his or her team to function well. It
comprises establishing the project's organisational structure and devising a
strategy for disseminating information about the initiative.
2.2.2. Communication Management Plan
As previously said, communication is the act of obtaining all necessary
information, analysing it, and effectively communicating it to those who may
require it. The project's information and control system are based on the project
manager and team. Organisational structure, communication strategy, and
channels of communication are all within the project manager's purview. Such
communication plans aim to create the information precisely and clearly in the
right moment and transmit it through the channel with minimal noise for the
audience (Hartley, 2006). Several studies have been conducted establishing
that 90% of project managers' time is spent on communication and its
management; hence the project manager's ability to communicate is crucial.

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The communication process's rules of engagement and conduct have been
defined in the form of principles and methodologies, like Prince 2, Six Sigma,
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). Inefficient use of such
principles and methodologies in projects can lead to undesired results and
failures (Berssaneti and Carvalho, 2015), whereas Joslin and Muller (2015)
suggest that adopting project management methodologies can result in a
higher success rate. Information created, gathered, distributed, kept and
disposed of in an appropriate and timely way is the goal of project
communication management (Muszynska et al., 2015). Many organisations
and project managers use PMBOK and PRINCE2 to develop management
plans such as communication management. Such plans follow Lasswell,
Shannon and Weaver's communication models. As Bruke (2013) defines that
the basic outline of such a plan must cover the following:
• Who – responsible for sending and receiving the data, information,
message.
• What – is the data, message, or information including the format
• When – the time frame or schedule
• Feedback – confirmation that the data, information, message received and
understood
• Filing – recovery, storing, and retrieval
• How – the channel (email, document, meeting, presentation, telephone
call) through which the data, information, message transmitted
The communication strategy should keep key stakeholders informed and
promote the project by making it visible. The information needs and distribution

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methods may vary from project to project. As per PMI (A guide to the project
management body of knowledge, 2017), there must be consideration and
documentation of the project's storage, retrieval, and final disposal techniques
throughout this period as well. To guarantee the relevance of communication
management process, they should be evaluated often during the project and
amended as necessary.
The requirements of project stakeholders in the communication plan must be
analysed at the initial stage of the plan development stage. These requirements
are gathered and established by combining the types and formats of
information required, including urgency and schedule based on stakeholder
expectations (Čulo and Skendrović, 2010).
2.3. Communication levels and methods
While the distribution of project information is necessary for all projects, the
informational requirements and methods used vary widely. A project's success
pivots on its ability to accurately identify its information needs and devise a
strategy for meeting those needs (Čulo and Skendrović, 2010). As a
consequence of poor communication planning, crucial stakeholders may be left
out of essential communications. Effective communication is the presentation
of information in the right format, timely, using the appropriate chanel, and
ensuring the right impact.

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2.3.1. Project communication levels
Dow and Taylor (2010) categorise project communication into two levels, i.e.,
internal and external communication. These levels are defined based on the
organisational boundaries and placement of stakeholders.
• Internal communication
In contrast to external communication, which takes place outside of the
organisation's official structure, internal communications are a result of
successful interaction among the organisation's members (Mazzei, 2010).
According to some experts, internal and external communication are compared
by organisational borders because organisations are systematic systems that
continually interact with their external environment. However, as per Mazzei
(2010), organsations’ boundaries can not define the internal communication
since workers are aware of information channels from the external world.
Meetings, reports, and various coordination activities are all common forms of
internal communication, but current technologies like SharePoint and wikis are
also being used to streamline and improve internal communication.
• External communication
On a daily basis, every employee of a company interacts with customers,
shareholders, the media, and members of the general public (Le Roux et al.,
1999). The outside world gets a certain impression of the organisation from
the ways in which these individuals represent it in their external
communications. However, communication cannot occur in isolation; it must
be part of a larger system. Based on the research, Chong (2007) suggests that
advertising and public relations operations aimed at enhancing the company's

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image are central to external communication, while internal communications
prioritise the company's workers as the primary target audience for its
messaging and the company's overall corporate image.
Fig 2. 9 Graphical representation of Communication levels (Ramsing, 2009)
2.3.2. Project communication methods
PMI (A guide to the project management body of knowledge, 2017) explains
the following methods of communication:
• Interactive communication: Between two or more parties, a real-time
multidirectional information flow. It uses communication artefacts like
instant messaging, meetings, phone calls, and several types of social
media.
• Push communication: Directly sent to stakeholders who require
information. However, this does not guarantee that the target audience
really received or comprehended the material. Artefacts associated with

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push communications include letters, memoranda of understanding
(MOUs), reports, emails, faxes, voice messages, blogs, and press
releases, to name a few.
• Pull Communication: Often used in the case of complicated information
sets or large audiences. This strategy, on the other hand, necessitates
those users adhere to strict security guidelines while still being able to
access the content they choose. There are a variety of options accessible,
including web portals, e-learnings, lesson-learned and knowledge
databases.
Dow and Taylor (2010) explain the methods of internal communication as
follows:
• Oral or verbal communication: Various forms of oral communication are
used, including meetings, discussion groups, speeches, interviews, public
announcements, and discussions, which may take place both in-person
and over the phone.
• Written communication: Letters, emails, circulars, memos and minutes
of meetings are all forms of written communication.
• Non-verbal communication: Gestures, facial expressions, and even
attitudes send strong signals in the workplace via nonverbal
communication.
• Electronic communication: It's a type of written communication making
use of electronic media like computer terminals, electronic emails, text
messages, social media.

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• Visual communication: Presentations, C.D.s, DVDs, videos facilitate
visual communication.
2.3.3. Communication hierarchy
Communication flow can be vertical or lateral (Robbins, Judge, Odendaal and
Roodt, 2013); the standing of a stakeholder in respect to the project team will
have an impact on the form and content of the communication in the following
ways (A guide to the project management body of knowledge, 2017):
• Upward communication: It's important to keep senior management
informed of what is going on at the lower levels. Such communication
provides feedback to the executive and senior level, and it keeps them
updated about the progress towards goals and relay current issues or
concerns (Robbins, Judge, Odendaal and Roodt, 2013). In order to find
new ways to make things better, managers often go to the top of the
organisation. Unfortunately, it is becoming more difficult for managers and
supervisors to communicate upward since their responsibilities have
grown.
• Downward communication: It all starts at the top and down to project's
staff at lowest level. Downward communication is critical for ensuring that
subordinates are informed of the company's goals, strategies, and
processes (Tubbs, 2013). Managers are likely to filter, change, or prevent
the flow of information to their subordinates at each level of management
• Horizontal/lateral communication: Individuals on the same hierarchy
level communicate horizontally or laterally to ensure or increase work effort

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coordination. In horizontal communication, even an official message or
command may not follow the chain of command (Zulch, 2014). Successful
horizontal communication may prevent the company from developing a
single-minded focus.
2.4. Role of Information Technology in communication management
Changing project dynamics has led to a shift away from using traditional
communication methods to using technology as a significant mode of
interaction (Rimmington, Dickens and Pasquire, 2015). In today's world, the
notion of a team transcends the barriers of space and time as well as
organisational and cultural divides. Dispersed and virtual work teams,
operating on a 24-hour cycle, are becoming more popular as organisations look
to harness the power of global diversity in skills and experience, as well as
learning and proficiency, to improve productivity (Gera et al., 2013).
Traditional teams are being phased out in favour of new types of teams created
as a consequence of improvements in information and communication
technology. Due to these technologies' real-time and flexible connectivity,
dispersed teams no longer face communication roadblocks. At the time of
writing, the globe is experiencing a pandemic caused by a coronavirus known
as COVID-19. Governments and public health organisations across the globe
have responded by instituting social isolation and stay-at-home regulations. in
response to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result of the pandemic, experiments
on new digital communication techniques have begun. Nguyen et al. (2020)
conducted a survey concluding that usage of electronic communication has

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increased during pandemics, such as the use of social media increased by
35%, video calls by 30%, and emails by 24%.
2.4.1. Globalisation and virtual team
As said earlier, businesses and firms are progressively growing across borders
and time zones, and global initiatives are infiltrating the operations of
businesses of all sorts, from small start-ups to the world's largest market
leaders. In project management, globalisation introduced the concept of virtual
teams, and as per Lipnack and Stamps (1999), our world is changing quickly
thanks to virtual teams that are productive, value-driven and fast
reconfigurable. To some extent, one benefit of working in a virtual team setting
is the ability to connect people and resources quickly and efficiently (Townsend,
DeMarie and Hendrickson, 1998).
2.4.2. Information technology and virtual team
Gera et al. (2013) explain the importance of information technology in the life
of a virtual team by stating that the internet, email, and teleconferencing are
the primary means of distributing information in a virtual team. Members use
technology to connect and interact with one another. These tools and
technology are essential for virtual teams to succeed in their project execution
(Lipnack and Stamps, 1999). When it comes to facilitating communication
among virtual teams, technology is key. Jude-York, Davis, and Wise (2000)
categorised collaborative technology into four groups:
• Same time and same location – co-located computers at the same location

