MSc Project Management Dissertation

Vardaan Sharma MSc Project Management
10232721 Dissertation
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Vardaan Sharma
10232721
“The issues and impact of communication in project management”
- An analysis of communicational issues on global projects and its impact on them.
MSc Project Management
Dissertation

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MANCHESTER METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY BUSINESS SCHOOL
MMUBS
DISSERTATION
Academic Year 2013-2014
Vardaan Sharma
10232721
“The issues and impact of communication in project management”
- An analysis of communicational issues on global projects and its impact on them.
Supervisor – Ruth McQuater
September 2014
This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science
©. Manchester Metropolitan University, Business School 2014. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be produced without the written permission of the
copyright owner.

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Declaration
The author whilst studying for this Masters programme, not been registered to any
other programme in any other university. The data in this dissertation has not been
used in any other submission for an academic assignment and acknowledging any
assistance revived. This particular dissertation is library-based; with qualitative
analysis through external research as well e.g. interviews. The whole research is
completed in accordance to the university guidelines.

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Abstract
As project management grows and projects become global, it’s important to pay
attention to communication and develop communication skills as a project manager,
in order to have successful projects. This research study illustrates the importance of
communication and the influence communication has on project management. The
research analyses projects in two different scenarios in organisational projects and
construction projects, as well as explaining communication in project management
practice. The study begins with an introduction to project management and then
demonstrates the inter-link of communication with project management, thereafter
displaying the aims and objectives of the research. Following the aims and objectives
of the research the study begins with an introduction of communication, however,
there is no clear definition of communication in terms of management, which allows
the research to explain communication through models and concepts. The research
then writes heavily analyses of literature on communication in organisational
projects, construction projects, project management practice and concludes with
explaining the effects of effective communication. The study analysed around 250
journal articles, from which there were various journals ranging from communication
journals to project management journals. The project management journal used
were in the time-horizon from 1998-2010 and the other journals used weren’t put
into a time-horizon as the study looked at journals from almost any year to locate
the correct data/information required. The paper then explains the next chapter,
which is methodology, where the study demonstrates how the research was
gathered and as to why that type of particular research method chosen. In the later
stage of the study, the research then displays all the gathered data and analyses it,
the study portrays this via graphs and pie charts and then discusses the links
between the literature gathered and the research conducted. The study concludes
with a re-examination of the research and debates about the limitations of the study
and in the end states some points, those can be considered for the study, had it
carried on, in order to make the research even better. The moral of the study is to
portray a view of the importance of communication and it’s influence on project
management.

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Keyword(s): Organisational Projects, Flow of information, Construction Projects,
Effective communication and Project Management.

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Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION 9
1.1 INTRODUCTION 9
1.2 DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION 11
1.3 COMMUNICATION ISSUES 12
1.4 COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES AND IMPACT 13
1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 15
1.5.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 15
1.6 RESEARCH SCOPE ANDSTRUCTURE 15
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 18
2.1 COMMUNICATION THEORIES 18
2.1.1 SHANNON AND WEAVER MODEL 19
2.1.2 GALLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION 20
2.1.3 FUNCTION MODEL OF COMMUNICATION 21
2.2 MULTI-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION 22
2.3 COMMUNICATION ISSUES IN PROJECTS 23
2.3.1 PROJECT AFRICA – 1 24
2.3.2 PROJECT AFRICA – 2 25
2.3.3 ITPROJECTS 26
2.3.4 APC–YRTSB HOTEL PROJECT (CHINA) 27
2.3.5 PERSIAN GULF CONSTRUCTION PROJECT 28
2.3.6 AEIPROJECT 29
2.4 COMMUNICATION METHODS 30
2.4.1 COMMUNICATION FRAMEWORK 32
2.5 CONCLUSION 33
3.0 METHODOLOGY 36
3.1 INTRODUCTION 36
3.2 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY 37
3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH 39
3.4 RESEARCH STRATEGIES 40
3.4.1 GROUNDED THEORY 40
3.4.2 ETHNOGRAPHY 40
3.4.3 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 41
3.5 RESEARCH CHOICE 42
3.6 SAMPLE 43
3.6.1 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT 43
3.6.2 BUSINESS SOURCE PREMIER 43
3.6.3 OVERVIEW 44
3.7 RESEARCH TIME HORIZON 44
4.0 DATA ANALYSIS/COLLECTION 46
4.1 OPEN CODING ANALYSIS 46
4.2 SELECTIVE CODING ANALYSIS 46
4.2.1 RESEARCH JOURNAL CODING 47
4.2.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT JOURNAL CODING 48
4.2.3 COMMUNICATION JOURNAL CODING 49
4.2.4 ARTICLES CODING 50
4.3 INTERVIEW DATA COLLECTION/ANALYSES 52
4.3.1 ADOBE INTERVIEW/FOCUS GROUP 54