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• Same time and different location – telephone and cellphone, chat software,
audio-video call software platforms (Skype, WhatsApp), audio-video
conferencing platforms (Microsoft Team, ZOOM)
• Different time and same location – bulletin boards
• Different time and different location – emails, text messages, web-based
project management tools (Jude-York, Davis, and Wise, 2000)
In order to be effective, virtual teams must be able to interact both
synchronously and asynchronously, utilizing tools like email, chat rooms, and
data meetings (Pauleen and Corbitt, 2003).
2.5. Communication challenges
Many authors and researchers have discussed the subject of communication
failure and barriers in communication. Communication impediments might be
physical or psychological. Physical impediments arise while sending data,
whereas psychological barriers are connected to the sender/receiver factors
and the usage of non-shared codes (Carvalho, 2008). Fox (2001) generalised
such barriers into four groups briefly discussed here.
• Environmental: The environmental barriers which can impact
communication can be the interpretation of meaning, visual distractions,
physical impairments, noise, etc.
• Verbal: Verbal barriers can be because of the slang, jargon, and acronyms
used while communicating. People sometimes speak too fast for others to
understand and do not focus on explaining to the listeners. Lack of focus
during communication as well causes the verbal barrier.

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• Interpersonal: The communicator's expertise and mastery of language
might create obstacles, compromising the message's integrity and
meaning. The examples in this category are inaccurate assumptions, the
difference of opinions, language differences, lack of trust, ethnicity, religion,
etc.
• Emotional reaction: Emotional status of communicators can impede the
message like anger, fear, sense of embarrassment, self-defence, etc.
Project teams face a variety of communication issues and blunders over the
course of completing a project. Cervone (2014) have discussed some other
factors which can create miscommunication and may lead to undesired results
in the projects.
• Stakeholder needs: In most cases, all project stakeholders will not
represent a single organisation. The degree of involvement and areas of
interest of the several stakeholder groups engaged in the project will vary.
As a result, the project's team must consider connecting successfully with
these different groups and developing communication tactics that appeal
to them all.
• Assumptions about stakeholders: Stakeholders seldom show the same
degree of commitment to a project as the project team does. As a result,
the project team must not presume either too much or too little of others in
their discussions.
• Cultural differences: People’s thinking, behaviour, and performance are
deeply affected by culture. What seems acceptable in Europe or North
America may not be ethical in the Gulf region. For example, not using Sir,

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Madam, Dear while writing emails is common in North America but can be
considered disrespectful in Gulf and Asian countries.
• Not recognising the need to change over time: Depending on where a
project is in its life cycle, participants' engagement varies. At first, what was
mentioned may not have been done correctly since the project's goals and
objectives may have changed. As a result, if there is no feedback
mechanism and the flow of information continues to be the same as at the
beginning of the project, the project will not succeed because of a lack of
information exchange.
2.6. Case studies
Gamil and Rahman (2017) conducted a study on the articles focused on
construction project failures because of poor communication; Fig. 2.10 shows
the number of articles written on this topic from 1990 to 2017.
Fig 2. 10 Construction project failure due to poor communication (Gamil and
Rahman, 2017)

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Organisational project and program management rely on effective
communication to link all group members to a similar set of strategies,
objectives, and activities. Project objectives are endangered, and expenditures
are put at undue risk if project leaders and stakeholders do not correctly
communicate and understand these components (Pulse of the Profession,
2013). This study also shows that excellent efficient and effective
communication to stakeholders is one of the most crucial factors in project
management. PMI's Pulse study suggests that two out of every five projects
fail to achieve their stated objectives and commercial goals, and one-half of
those failures are due to poor communication.
Fig 2. 11 Success rate of projects due to effective communication (Pulse of
the Profession, 2013)
Hass (2007) conducted research supporting the PMI's Pulse report and
concluded that in 2006, 65% of projects in the USA suffered time delays or
failed because of miscommunication. Some case studies are discussed in this

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section, focusing on the impact of communication on the performance of the
projects.
2.6.1. Mars Climate Orbiter mishap investigation
Case history:
The background of the issues is summarised based on the Stephenson et al.
(2000) report.
On Sep 23rd
, 1999, Mars Climate Orbiter entered the Martian atmosphere at a
lower altitude than predicted, and the mission was declared a failure.
As per the Mars Climate Orbiter Mishap Investigation Board report in 2000,
NASA launched the Mars Surveyor Program in 1993, intending to perform a
series of missions to Mars. As a result, a Mars Program Office was established
to lay out the goals for sending two missions to Mars at each launch opportunity
biannually, with the goal of returning a sample of Martian material to Earth
(Stephenson et al., 2000).
On Dec 11th
, 1998, Mars Climate Orbiter was launched from Cape Canaveral
Air Force Station, atop a Delta II launch vehicle. The spacecraft was scheduled
to burn its main engine nine and a half months after launch, in September 1999,
to attain an elliptical orbit around Mars. It was then planned to skim for many
weeks through Mars' upper atmosphere using a method called aerobraking in
order to enter a low circular orbit. However, friction with the spacecraft's single
5.5-meter solar array was supposed to reduce the spacecraft's height as it
descended into the atmosphere, lowering its orbital period from more than 14
hours to two hours.

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Conclusion:
Among several issues, one of the reasons for failure discussed in the Mars
Climate Orbiter Mishap Investigation Board was inadequate communication
between the project team. Concerning communication following findings were
discussed in the report:
• The lack of cross-disciplinary expertise in the team was caused by poor
communication between project team members.
• The project's management did not foster a culture of openness within the
operations team.
• The Jet Propulsion Laboratory's institutional, technical line divisions and
project system components did not communicate effectively.
2.6.2. Communication problems causing Kuwait Government projects delay
Ehab Soliman (2017) researched the impact of communication problems
leading to delays in Kuwait Government projects related to construction. Unlike
many other industries, construction involves a wide range of organisations and
professional alliances, all working together for the sake of a single, unique
project. Therefore, every aspect of a construction project's connection with its
stakeholders must be considered, from the functional to the personal. The
capacity to communicate, discuss, and exchange project information in a timely
and correct way is unquestionably an essential facilitator for effective
cooperation. The ability to communicate, discuss, and exchange project
information in a timely and correct way is undoubtedly an essential facilitator
for effective cooperation.

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Soliman's (2017) research concluded with the following top-ranked
communication problems:
• Outdated archiving system
• Lack of progress site meeting for discussion of project status
• Poor quality of documents with insufficient details
• Delays in preparation of documents, drawings, and information reports
According to Soliman's (2017) research findings, Kuwait's government
programs, particularly the PAHW project, need to improve their communication
methods. Therefore, another recommendation in Soliman's (2017) research is
that government projects in Kuwait must improve their filing systems,
meetings, and legal acceptance of adopting new communication methods that
are readily accessible in Kuwait state to improve their communication tools.
2.6.3. Persian Gulf projects – Inter-cultural communication issues
Iraq, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman,
and Kuwait are included in the Gulf region. These Arab countries are on the
southern shore of the Persian Gulf. The fast growth of the Gulf construction
market was sparked by the wealth brought on by the early 1970s oil price
increases. While domestic construction activity was slowing, there was a timely
windfall for U.S. and European construction firms due to a lack of available
resources in the Gulf region.
Loosemore and Muslmani (1999) wrote a research paper in 1999 which
concluded their investigation about the communication problems because of
the cultural gap between U.S. and European construction firms and Persian
Gulf nationals. The findings show a lack of sensitivity to Arabic values and the

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Arab view of time and a significant lack of sensitivity to the significance of the
Arabic language and the Arab attitude toward ambiguity (Bunni, 1991). Even
though U.K. corporations worked in the Persian Gulf, according to Loosemore
& Muslmani (1999), such projects were not as successful as expected. Many
tasks in the projects were delayed due to delays caused by cultural differences
in working methods between the Arabic customers and the rest of the team.
2.7. Conclusion
To sum up the literature review, all the topics described here pertain to one
basic component: the need for effective communication. We discuss the
definitions of communication, concluding that effective communication involves
gathering all necessary information, understanding it, and successfully
communicating it to those who may require it. A lack of clear verbal and
nonverbal communication is a risk factor for project communication. Projects
may fail due to inadequately specified jobs and crucial procedures and
confusion about the tasks, scope, or goals of the project (Zulch, 2014).
Nevertheless, most project managers inadequately understand and
conceptualise communication and its complexities. According to (Lewis, 2006)
to overcome uncertainty, interdependences, and identity, systematising ideas,
emotions, events, and information is fundamental to communication.
The communication models are fundamental notions that aid in comprehending
communication processes. There is no single model with dominance and
recognition, but we discussed Shannon and Weaver (1949) and Galle's models
as these two models are predominantly in use of project management

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community with a variation. For information to reach its intended destination
and be considered a thriving flow of communication, the Shannon and Weaver
model describes a process that demonstrates how information is effectively
moved along while maintaining clarity. Galle's model goes into more detail on
the role of stakeholders and how information should be disseminated to them
in ways that take into account how each one receives and interprets
information, but it does so in a more holistic way, emphasising their value to
the project as a whole.
Later in the literature review, levels, methods, and types of communication
were discussed based on the facts and figures in academia. However, it is vital
to understand that regardless of communication method or type, there is always
a noise that can be reduced but not eliminated by using 5Cs defined by PMI (A
guide to the project management body of knowledge, 2017).
• "Correct grammar and spelling
• Concise expression and elimination of excess words
• Clear purpose and expression
• The coherent and logical flow of idea
• Controlling the flow of words and ideas" (A guide to the project
management body of knowledge, 2017).
The research then demonstrates the consequences of inadequate
communication via the examination of real-world examples. Projects cannot be
successful without good communication between the stakeholders involved. It
is especially true when it comes to the numerous trades involved. StatoilHydro,

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a Norwegian oil company, conducted a study in 2007 to identify the most
common issues and obstacles it experienced in its projects. 1647 project
reports were analysed, with communications taking the top spot, followed by
human resources, scope and integration (Soliman, 2017).

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3. METHODOLOGY
This section provides a thorough description of the research methodology as
outlined by Bowen (2005). It describes the justification for the research strategy
and design, which helps to assure the quality of the final results in the end.
Using the dissertation's research questions and objectives as a guideline, this
chapter analyses and defends the researcher's study strategy, time spans,
methodologies, and data gathering processes. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill
(2009) explain that "research" is an activity in which people conduct systematic
inquiries in order to gain new information. It is implied by the word "systematic"
that study is not merely based on views but also on logical relationships.
Saunders (2012) "research onion" approach is used during the research of this
dissertation. Several factors go into the author's research philosophy and
reasoning and approach to research, research strategy, and data collecting
and analysis.
Fig 3. 1 Research onion (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019)

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3.1. Research philosophy
Positivism, realism and interpretivism are the three main types of processes
used by academic researchers, and the philosophy entails significant
assumptions about the researcher's worldview (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,
2009). Therefore, to be a successful researcher, he or she must be conscious
of his or her philosophical beliefs, according to Johnson and Clark (2006).
Positivism refers to the researcher's philosophical attitude and requires working
with an observable social reality in order to generate law-like generalisations
(Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019). Direct realism or critical realism are
both forms of realism, whereas critical realism philosophy is concerned with
understanding what we see and feel in terms of the underlying reality structures
that affect visible occurrences, and direct realism is how we see the world
through our senses (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019). Similarly, to critical
realism, interpretivism emerged to challenge positivism, but from a subjective
point of view. Burns and Burns (2008) explain that interpretivism is based on
the idea that the world is a socially produced and subjectively interpreted
reality. For the research of this dissertation, the interpretive technique is
considered the most effective strategy for achieving the aim of this study.
Instead of making claims about the nature of truth, or the basis of things,
whether in a stringent structured way or a less restricted one, it is preferable to
avoid making such claims, author seeks to participate in an understanding that
can answer questions like "why and how?".

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The rationale for choosing interpretivism is that this research focuses on the
qualitative data and the case studies discussed earlier in Chapter 2. Primarily,
academic literature is analysed, which is why the content analysis method is
selected. Furthermore, the content analysis focused on verbal and non-verbal
communication within the project environment. Therefore, it is adept at
establishing linkages between disparate ideas, which will be used in this
instance to project management journal articles as well as business
management publications on the subject of "communication."
The study is entirely qualitative and is based on examining many writers' views
on the research subject, which in this instance is "Communication" in
connection to project management throughout the last two decades. The
journals analysed include ideas and notions that have been refined and given
additional significance to the reader via "selective coding." According to Strauss
and Corbin (1998), selective coding is how a researcher incorporates new
ideas into an existing theoretical framework.
3.2. Research approach
Project management publications, business journals dealing with
communication in organisations, and a few communication journals that exhibit
a general awareness of the communication idea are all used during the
research to observe the function of communication in project management. An
inductive approach is taken during the development of this dissertation, as it
permits the research to evolve gradually over time; it gives a clear context for
the researcher and reader, and it allows the research to be organised so that it
may change as the research progresses. According to Saunders, Lewis and

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Thornhill (2009), inductive research is predominantly concerned with the
context in which such events happened.
The inductive method is a bottom-up strategy in which data is analysed,
gathered, and utilised as a source for developing a theoretical framework.
Goddard and Melville (2004) state that the inductive research method
incorporates observation and the creation of explanation in theories since the
study does not know how it will conduct its inquiry at the moment. Therefore,
data is analysed, gathered, and utilised as the basis for building a hypothesis
in the inductive approach.
Table 3. 1 Deduction, Induction, Abduction (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,
2019)

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3.3. Research choice
As Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2019) explain, researchers make a
methodological choice, which can be qualitative, quantitative, or a
combination of both.
Fig 3. 2 Methodological choice (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019)
When it comes to quantitative research, the deductive method is often
connected with it, in which data is gathered and analysed in order to evaluate
theory; however, it may also include an inductive method, in which evidence is
utilised to construct a theoretical framework (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,
2019). When describing qualitative research, the phrase "interpretive
philosophy" is often used. In order to understand the phenomena under
investigation, researchers must evaluate its stated meanings, which are both
subjective and socially created (Denzin and Lincoln, 2018). It is possible to
capture and analyse information transmitted in natural environments via
language and behaviour using qualitative research, as detailed by Burns and
Burns (2008). Rather than relying just on quantitative data, it uses expressive
information like motivation, feelings, and needs, conveying information not
expressed in quantitative data.

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This research study might benefit from qualitative data gathering approaches
since they enable the researcher to create theory from the data collection
process. Although most of my research is based on qualitative data and its
analysis, the steps taken for academic data acquisition are explained in the
research strategy.
3.4. Research strategies
A broad definition of a strategy is a road map for achieving a specific goal. The
definition of a research strategy may be characterised as an outline of the steps
a researcher takes to answer the research question (Saunders, Lewis and
Thornhill, 2019). The methodological connection connects research philosophy
to the researcher's selection of methods for data collection and analysis
(Denzin and Lincoln, 2018). The choice of research strategy will be steered by
practical considerations such as knowledge database, the time limitations and
resources researchers have available, and access to potential participants and
other sources of data, as well as by the coherence with which they link to
research philosophy, research approach, and purpose (Saunders, Lewis and
Thornhill, 2019).
Several research strategies are explained and discussed by Saunders, Lewis,
and Thornhill (2019), and to complete my research, I shall use a combination
of grounded theory, ethnography, and a case study.

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3.4.1 Grounded theory
Grounded theory is a qualitative data collection and analysis technique that is
systematic and emergent (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019). The
researcher begins research by gathering data from an initial interview or
observation and then analysing that data as feasible after the interview or
observation is completed and before collecting further data to continue the
investigation (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019). Reviewing and observing
patterns in collected data may develop a theory. Therefore, after reviewing
several published theories, the researcher selects theories that he or she plans
to use in his or her study and then conducts a literature review by looking for
additional studies that support or challenge the theories.
The author identifies analytical codes from interviews, literature, and published
research. Identical or nearly identical data will be assigned a unique code for
identification purposes. Coding allows data to be linked together from various
interviews or observations to simplify analysis by defining the attributes that
make up the data category. There are several coding ways, and the author
prefers to use open and selective coding, as stated in the research philosophy
section. Open coding is explained by Strauss and Corbin (2014) to analyse,
compare, and classify gathered data, whereas selective coding is observing
and refining emerging theory.
3.4.2 Ethnography
Anthropology is the study of how people interact and behave within groups,
organisations, and environments and the actions and observations they make
as a result. Ethnography aims to give complete insights into people's beliefs

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and actions, as well as the natural environment in which they live, via the
collection of detailed interpretations, discussions, and interviews (Saunders,
Lewis and Thornhill, 2019). However, the researcher retained authority over
how to present the tale and what should be included, prompting many to
wonder whether the researcher's socialisation and beliefs would impact the
account that was being written down (Geertz, 1988).
During the research, the author will conduct a survey with project management
professionals in different parts of the world to understand their notion of
communication management and its role in the success of projects. Prior to
releasing the survey, Ghauri, Grønhaug and Strange (2020) suggest testing
the survey by allowing a small group to reply to it to ensure that it is technically
satisfactory and answers the research purpose. Self-selection sampling
technique for the survey, which is explained in section 3.5. Furthermore,
detailed interviews shall be conducted with selected project management
professionals for deeper understanding and data acquisition relevant to the
study, as explained in the research introduction section. The purposive
sampling technique shall be used for collecting information in semi-structured
interviews. Finally, a questionnaire shall be developed to facilitate the
interviews.
3.4.3 Case study research
During case study research, it is necessary to conduct a thorough and in-depth
examination of a specific event or circumstance, as well as an organisation or
social unit (Yin, 2018). Therefore, selecting the case to be researched and
establishing the study's limits are critical components of defining a case study.