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4.3.2 THE AUTHENTIC FOOD COMPANY INTERVIEW 54
4.3.3 INTERVIEW RESULTS 54
4.4 DATA COLLECTION METHODS 55
5.0 DISCUSSION 57
5.1 DISCUSSION 57
5.2 IMPLICATIONS 60
6.0 CONCLUSION 62
6.1 CONCLUSION 62
6.2 LIMITATIONS 64
6.3 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 65
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 66
APPENDIX 1 – QUESTIONNAIRE 67
APPENDIX 2 – ADOBE INDIA INTERVIEW (TRANSCRIPT) 69
APPENDIX 3 – THE AUTHENTIC FOOD COMPANY INTERVIEW (TRANSCRIPT) 74
APPENDIX – 4) PERMISSION LETTER FROM ADOBE (INDIA) 85
APPENDIX – 5) PERMISSION LETTER FROM “THE AUTHENTIC FOOD COMPANY” 86
APPENDIX– 6) PERMISSIONLETTER 2FROM “THE AUTHENTICFOOD COMPANY”
87
REFERENCES (BIBLIOGRAPHY): 88

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List of Table/Figures Page
Figure 1.1 – ShannonandWeaverModel 19
Figure 1.2 – The conceptual model of functional communication 21
Figure 1.3 – CommunicationCapabilitiesFramework 32
Figure 1.4 – ResearchOnion 36
Figure 1.5 – The four-managementresearchphilosophy 38
Figure 1.6 – Bottomup inductive approach 39
Figure 1.7 – Qualitative methoddesign 42
Figure 1.8 – Selectivecodingandcore category 47
Figure 1.9 – Researchjournal coding 48
Figure 2.0 – ProjectManagementJournal Coding 48
Figure 2.1 – CommunicationJournal Coding 50
Figure 2.2 – Topicthemescoding 51
Figure 2.3 – Model of communicationmanagementinProjectManagement 52
Figure 2.4 – CommunicationBreakdown 55
Figure 2.5 – Data Collection 56

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1.0 Introduction
The study begins with the chapter of introduction, which introduces the topic of
communication with a major link with project management. The chapter discusses
the importance and influence that communication has had on project management
by illustrating case studies about real life projects. The chapter then displays
definition of communication listed by various authors, furthermore discussing the
issues of communication in project management and its impact. The chapter then
concludes with the aims and objectives of the study, as well as describing each and
every chapter in the study.
1.1 Introduction
Project management is mainstay in the business world. Nowadays almost every
organisation has a project going on and the requirement for project management
skill sets is now larger than ever. Project management defined is “a temporary
endeavour, undertaken to create a unique product or service” (PMI, 1996). In terms
of looking at communication research, Mehta, (2002) describes communication as a
process of transferring information from one location to another. Furthermore,
Craig, (1999) states that communication doesn’t have a specific theory from which
its know from in comparison to other management topics, such as culture or
leadership. The effective flow of information is vital to everyone involved in a
project, as effective flow of information will lead to a successful project, allowing
transferring of data across various departments in the project to keep the project
team updated.
Projects encounter various issues when in progress and projects that involve
members from various cultures and ethnic backgrounds can lead to a lot of
misunderstanding, as working ways are completely different. This most certainly was
the case in some medium to large-scale projects in Saudi Arabia in 2005. A research
study by Assaf and Al-Hejji, (2006) outlines that a large construction project was
taking place in Saudi Arabia, with major client dealing with a firm from Hong-Kong.
The construction project faced major difficulties due to data or important