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In addition, case study research provides an opportunity to collect various types
of data, such as interviewees' and participants' responses to surveys,
observations, documents, and it allows to gain an in-depth understanding of an
organisation or individuals, as well as the inner workings and interactions of
that organisation or individuals (Schoch, 2020).
The author has included three case studies in the dissertation's literature
review section and examined projects from across the globe to get a broad idea
of how communication impacted them. The three cases included in the
dissertation represent many other projects that suffered from communication
management issues.
3.5. Sample
A content analysis may only be relied upon if the papers under consideration
are widely cited and well-liked by a significant number of peers in the field.
Therefore, to examine communication and project management, publications
on these two subjects will be studied, with the intention of using journals and
academia devoted to these two areas.
A survey and semi-structured interviews shall be administered as part of this
research study. The survey and interviewees' sample selection shall be based
on their previous experience, competence in managing communication
management in a projectised context, and ability to lead a virtual team of
people. Following qualification criteria shall be used for survey and semi-
structured interview:
• Professionals involved in the management of projects (Construction, IT,
Medical)

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• Professionals who have at least 5 years of experience in managing projects
and application of project management tools and techniques
In order to get theoretical insights into the research topic, this study focused on
a purposive sample. When doing research using purposive sampling, the
researcher must use discretion in selecting those examples that will best help
him/her answer the study's question(s) and achieve the goals (Saunders, Lewis
and Thornhill, 2019).
In the semi-structured interview group, the following professionals shall be
interviewed via phone call:
• Project Managers – 3 numbers
• Design Discipline Managers – 3 numbers
• Project Engineers – 3 numbers
• Design Engineers – 4 numbers
• Site Engineers – 2 numbers
Based on the semi-structured interviews, 5 in-depth interviews shall be
conducted, one per mentioned category.
A questionnaire shall be distributed through the internet and forums like Google
Form and Face Book with descriptions to self-select if they qualify the
aforementioned criteria and use the link to answer the questionnaire. By using
self-selection sampling (Volunteer sampling), the target is to engage as many
professionals as possible and use the systematic random sampling method for
survey sample size and to conclude the survey outcome.

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3.6. Time horizon
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2019), explain "longitudinal" and "cross-
sectional" studies in terms of time horizon. A cross-sectional study is a
'snapshot' obtained at a certain point in time, while a longitudinal study is a
sequence of snapshots recorded across time (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,
2019). Burns and Burns (2008) observed that cross-sectional studies were less
resource, time, and cost-intensive than longitudinal research.
This research dissertation is academic and is to be completed within three
months, hence due to time constraints, it can be classified as a cross-sectional
study. However, the author has also examined a few case studies, indicating
that it incorporates some elements of a longitudinal study.
3.7. Data collection
Data collection is regarded as a continuous job in the research process that
continues throughout the research studies (Daymon and Holloway, 2010), so
this will be the case in this research study. The data analysis will go hand in
hand with data collection, as this approach will help to observe and review new
concepts.
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2019) have explained primary and secondary
data sources. During a research interview, two or more persons engage in a
structured discussion in which the interviewer asks succinct and clear
questions and listens intently to the interviewee's responses. Such interviews
help the researcher to acquire credible data relevant to research questions and
objectives (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019). The semi-structured
interviews with project management professionals and surveys will serve as

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primary data sources in this research study, whereas secondary data will be
gathered from academic literature reviews, case studies, and international
journals. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2019) suggest that secondary data
sources be exhausted before doing primary research in order to aid the
researcher in gaining a thorough grasp and insight into past studies and
developing patterns pertinent to the field of study before beginning primary
research.
3.7.1 Reliability and validity
Qualitative research may not emphasise ideas like validity as quantitative
research does, but it is the job of all researchers to persuade themselves and
their audience that their conclusions are founded on thorough inquiry
(Rudestam and Newton, 2007). The first stage was to choose a relevant
subject, followed by a thorough literature assessment, the design of research
questions and goals, and the creation of a research strategy. Because the
researcher plays such a large part in qualitative research, the researcher's
impact may be felt throughout the whole process. Though eliminating all biases
from the study is seldom possible, being aware of their impact on the analysis
helps reduce their impact. Qualitative researchers struggle to demonstrate their
study's quality or reliability when reliability and validity requirements are used
in a way unsuited to qualitative research. (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,
2019).
In qualitative research, participants' interpretations in a particular environment
at the time of the study are taken into account; therefore, replication is not
always the goal. However, a thorough description of the research design,

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setting, and methodology may be useful to those who wish to conduct
comparable studies in the future. However, the employment of many
interviewers, observers and data analysts can increase the research's internal
dependability (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019). The term "reliability"
relates to the consistency of your data collecting methods or processes. It
addresses three key issues: if the findings of one study can be generalised to
others, whether other researchers can conduct comparable observations, and
the degree of openness with which data was collected (Saunders, Lewis and
Thornhill, 2019).
Verifying research data, analysis, and interpretation to ensure its
validity/credibility/authenticity is known as validation (Saunders, Lewis and
Thornhill, 2019). Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2019) suggest two validation
techniques.
• Triangulation: The validity, trustworthiness, and authenticity of research
data, analysis, and interpretation may be verified through triangulation,
which entails using more than one data sources and collection methods. The
objective is to include two or more independent data sources and gather
techniques into single research to guarantee that the data are telling you
what you believe they are telling you (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019).
• Participants or member validations: It entails collecting or returning study
data to participants in order for them to verify its correctness by commenting
on and correcting it.
Based on the aforementioned techniques, the following strategy is adopted for
the research.

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• Academia and literature review: Google Scholar, peer-reviewed journals,
University of Salford library will be used for academia and literature review.
It will confirm the reliability and validate the data sources. In-Text Citation
and Bibliography will be updated for cross-referencing.
• Participants’ validation: Performing member checking is the process of
confirming information among members of a target group. Semi-structured
and in-depth interviews transcripts will be sent to members for error
correction, interpretation, and to ensure that members will have a chance
to make necessary changes if needed.
• Prolong engagement: The researcher may counter the impacts of
disinformation or presented fronts by prolonged interaction, which allows for
the development of excellent rapport and trust with participants (Chapman
R, Coll R., 2000). Keeping this in mind, the researcher will participate in a
thorough investigation and build a strong rapport with the participants of this
study.
• Peer support: The research is supervised by Dr David Wheeler
• Triangulation: Triangulation is an effective method for verifying data by
cross-checking it with a few different sources. Triangulation will be utilised
in this research to bring together a variety of data points to generate a single
conclusion.

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Fig 3. 3 Triangulation method (Bowen, 2005).
3.8. Conclusion
The research onion (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019) exemplifies
different tools and techniques for developing and concluding the research,
whereas each layer is pivotal for the researcher for the successful conclusion
of a research. Fig 3.4 concludes the research methodology which is applied
during the research.

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Fig 3. 4 Research Methodology – Graphical representation (Author)

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter will describe data collection and analysis in more detail.
Qualitative approaches are prone to producing excessive amounts of data,
which is a typical blunder (Ghauri, Grønhaug and Strange, 2020). Hence
qualitative research frequently requires data reduction prior to drawing findings.
Ghauri, Grønhaug and Strange (2020) suggest that through an inductive and
deductive research approach, the study's findings are founded on empirical
observations and rational thinking. Data will be categorised and classified in
order to prevent processing excessive amounts of information; irrelevant
information will be placed in categories that are not significant to the drawing
of conclusions. Coding and classification prevent data distortion and maintain
the inherent richness that qualitative data possesses (Saunders, Lewis, and
Thornhill, 2019). In-depth analysis of the literature and survey yielded
qualitative data. Ghauri, Grønhaug and Strange (2020) technique for analysing
qualitative data will be followed in the analysis of qualitative data.
Fig 4. 1 Qualitative data analysis process flow (Author)
Results will be based on a review of the data, focus selection, and coding
considering the following research objectives:
• Learn about the latest research on project management and the
importance of communication in project management.
Data collection
Data
reduction/display
Conclusion:
drawing/verification

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• To review and analyse literature about the famous communication models.
• To give recommendations and draw conclusions based on a review of the
literature on the issues of electronic and face-to-face communication.
Following the review and discussion of the literature, the results of a survey
and interviews will be reviewed and discussed. The selection of survey
participants and interviewees sample are based on the following:
• Participants' previous experience.
• Participants' competence in managing communication management in
a projectized environment
• Participants' ability to lead a virtual team of people
Following qualification criteria is used for survey and semi-structured interview:
Medical)
• Professionals who have at least 5 years of experience in managing
projects and application of project management tools and techniques
After receiving 576 responses to the survey questions, 15 semi-structured
interviews via phone and 5 detailed follow-up interviews via MS Team were
conducted. Survey and interviews will be discussed in detailed later in this
Chapter.

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4.1. Search criteria
The papers and publications found in the University of Salford library and
Emerald Insight database have been peer-reviewed, mainly referenced, and
include reputable material; therefore, these resources were used to get a
general overview of the literature. As proposed by Tranfield, Denyer, and Smart
(2003), the data search was a three-stage process as follow:
Fig 4. 2 Data search process graphical representation (Author)
From 2006 to 2021, roughly 15 years of research on the issue was covered in
this study; however, to better understand communication, theories and
models of communication and project management, the literature evaluation
extends beyond this time period as well.

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Fig 4. 3 Articles search chart (Author)
To search the most relevant literature and journals for review and analysis 4-
step screening process was adopted as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4. 1 Database screening criteria (Author)

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Steps 1 to 4 were completed using the filters in the database, whereas Step 5
was manually conducted to remove duplications and literature not related to
the research aim and objectives.
4.2. Literature and journals coding
When data is evaluated, new ideas may be generated, which can then be
used to guide future research and data collecting. Grounded theory is
considered systematic since it defines a number of research methodologies
that should be followed. Early data gathering, contemporaneous data
collection and analysis, the development of codes from the data, and the use
of continuous comparison are all examples of these.
4.2.1. Initial or open coding
To the extent that qualitative research employs grounded theory
methodologies, the first phase in the coding process is open coding analysis.
The purpose of "open coding" is to start with unprocessed data and then
separate that data to be more efficiently comprehended. The focus is on
deriving meaning from the observed behaviours, interactions, persons, and
situations. Finally, the information deconstructed will be used to generate a
phenomenon that can be studied. Three approaches exist for open code
analysis: line-by-line, sentence-by-sentence, and data analysis of the whole
text (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). In this dissertation, paragraph analysis is
implemented for open coding to look for phrases that are often used in project
management communication and then coded those terms. It aided in the
development of the research's overall emphasis and the survey and interview
questions. By using a Grounded Theory technique, one may ensure that the

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original research issue is extensively focused while being within reasonable
exploratory boundaries (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019).
4.2.2. Axial coding
Axial coding refers to the process of identifying links between the data
categories that arose through open coding, and as connections between
categories become apparent, they are reorganised into a hierarchical structure,
resulting in the creation of sub-categories (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill,
2019). Through examining what happens and why, the impact of environmental
factors (culture, people, technology, team locations), axial coding assisted in
exploring, explaining, and identifying the relationship between the function of
communication and project management.
4.2.3. Selective coding
When enough information was acquired, it was possible to establish various
categories and sub-categories, as Strauss and Corbin (2014) suggested,
followed by selective coding. This aims to select one of these key categories
as the primary or core category to connect the other categories to integrate the
research (Strauss and Corbin, 2014). When selective coding is employed, all
key categories and sub-categories are systematically linked to the main
segment.
Fig 4. 4 Graphical representation of selective coding process (Author)

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4.3. Journal, articles coding
The sample consisted of 544 journal papers and articles, and each abstract
was thoroughly examined and evaluated. Project management, business, and
communication theory were reviewed for new findings in communication-
related themes in the articles. The journals were analysed in context by
looking for keywords, topics, or phrases of management communication.
• About 83 academic journals were coded for their relevance to
communication approaches, methods, tools and techniques.
• 196 articles were coded covering the subject of project management and
the role of communication.
• Information and communication technology (ICT) related articles were 63,
focusing on the role of ICT and its impact on communication and
management of communication during the projects’ life cycle.
• 185 journal articles were coded covering the literature related to
communication, theories and models, and the impact of the
environmental factors on communication.
• 17 journal articles were coded related to case studies focusing on the
communication issues that contributed to the project's failures.

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Fig 4. 5 Research journal articles coding graphical representation (Author)
4.4. Discussion – Communication literature
In Section 2 – Literature Review, the definition and concept of communication
is discussed. As a multifaceted and ambiguous notion, communication may
have varying effects on individuals, and people's interpretations of the meaning
and context of what they hear and see can vary widely (Moser, 2010). Every
human interaction would be incomplete without effective communication.
These interactions, on the other hand, are not without difficulty. Some of the
communication problems described here were brought to light during the
literature study.

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4.4.1. Communication challenges
Broadly reviewing the challenges in day-to-day communication, the challenges
discussed here are focused and related to the project environment. The project-
based strategy is more common in contemporary businesses. It is critical for
project implementation to be properly managed in order for it to be a success.
Communication management is one of the core areas of project management,
which is often discussed in the literature because of its significance and
influence on the success of the project, particularly IT and construction projects,
carried out by diverse teams. Despite the availability of several sets of
communication management principles and methodologies and numerous
information and communication technology tools and systems supporting this
field, we continue to see a high number of project failures and significant
difficulties as a consequence of incorrect communication management.
• Cultural challenges
A variety of occupational, cultures, and qualifications, ranging from
highly skilled to low-skilled labour, are employed in the business, which
might provide a barrier in the communication process. This is especially
true in initiatives that entail the participation of multinational human
resources. Though language is important during communication among
individuals from diverse origins, cultural literacy is essential to grasp the
information given via the language that is being used. Undeniably, when
there is a lack of understanding of how cultural implications affect the
information presented, it is possible that the communication will be
unsuccessful at best and that the erroneous message will be delivered
at worst. (Emuze and James, 2013).

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It is possible that a difference in background, which also contributed to
this component, would cause difficulty throughout the communication
process. A difference in socioeconomic and educational backgrounds,
variances in age and personality characteristics all contribute to this
phenomenon. The superior/inferior connection between employees and
their supervisors may also affect communication because of the
differences in their backgrounds. Those in possession of valuable
knowledge that might be important to the completion of the project may
be reluctant to share it with others if they feel they are being berated as
a consequence of their educational qualifications. When information is
presented in a way that is seen to be significantly different from what is
culturally acceptable, it may result in a lack of understanding or
comprehension of the transmitted information (Waziri and Khalfan,
2014).
• Linguistic challenges
Indeed, a project manager's talent to communicate efficiently is crucial
to the project's success. Project specialists are educated primarily to
fulfil their mandate, the project's output, without any significant training
in effective communication. Construction and project managers'
communication abilities are important factors in determining whether or
not a project will be successful, as Zulch (2014) highlighted.