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information not being effectively transferred around the projects, which caused
major problems. The problems that occurred were as simple as paper work not
being transferred over through departments for signing off aims and objectives,
which meant that some teams still were working on completed tasks, which caused
the projects to be very inefficient as other tasks were lacking due to lesser attention
being paid to them. Also, as the project had two teams, one in Saudi Arabia and one
in Hong-Kong, the above issue here occurred as both teams couldn’t converse with
one another effectively, which led to many major decisions not being made on time
due to incomplete tasks and this led to the design and the scope of the project being
changed time after time.
Assaf and Al-Hejji, (2006) state that this happened due to different working styles of
the team in the project, where the management should have implemented similar
working ethic in regards to similar types of working styles, which suits both teams. In
the later stages of the project, new management was brought and some were let go
off, due to the early failure of the project. The project sponsor in Hong Kong also had
to increase the financial strength of the project, as it was going over budget, hence
many redundancies were made and this was also a major issue in the project as it
lost vast amounts of experience due to some experience staff being made
redundant.
Furthermore, Al-Momani, (2000) relates to similar incident that occurred in Jordan
when over a 130 projects were delayed due to the lack of interaction between
various departments within a project. Al-Momani, (2000) explores, how due to major
developments taking place in Jordan in the late 90’s, many construction project took
place. These projects were liaising with many foreign firms and the problem
occurred as no real strategy was implemented on how to successfully achieve set
objectives in the project and this led to the bare minimum correspondence between
clients. The clients in the end were very disappointed as the project kept having
delays, which led to low productivity and major financial implications.

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In relation to the research conducted by Assaf and Al-Hejji, (2006) and Al-Momani,
(2000) the analyses of the projects comes down to conclusion that communication
here was the major issue as both studies illustrate how due to the lack of
information not being distributed around the a project effectively, the project
encountered the above problems.
1.2 Definition of Communication
Communication over the years has had many different definitions and due to that
Dance (1970), expresses that communication shouldn’t have a specific definition, as
many scholars would rage in arguments over as to which one is most suited. Due to
that, Dance (1970) clearly stated that communication should be described as a
“family” of related concepts to clear any confusion.
Firstly, Bowen and Edward, (1996) state that communication is a process to acquire
all desired information, decoding this information and effectively distributing the
information to its required destination. Bowen and Edward, (1996) then define
communication as “data, which have been processed and presented in a format
which gives them meaning”. In respect to the project discussed above in Saudi
Arabia by Assaf and Al-Hejji, (2006), the information flow should have been given a
meaning which both parties can understand as the project had two project teams in
different parts of the world.
The importance of communication in project management is so huge that
practitioners usually refer it to as the “Lifeblood” of the project. Project team
members need to share, collaborate and integrate knowledge and information to
comprehend a project (Zulch, 2014). This reflects largely on the projects delayed in
Jordan stated by Al-Momani, (2000) as due to a lack of interaction in those projects,
not enough information was integrated to give a comprehensive knowledge of the
work that was needed to be done and and what way. In relation to project
management, communication would be used for requesting information, sending
information, asking questions, giving a direction, constructing teams or networking

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(Zulch, 2014). In order to understand the process of communication, there are three
main factors involved in communication, which also define the topic.
To conclude the theory of communication, its is a process in which “information that
flows from the sender, encodes the data through the transmission channel/medium
by a verbal or non-verbal method, to the receiver that decodes the message.” These
were the missing elements from the projects examined earlier, as those projects
didn’t have the flow of information, and due to that any information that was
distributed wasn’t encoded effectively for project teams to understand. Particularly,
in the Saudi Arabia project as two different project teams were from different parts
of the world and needs encoding of information in order to interact with one
another effectively.
1.3 Communication Issues
Communication in general and not just in project management has various issues,
which cause it to fail. One of the biggest factors in failure of delivery in regards to
effectively distributing information is the inability to have feedback. According to
Engelbrecht A, (2010) there is an illustration that feedback within communication
will allow the flow of information to be shared or distributed within a project team.
As feedback, gives the project team members to monitor and review various actions
or tasks within the project. This allows planning to develop a lot more and in an
effective way in a project, which then outlines a much clearer scope and aim of the
project, for the project team members to work on. However, if feedback isn’t their in
a project or isn’t as effective then this can cause information to be misunderstood
and can lead to various tasks within a project going wrong. In the long run this lead
to a lack of trust within project co-member and allow conflicts to arise when aims
and objectives of the project are not being met.
Furthermore, Le Roux (1999) speaks similarly about the specific issue in
communication, which is feedback, however it explains it as reviewing. Le Roux
(1999) says that communication is not functional when it’s isolated, as it requires a
process. Hence, internal and external communication need reviews to set mutual