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One factor contributing to language challenges is the usage of
specialised terminology and jargon in the text. When technical phrases
and jargon are used to communicate information to the amateur
workforce, they will be able to extract little or no meaning from the
information sent to them. It is impossible to conclude that effective
communication has taken place in such situations. When it comes to
education, projects include a diverse group of individuals from various
educational backgrounds. Compared to the site operatives, the
professionals on a project are the most educated individuals. While the
project/construction managers or any other professional may be aware
of the calibre of individuals with whom they are dealing, they may fail to
recognise that the phrases they comprehend may easily prove to be
difficult or meaningless to the site operators who are working on the
project (Patoko and Yazdanifard, 2014).
• Inadequate access to information
When it comes to projects, particularly construction projects, there are a
lot of data and information generated that might be useful, especially
during the execution stage. Ideas are produced, choices are taken, and
a plethora of information is initiated and exchanged among the project
participants throughout the duration of the project, from the beginning to
the completion of the execution phase. Garcia, Arditi and Le (2014)
argued that poor productivity on construction projects might be partly
linked to the information requirements during construction are not well
satisfied. The lack of access to critical information for the advancement
of the project will result in obstacles being met, ultimately limiting the

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project's successful completion. A more serious issue arises when the
design changes affect parts of the project that have already been
finished. The affected component is destroyed in the worst-case
scenario, necessitating rework and higher expenditures.
• Delay in release of information
As a key contributing factor to project delays, inaccurate and late
communications are a serious problem. In order to ensure project
success, project information, such as expectations, objectives,
requirements, resources, and reports, must be shared on a regular
basis, including at all levels of the organisation (Culo and Skendrovic,
2010). Due to these issues, the managers must establish a
communication strategy that communicates information in a timely way
to guarantee that project constraint bound choices are made throughout
the project for it to be considered successful (Dainty, Moore and Murray,
2006). With the temporary nature of construction projects, new
individuals are brought in to fill positions as the project progresses. For
the project to achieve its goal, all parties must be aware of the project
requirements at all times during the project's lifecycle. Not providing new
team members with accurate information promptly may be detrimental
to the team's overall success.
• Feedback and teamwork challenges
Feedback is a vital component of communication since it brings the
process close. In certain cases, it may offer instructions for a task that
requires feedback. It might even be as subtle as a glance, nod, or
omission to ask a question after distributing a complex set of

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instructions. There is also the chance that employees may refrain from
giving feedback on an instruction they have not yet completed or
followed. The quantity of feedback that certain employees get on their
contributions affects their willingness to participate in information-
sharing initiatives. Workers' receptivity to the information they are given
impacts how much they will contribute to the project execution process
in the future. When there is a pattern of disregard for a worker's
contribution, the ability to provide continuous feedback is limited. This
may result in the team being deprived of critical project information,
which may cause the project delay.
Dainty, Moore and Murray (2006) point out that projects are collective
endeavours in which many individuals' talents and expertise are
combined to achieve a final output. Nonetheless, the inability of team
members to collaborate and communicate with one another seems to
be a significant contributor to inefficient communication in the industry
(Goh et al., 2014). For the project to move successfully, it is envisaged
that teams would spontaneously evolve, and synergies will arise,
allowing them to function more effectively as a unit. In practice, however,
teams often fail because certain team members are unable to participate
effectively, resulting in a breakdown in team communication (Dainty,
Moore and Murray, 2006). In addition, the diverse backgrounds and
team composition dynamics make it difficult for the team to build key
communication skills, which is essential for technically demanding and
time-sensitive projects.

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4.4.2. Methods and types of communication
It is estimated that project managers and project team members spend around
90% of their working time engaged in some type of communication with one
another or with clients (Burke, 2010). Some of the most used methods and
types of communication observed while reviewing the journal articles and
literate are discussed here.
• Methods of communication
PMBOK (2013) defines three methods of communication that every
project manager should be familiar with.
o Interactive communication
o Pull communication
o Push communication
Utilising the appropriate communication technique at the appropriate
time and in the appropriate context will assist in reaching the intended
outcome of a strong team and a positive working relationship with the
project's many stakeholders.
o Interactive communication
Interactive communication is used most often to effectively
deliver sensitive and crucial information in a manner that can be
best understood and acted upon promptly. In-person/face to face
meetings, video conferencing using platforms like Zoom, MS
Team, and telephonic conversations are a few examples of
interactive communication. Face-to-face meetings are the most
successful interactive communication method. However, if
meeting in person is not viable, one may still utilise tone, facial

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expressions, pitch, and visual aids to deliver the desired message
via phone calls or video conferences. This technique provides the
project manager with the opportunity to determine whether or not
the message has been received and interpreted correctly.
o Push communication
Unlike interactive communication, push communication provides
information to a target audience without expecting an immediate
response. Emails, newsletters, project documentations are a few
examples of push communication. Push communication may be
used when someone needs to communicate with a group of
individuals, but the message is neither time-sensitive nor urgent
in nature. Push communication, such as information updates or
reports, may be used by project managers to keep their teams up
to speed with the latest developments. Project managers need to
be mindful that not all communication with stakeholders should
be push communication; otherwise, stakeholders may conclude
that the project manager is disinterested in hearing their
concerns.
o Pull communication
Pull communication is used when stakeholders may acquire
information at their leisure, instead of push communication.
Transparency in pull communication helps to create trust
between project stakeholders and the project manager, which is
beneficial to both parties. Websites, and server-based
information, project dashboards, project management software

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are a few examples of pull communication. Let's take an example
to illustrate the difference between push and pull communication.
Pull communication would be a project website where
stakeholders may search for the information they need. However,
if the content is sent through the newsletter to the stakeholder,
this is considered a kind of "push" communication. Pull
communication is always centred on the stakeholder's choice to
acquire project information.
The optimal approach is a combination of all three. For example, when
stakeholders need immediate action, interactive communication is optimal;
push communication is optimal for providing large amounts of information,
and pull communication is optimal for enabling stakeholders to access
information at their leisure.
• Types of communication
A communication type is merely how a message is delivered to the
intended recipient or the mechanism by which information is exchanged
(Heldman, 2015). Therefore, when it comes to choosing a type for
communication, a project manager must consider various aspects; the
purpose of the communication, the audience for whom it is meant, and
the content being sent are all examples of these.
During the literature review, the author concluded that most researchers
grouped communication types into two categories: communication types
based on the channel used and communication types based on style.

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Fig 4. 6 Graphical representation of Communication types (Author)
4.4.3. Impact of information and communication technology (ICT)
Most human interactions have traditionally revolved around communication.
Information and communication technology (ICT) was established at the
beginning of the present digital age and is now the most widely utilised method
of communication apart from spoken word (Dávideková, Greguš, Zanker and
Bureš, 2020). ICT facilitates communication and the automatic collection,
storage, and rapid processing of data. ICT has revolutionised the way people
work, communicate, study, spend their spare time, remain in touch with family
and friends, and engage with their communities (Jorgenson and Vu, 2016).
Even more so in the event of a pandemic, when commercial operations must
be carried out from a distance and under the supervision of a scattered
workforce.
Types of
Communication
Based on
communciation
channels
Non-verbal
Verbal
Oral
Face to face
Distance/Virtual
Written
Based on style
and purpose
Formal
Informal

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Traditional teams are being replaced by new forms of teams that have been
developed because of advancements in ICT (Gera et al., 2013). Over the last
two decades, a substantial amount of research has been published on global
virtual teams and how they differ from collocated (traditional, face-to-face)
teams in terms of productivity and effectiveness. According to the vast majority
of researchers, a virtual team is one in which the primary means of contact is
electronic. DeSanctis and Monge (1999) define a virtual team as a group of
physically dispersed, functionally and culturally varied individuals that
communicate electronically and coordinate via lateral, dynamic interactions.
ICT lays the groundwork for computer programs that automate business
operations ranging from highly specialised tasks like failure prediction to more
generalised tasks like inventory management (Borkowski et al., 2019). Visual
and audio messages are sent through ICT in today's environment. Participants
may see and hear one other's faces and voices in real-time via the use of a
video conference, enabling them to control the discourse better. By transmitting
visuals and sounds, it simulates real-world conversation.
4.4.4. The richness of commination medium
Virtual teams to succeed must be prepared to communicate in real-time
(synchronous) and delayed time (asynchronous) modes using technology like
emails, chat rooms, data meetings, and other technological communication
modes (Pauleen and Corbitt, 2003). Media Richness Theory (MRT), coined by
Richard L. Daft and Robert H. Lengel and widely cited in academic literature,
has been widely used to categorise and choose communication technologies
and tools for virtual teams. The Media Richness Theory may be used to define

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a communication medium's capacity to convey information. They argued that
media convey varying degrees of richness. The number of signals (e.g., timely
feedback, body language, facial emotion, etc.) that media cannot communicate
varies, as does the ability for natural expression. A medium's richness
increases when these characteristics are covered; therefore, face-to-face
communication can be considered the richest medium. It enables immediate
feedback, simultaneous exchange of numerous indications such as body
language, facial expression, and tone of voice, and the use of a wide range of
natural language that expresses emotion (Weimann, Hinz, Scott and Pollock,
2010). Table 4.2 shows the summary of mediums' richness as Weimann, Hinz,
Scott and Pollock (2010) concluded.
Table 4. 2 Communication media richness level (Weimann, Hinz, Scott and
Pollock, 2010).
To enhance performance on tasks, MRT suggests that information processing
needs should match the capabilities of media that are capable of providing that
information richness. Weimann, Hinz, Scott and Pollock (2010) suggest the
task-media-advice rules as shown the Table 4.3.