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goals and objectives as inability to construct such a process could cause a project to
fail, especially large-scale project where there are many levels of hierarchy.
Communication can also be an issue in project management when it’s ineffective in
terms of delivery of information or data. The reason for ineffective communication
in projects can occur due to inadequate flow of information, which can mean that
tasks and analytical processes may not be defined properly and there is uncertainty
regarding responsibility, which can cause the scope and objectives of the project to
fail, as there is no definitive focus. Talukhaba et al, (2011) explains that in order to
manage a project effectively, there is a need to focus on selling and reselling ideas,
where the focus has to be on regular explanation of project scope and
methodologies. As this will keep hindering over project teams throughout there
project journey and allow them to have a clear-cut focus on the aims and objectives.
All together, Talukhaba et al, (2011) meaning is for project managers to act as alarms
to their project teams by reminding them about the task in hand, so all the tasks are
done to an effective and efficient level.
1.4 Communication Challenges and Impact
There are many communication challenges that occur in project management and
no more than “electronic communication”. Schahaf, 2008 claims that due to
technological advancement, project are now becoming IT Projects and one of the
most recurring challenges in communication is misunderstanding of communication
due to the distribution of international teams. Correspondingly, electronic
communication is very much reliant on power and due to power shortages or
breakdowns; this can cause the project team member to feel anxiety, leading to
conflicts between project team members. Sarker and Sahay, (2003) relates to the
statement above as electronic communication is about projects with virtual teams
and the major power in those projects is the software which is used to communicate
with. The breaking down of the software can cause teams to feel isolated and they
are unable to covey information, which in the long run will lead to misunderstanding
of task, allowing conflicts to arise.

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In IT projects, the use of technology plays a vital part in the success of the project
and due to that some of the critical challenges arise as overloading of emails and
protocols can lead to a delay in response, which can create an obstacle in developing
a confortable environment to initiate a project (De Sanctis & Monge, 1999). Thus,
this can cause further delays in the project scope and objectives, which are the core
point of a project. As mentioned earlier about feedback by Le Roux (1999) that
alternatively feedback will also be delayed if the responses are delayed due to failure
in electronic communication and this can cause implications to team performance.
Furthermore, face-to-face transference of information is also a major challenge in
projects, especially global projects. Stawnicza, (2014) illustrates that face-to-face
interaction is the “highest level of richness” in communication in regards to project
management, explaining that it’s a major requirement for project success. In regards
to global projects, there can be a lack of face-to-face communication, which can
weaken the trust between project team members and can also cause a lot of de-
motivation within the team. Due to all these issues occurring, Stawnicza, (2014)
states that this can cause less corporation in the project teams, which has significant
impact on large scale projects and can eventually cause divisions within co-members
causing a negative effect on the scope of the project.
To conclude, communication is distributed into many sectors such as transferring of
information, data, face-to-face interaction and electronic communication via emails.
All these sectors of communication have their implications as listed earlier in the
study. The major issues in regards to these types of communication is that they are
not used effectively as due to technological advancement, face-to-face interaction
levels have lowered in projects especially large scale projects. This in the long-run
causes levels of anxiety as explained earlier by Schahaf, 2008, which also coincides
with De Sanctis & Monge, 1999 stating that overloading of emails and protocol can
also lead to delayed response as information that is being communicated isn’t
physically being said. Furthermore, both the above issues combine and present the
major issue, which is ineffective distribution of information and how that can cause
projects to be delayed or even fail.

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1.5 Aims and Objectives
The aim of this research of this thesis is to explore communication theories and
investigation of the impact that face-to-face communication and electronic
communication have on projects with the purpose of determining the importance
that feedback has on communication and the impact that ineffective has electronic
and face-to-face communication
1.5.1 Research objectives
 To examine the literature in the 21st century on communication by analysing
communication theories and project management.
 To analyse communication in multi-cultural projects and to illustrate the link
between the two.
 To illustrate the impact and influence feedback has on communication in
global projects by looking at examples through literature and case studies.
 To make recommendations and draw upon a conclusion from the study of
literature and evaluation of research about the challenges of electronic and
face-to-face communication and its influence on project management.
1.6 Research Scope and Structure
Communication as a whole is a very broad field and within communication there are
several of interesting areas of study, however the principal focus of this study is how
some of those areas in communication link with and influence project management.
Topics such as culture, leadership and sustainability are so broad ad have so many
areas of study that its almost not possible to explore them all. Hence, why this
research looks at two major kinds of communication in order to recognize the
influence of the area on projects, mainly with linking in global projects.
The research begins with the chapter of the literature review, which outlines some
very important areas of communication. The literature begins explaining the
academic side of literature, as it outlines some famous models, created by some
famous authors. The literature then discusses how communication is in multi-

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cultural projects as projects in the 21st century are most if not all multi-cultured. The
research then explores 5 case studies to highlight the issues that communication can
cause in real-life projects and the impact that it has or can escalate to. The literature
then outlines a few ways in communication should be handled by discussing
strategies and finally concludes with the outline of the study by explaining why this
kind of research took place.
Furthermore, the next chapter illustrates the methodology taken to achieve this
particular study. The methodology outlines the research philosophy chosen in the
study, as well the research approach taken to achieve the qualitative data required
to attain the aims and objectives. The chapter further explains the research
strategies chosen to conduct the following research, such as conducting interviews,
which is the ethnography approach, using grounded theory and analyzing existing
case studies those have already been evaluated. The methodology then illustrates
how the qualitative choice of research was made and what needs to be done to
achieve this particular type of research. Following on, the sampling area is described
in detail with explanations of the uses of project management journals and the
methodology chapter decisively concludes with the research time horizon,
explaining the time-scale that the research took and why.
The study then moves onto the data analysis of the research, here the dissertation
displays the gathered research in data form. The data here highlights the evidence to
support the thesis and the aims/objectives, the study here portrays the gathered
data and presents it in either graph or transcript form. The evidence is then fully
evaluated and related back to the literature findings of the research, which allows
the study to make a comparison between the literature gathered and external data
conducted.
The research then gradually moves onto recommendations, where the writer makes
recommendation as to what else could have been done differently if the research
was done again. Recommendations are also made on the research itself, such as the
theories gathered of communication and project management on the bases of the

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limitations of the research. Further on in the research, limitations and implications of
the study are also gathered and evaluated in terms of the manner in which the study
was conducted as well as the study itself.
The final chapter of the research study is the conclusion, where the study concludes
all of the research that its gathered and conducted. The conclusion is not a repetition
of the research findings or data, it simply an further analyses of the data and findings
with some opinions on the research by the comparison of various findings. That
concludes the dissertation research with just the references printed further on for
any possible future crosschecking.

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2.0 Literature Review
The succeeding chapter gives an understanding of communication in literature form
and discusses topics ranging from communication theories, which describe various
theories on communication in project management. The chapter then moves onto
looking at multi-cultural communication and showcases the importance of multi-
cultural projects and how communication can be a major issue in multi-cultural
teams. Then in relation to multi-cultural projects, the chapter explores the effects of
miscommunication in real-life projects by discussing 5 different projects around the
globe. To conclude the literature the chapter presents research of how
communication should be looked at and handle by drawing up research from
different authors.
2.1 Communication Theories
“Communication is widely regarded as the key to successful implementation of
organisational change”. The importance of communication processes in shaping
organisational phenomena (such as organizational IT implementation projects) and
changing individual cognition of change such that it is accepted and enacted
appropriately (Lewis et al, 1998). Adequate interaction, especially face-to-face is a
bare minimum requirement for IT projects, especially as project team members are
working with colleagues from various locations without physically seeing them.
Given that low amounts of interaction is rated very highly in regards to IT project
failure, it’s adequate that it remains or it should be a central to projects.
Furthermore, Vann, (2004) argues that “clashing grammars”, or different language
used by technical and project management specialists making up IT project
management teams and that used by user groups affected by the system
implementation, is implicated in many of the many behaviours typically described as
resistance. Given this, it follows that project managers need a deep appreciation and
understanding of information processes, as well as skills in the practical art of
communicating.