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Table 4. 3 Task-media advice rules (Weimann, Hinz, Scott and Pollock, 2010)
4.5. Survey and semi-structured interviews: results and discussion
When used in conjunction with case studies, a survey is an additional data
gathering tool that takes the form of a questionnaire and is intended to help
researchers achieve their goals (Ghauri, Grønhaug and Strange, 2020).
A survey and semi-structured interviews were administered as part of this
research study, whereas the survey and semi-structured interviews
methodology have been explained in Sections 1.1.3, 3.4.2, and 3.5. The
selection of survey participants and interviewees sample were based on the
following:
• Participants' previous experience.
• Participants' competence in managing communication management in
a projectized environment
• Participants' ability to lead a virtual team of people
Following qualification criteria shall be used for survey and semi-structured
interview:

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Medical)
• Professionals who have at least 5 years of experience in managing
projects and application of project management tools and techniques
4.5.1. Survey questionnaire
The survey questionnaire had two sections:
• Section A: Designed to gather general information about survey
participants.
• Section B: Designed to gather information about communication role in
project management, the impact of communication, and effectiveness
of ICT.
The questionnaire was designed based on purposive sampling
(Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019) to ensure the survey meets the
research objective. In addition, the author wrote a summary of the
research, survey scope, and survey objectives for the participants'
comprehension and to choose instances with project management
experience and knowledge of communication management.
Google Form was used for survey and data collection. Total 576
responses were received, out of which 76 respondents did not qualify
the selection criteria. The approach of systematic random sampling
(Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2019) was used to choose the final
sample from the sampling frame at regular intervals.

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• Sampling fraction = actual sample size / total population (Saunders,
Lewis, and Thornhill, 2019)
Sampling fraction = 100/500
Based on the sampling fraction, it was determined that every 5th
survey
answer was to be analysed.
4.5.1.1. Characteristics of respondents
The selected sample of respondents includes Executives, Managers,
Engineers, and Coordinators from a project management background,
having minimum 5 years of professional experience. The gender
distribution of respondents is shown in Fig 4.7.
Fig 4. 7 Survey respondents gender classification (Author)
Male Respondents
63%
Female
Respondents
37%
Respondents gender classification
Male Respondents Female Respondents

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The classification of respondents based on their role and
responsibilities is shown in Fig 4.8.
Fig 4. 8 Respondents’ classification based on roles and responsibility (Author)
4.5.1.2. Discussion – Survey responses
• Survey question 1: Communication is critical to project
performance and success.
To react to the question, respondents were given the Likert-scale
option. As shown in Fig. 4.9, more than half of executives and
managers feel that communication is crucial not just for project
performance and success but pivotal for team integration and
collaboration. Overall, 62% of respondents agree that
communication is an essential factor for project performance,
supporting the emerging theme observed during the literature
review.
Executives, 18
Managers, 23
Engineers, 42
Coordinators, 17
Respondents classification -
Roles/responsibilities
Executives Managers Engineers Coordinators

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Fig 4. 9 Survey question 1 result (Author)
• Survey question 2: Cultural differences and the use of technical
jargon obstruct comprehension of messages and instructions.
The author highlighted linguistic barriers in section 4.4.1, and
respondents' responses to survey question 2 resonate with the
literature review conclusions. As illustrated in Fig 4.10, 80% of
respondents agree that the use of specialised terminologies and
jargon leads to misunderstanding commination and message. At the
same time, 7% do not consider the use of jargon during
communication as a barrier.

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• Survey question 3: Lack of feedback and reception of late
information can cause a delay in project completion.
Most responders (65%) agree that a lack of information interaction
between team members results in project delivery delays. However,
it's worth noting that 35% of responses are a combination of neutral,
disagree, and strongly disagree, which is concerning given that a
significant proportion of participants do not understand the value of
feedback and delayed information. Fig 4.11 illustrates the results.

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• Survey question 4: Changes to the project are poorly
communicated, resulting in difficulties carrying out directives.
Inadequate access to crucial information for project progress may
result in difficulties, impeding the project's effective completion.
When the design changes impact components of the project that
have already been completed, this challenge becomes considerably
more significant. Consequently, the affected component often has
to be replaced, which adds to the overall expenditures. As shown in
Fig 4.12, the response to this question is ambivalent as 33% of
respondents agree with the statement, whereas 31% disagree, and
36% has a neutral response. A generalised conclusion is not
possible in this case as the difference between agreement and
disagreement is insignificant.

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• Survey question 5: The transition from face-to-face to virtual
meetings complicates team development and trust.
Virtual teams allow workers to operate remotely. Researchers say
face-to-face teams are contented, more empathetic, and more
creative, whereas virtual teams are more susceptible to conflicts,
discontent, and poor decision-making due to their passive and
aggressive style. This is another instance of undecisive results. 49%
of respondents agree with the statement; however, 46% disagree.
In section 4.4.4 author discussed the richness of face-to-face
communication; however, ICT unprecedented advancement and the
recent pandemic has changed the face of communication. Most
literature and research before 2020 favour face-to-face
communication. Fig 4.13 represents the survey results.

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• Survey question no 6: The use of high-tech technology in
communication processes increases the effectiveness and
efficiency of communication.
The results shown in Fig 4.14 supports the literature analysis in
Section 4.4.3, supporting the role of ICT in communication
management. With 14% disagreement, 65% of respondents support
and acknowledge the role of ICT and technological advancements
in the communication field.

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• Survey question 7: The younger generation prefers to
communicate through ICT rather than face-to-face.
It is undeniable that the younger generation is more aware of
information and communications technology (ICT) since they have
grown up with it. The results shown in Fig 4.15 suggest that 81% of
respondents agree with the statement, whereas 6% disagree and
13% responses are neutral.

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• Survey question 8: Is written communication more effective than
oral/verbal communication?
This question is a polar question, and respondents have to select
one of the two choices. 67% supported that oral/verbal
communication is more effective. The notion is supported by the
research and literature where oral, verbal, face-to-face
communication is considered effective as it involves cues like non-
verbal gestures, body language, and tone changes, whereas written
communication is precise. 33% of respondents voted that written
communication means are effective vs oral/verbal means of
communication. Fig 4.16 represents the results of the survey.

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• Survey question 9: Do you prefer oral/verbal communication or
written communication.
Written communication could be in the form of an email, text
message, letter, memorandums, reports, minutes of meetings, fax,
etc. 61% of participants confirm their preference for written
communication over oral/verbal communication means. It is
noteworthy that in response to survey question no 8, the majority
supported the notion that oral/verbal communication is more
effective, but the majority prefers to use written modes of
communication. Fig 4.17 shows the survey results to survey
question no 9.

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• Survey question no 10: Is a communication management plan
fundamental for communication management?
A communications management plan may assist in organising and
documenting the communication channels, methods, and
expectations. A manager's approach should be clearly defined in a
communication management plan when it comes to project
communication. 97% of survey participants agree with the
importance of a communication management plan. Researchers
unanimously agree on the importance of a communication
management plan in literature, especially for projectized
organisations. Fig 4.18 shows the survey result concerning the
question.

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4.5.2. Discussion – Semi-structured interviews
The author conducted semi-structured interviews over the phone, as indicated
in the Methodology section. Interviewees were chosen from the list of survey
respondents. The candidates chosen for this position had substantial expertise
leading co-located and virtual teams. The sample for interviews consisted of
the following:
• Project Managers – 3 numbers
• Design Discipline Managers – 3 numbers
• Project Engineers – 3 numbers
• Design Engineers – 4 numbers
• Site Engineers – 2 numbers
The interviews were done anonymously, without disclosing the interviewees'
personal information. The author transcribed the interviews and sent them to

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participants for validation via email. Apart from the survey data, the goal of
semi-structured interviews was to acquire further information and comprehend
the thinking process behind survey responses. Following the semi-structured
interviews, follow-up questions were developed to elicit further information
about what was stated during the interview. Finally, one person for each
category was selected for a detailed interview.
• Project Managers – 1 number
• Design Discipline Managers – 1 number
• Project Engineers – 1 number
• Design Engineers – 1 number
• Site Engineers – 1 number
Table 4.4 shows details of interviewees who participated in the detailed virtual
interview via Microsoft Team.

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Table 4. 4 Detailed interview participants details (Author)
• Follow-up interview question 1: What are the common problems in
project communication?
Based on the responses, the most common problems discussed during the
interviews are:
• An inadequate communication management plan
• Delays in communication
• Lack of access to information
• Receiving inconsistent information

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The Project Manager emphasised the need of having an effective
communication management plan. His organisation usually uses an out-of-
date project management plan, which does not even meet the project
stakeholders' requirements. The Project Engineer and Project Coordinator
considered a lack of information as the primary cause of troubles on-site
and throughout project execution. The design manager focused on
inconsistent information about the design's functional requirements and
design scope.
• Follow-up interview question 2: Is it possible that a multicultural work
environment leads to miscommunication?
Almost all the participants who took part in the interviews had experience
working in multicultural teams and had to deal with the challenges of having
diverse perspectives and working styles based on distinct cultural
backgrounds. The most-reported cultural issues are as follows:
• Language
• Culture in the country of origin
• Working style
• Working attitude
The respondents' most prevalent cultural concerns were a distinct working
style and a lack of communication.
• Follow-up interview question 3: Which challenges are the most critical
when managing virtual teams?
According to all respondents, a lack of face-to-face interaction with team
members is a common problem for those who work remotely. According to

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the project manager, when team members are spread across many time
zones and countries in a worldwide project, the chance for direct contact is
restricted. According to the Design Manager and the Project Coordinator,
it isn't easy to establish if virtual teams have adequately delivered and
understood written information. The project Engineer emphasised the
importance of information sharing among the virtual teams for the project
success.
• Follow-up interview question 4: Does your company consult employees
before introducing the ICT for communication facilitation?
The Project Manager and Design Manager responded that usually,
management consults the employees. However, Project Engineer, Design
Engineer, and Project Coordinator confirmed that they were not consulted
at the time of new ICT implementation in the company. The interviewees'
responses suggest that though management of companies has policies to
engage employees, the question arises as to how effectively the policies
are implemented.
• Follow-up interview question 5: Do you agree that ICT has improved the
coordination and collaboration among the stakeholders?
The Project Engineer disagreed that the use of information technology in
building projects had increased coordination and cooperation among
construction businesses. He explained that most construction workers
barely know how to use the latest technology like computers or laptops due
to the lack of education and training. On the other hand, the Project Manager
and Design Manager strongly believe that ICT has made coordination
easier, simpler, and timely. However, the Project Coordinator has mixed

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reviews about the question. He argued that that case could be true if text
messaging and emails are in question; other than the aforementioned ICT
tools, the ICT platforms are too complex for the blue-collar workers.
4.6. Chapter conclusion
In this chapter, the author discussed the literature search criteria, coding,
concluded and discussed the literature from the communication lens. Different
methods and types of communication were part of the discussion in this
chapter, followed by a discussion about communication challenges. Due to
globalisation and advancements in information technology, the notion of a team
transcends geographical, time, organisational, and cultural borders. These
global and virtual teams can fundamentally alter the course of human history,
but in comparison to face-to-face teams, how effective are these teams?
According to the survey's most statistically significant result, face-to-face
interaction improved the working relationships among members of a virtual
team. In addition, the teams' communication, trust, and performance improved
when they interacted face-to-face. Workers are fully aware of the advantages
of ICT in terms of efficiency and performance. However, reluctance among
workers to adopt new technology and a lack of technical assistance are limiting
factors in ICT development.

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Table 4. 5 Literature review Vs survey findings (Author)

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In Table 4.6 semi-structured and follow-up interviews findings are compared
with the literature.
Table 4. 6 Literature review Vs interview findings (Author)

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5. Conclusion and recommendations
This chapter's overall purpose is to summarise the theoretical findings from the
literature review chapter and relate these conclusions to the qualitative
research findings of survey and semi-structured interviews concluded in
Chapter 4 with respect to the research objectives.
5.1. Conclusion
The prime goals of this study were to learn about the most recent research on
the relevance of communication in project management, to comprehend well-
known communication models and to learn about the influence of ICT on overall
communication management. Besides the literature review, several case
studies were reviewed, and 3 were selected for this dissertation.
The failure of the Mars Climate Orbiter and communication issues in Kuwaiti
government projects and Persian Gulf project studies demonstrate the
importance of communication, supporting the conclusions of the literature
review in Chapters 2 and 4. According to Hass (2007), who performed research
in support of PMI's Pulse report, 65 % of projects in the United States in 2006
were delayed or failed due to miscommunication.
The literature research and case study results were tested and validated by the
survey. Semi-structured and detailed follow-up interviews were undertaken
after a critical examination of the 576 replies to the survey to acquire a deeper
understanding of the survey results. Generally, the analysis of research

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indicates that the empirical part of the study mostly proves the theoretical part,
the most significant findings that emerge from the survey and detailed follow-
up interviews are concluded in Chapter 4 and this chapter. Findings that arise
from surveys and follow-up interviews indicate that the theory is supported by
empirical evidence more often than not.
5.2. Recommendations
To summarize, the most significant contribution of this study is that it
provides features of methodological, theoretical, and actual practices
concerning communication management in project management world. It
also improved the author's understanding of the communication process
associated with project management. Based on the new learnings, author
has summarised few recommendations.
• Communication models
Several well-known communication models were addressed, but the models
developed by Shannon and Weaver (1949) and Galles (1999) have a lasting
influence on current communication. Adding "feedback" to the Shannon and
Weaver model made it more resilient, guaranteeing that the sender and
receiver were on the same page. Teams working on the project must make
sure that any limits do not become obstacles. The majority of survey
participants believe in the importance of feedback. Talukhaba, Mutunga, and
Miruka (2011) believe that feedback is an essential component of
communication, and interventions are necessary when feedback is missing,
delayed, or not forthcoming.

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• Communication barriers
A communication barrier is anything that inhibits us from receiving and
interpreting others' communications. They may disrupt or obstruct your
communication. Cultural diversity, emotional differences, educational and
working experience, functional relationships, physical locations are among the
few communication barriers we have discussed. Our empirical study supported
the literature findings of these barriers; however, such barriers could not be just
eliminated but managed by a comprehensive communication management
plan, team coaching, and training.
• Communication management plan
The project's cornerstone should be a communication management plan.
Using the communication plan, the project manager may keep track of the best
ways to communicate with key stakeholders. Delivering information in a
suitable format, at the right time, and with the right impact are all part of
effective communication. Effective communication necessitates just
distributing information that is relevant and useful. As per survey results,
organisations use the communication plan, but significant participants believe
that the plans are either not fit for the project needs or poorly administered.
• Method and types of communication
A medium is required to communicate a message's content. In fact, almost
every kind of media may modify the receiver's receptivity. In Section 4.4.2,
several methods and types of communications were discussed. The aim of the

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communication, the audience for whom it is intended, and the substance of the
message are all examples of factors that a project manager must take into
account when selecting a kind of communication. The literature review
supports face-to-face communication as the richest communication type, but
the author's survey results suggest that participants agree on the effectiveness
of oral communication but prefer written communication type.
• Impact of information and communication technology
It's not surprising that project managers utilise technology to communicate with
team members and other stakeholders. When email became popular, project
managers replaced interoffice notes, faxes, and phone calls. Likewise, project
managers use the latest technologies to communicate with their employees as
social collaboration tools, and other innovations replace email. Literature and
author empirical study highlight the role information technology advancement
plays in managing projects and communication, but poor selection of
technology, lack of understanding about the users' familiarity with the selected
technology, and lack of sufficient training may lead to undesired results.
Therefore, the selection of an information and communication technology
platform must prioritise the needs, expectations, requirements, and
suggestions of end-users.
Communication has many definitions, and one way or the other, all definitions
are valid. The success of every endeavour hinges on effective communication.
The ability to communicate effectively is the most important aspect in every
successful project, regardless of how project management seems to have been
carried out. According to the research, technology alone does not guarantee

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quality and accuracy in project-related communication. Understanding of
project stakeholders, their needs, expectations, culture are among many
elements to consider while planning the communication at the initiation phase
of the project. The introduction of a new information and communication tool or
system should have a driver, encouragement, support, and its use and usage
should be monitored throughout the project.
5.3. Evaluation of study and scope for further research
During the research, the primary limitation was time. As a result, the author had
to use stringent criteria while choosing the literature for review. To further
understand the function of communication in various projects and levels of
complexity, other subjects might be included in the research study. The author
has examined the importance of information and communications technology
(ICT) and global project teams; nevertheless, further study will be required
since these issues offer a broad spectrum of knowledge and research potential.
In addition to communication, management, and execution issues, the
pandemic has posed new technological challenges, which will all need to be
addressed in the context of an increasingly hybrid paradigm, with employees
working both remotely and in the office. The author proposes that future study
focus include project complexity, worldwide teams, the effect of a pandemic,
and the usage of ICT tools designed specifically for project management.

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7. APPENDICES

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Appendix -1
Survey Questionnaire

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Appendix - 2
Ethics Approval Request Form.
Ethics Approval
Application Form.pdf
Ethics Approval Application Form

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THE END

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