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2.1.1 Shannon and Weaver Model
The major understanding of a communication process within projects arrives from
the “Shannon and Weaver, (1949)” model. Vikkelsø, (2005) explains a
communication process model by Shannon and Weaver (1964) of information
transmitter. This model consists of different types of stages, which occur during
communication in order to explain the reader a basic communication process.
The model is shown below in fig.1.1:
The way, in which the model works is that the information source selects a desired
message, which may be written, spoken or consist of images, those translate a
meaning. In terms of project management, this would be a message to conduct or
complete a task. The process works in the way that a transmitter transforms the
message into an indicator, where the communication network passes that indicator
to the receiver, and then the receiver converts the indicator back into a message and
delivers the message to its desired destination. The one negative side to the model
is that the indicator may summon other information or data in, which can cause the
message to be misinterpreted, causing ineffective information to be transferred. In
relation to project management, the project manager may ask the team members to
perform a certain task, however, as the information gets past along the message
may get changed slightly, which could in the long-run cause the project major harm
(Winthereik & Vikkelsø, 2005).
The model goes onto examine the process of information flow within a project or an
organisation and recently the model has been going changes to add a “feedback”
loop, which corresponds with the Introduction of study. On the other hand,

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Schramm complained that the Shannon-Weaver mode had failed to take into
account influence of social contexts or the 'shared field of experience' in human
communication.
Shannon and Weaver, (1964) also discuss that the components of the model
illustrated above must be looked at intensively when considering project
management. In relation to the process that the model outlines, the sender is
reliable for making sure that the information sent or delivered is clear and complete,
which then allows the receiver to take the information correctly and understand it in
the manner it was intended to. The receiver then has the responsibility to make sure
that the information they received is completely understood and is fully correct, and
acknowledged. A failure in this process will cause a negative effect or impact on the
project.
2.1.2 Galle’s Model of Communication
In the context of project management, Galle’s model of communication offers
further insights into communication within project management. Galle (1999)
discusses his theory, adapted here to the framework of project management,
suggests that in order to arrive at the final outcome or conclusion of an IT project in
terms of both delivery of a product and business value, the key processes involve
both production and interpretation of ideas amongst key stakeholders, supported by
appropriate artefacts, which in the case of project management are the project team
members and project sponsors.
Following on, the language game or method is vital in success of a IT project, which
translates to the fact that the project team members and external parties involved
will distribute or deliver information in their own manner in order to make them feel
confortable, which is explained by Wittgenstein, (1967). It is vital that project team
members work around this and build bonds in order to have effective dialogue
within the project. However, when ‘thrown together’ for the purpose of
implementing innovative IT systems for instance, dialogue between and amongst
these groups may become more complex, misinterpretations and misunderstandings
can occur, as participants fail to realize others may be relying on different language

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games or methods, and thus not sharing their interpretations of events, nor having
insights into their intentions for their dialogue.
2.1.3 Function model of communication
Moving aside from project management solely, the process of information and data
delivery also assists in bringing in organizational change, which has long-term effect
on organizational projects. Changes in the organization are primarily its (working)
culture and communication of data, which plays a big part in controlling the change.
De Ridder, (2003) states that communication has two roles to help in bringing
positive organizational change, from which the one of the roles is to convey to the
employees about their roles with the organization and project, alongside any
changed or upcoming polies and the second role is to produce a means of
information process that brings together community, allowing information to flow
from one another. This allows the team members who are involved in various
projects in the organization to gain a “social identity”.
Following on, Elving (2005) draws a function model of communication in regards to
organizational change to illustrate the effects about delivery of dialogue on
organizational change. The model is divided into five stages, which are as follows;
firstly there is the first type of communication, which is to inform and then there is
the second type, which is to create a community as mentioned earlier by De Ridder,
(2003). Furthermore, these two types of communication are used to settle down any
uncertainty of job security, which is caused by the implementation of change. Once
the change is accepted and uncertainty over job security is settled, then the
organization gets ready for the implementation of change, which in the long run
leads to effective change as communication led to organizational team members
avoiding any uncertainty over job security, due to change.
Fig. 1.2 The conceptual model of function communication (During organizational
change)

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2.2 Multi-cultural Communication
Multi-cultural projects are becoming much more common nowadays and especially
in the construction industry as many firms are trying to pick global talent to keep
them competitive in todays market. Many studies have shown the positive effect of
having multi-cultural teams, such as, Earley and Mosakowski (2000) stated that
multicultural teams are used as they have the ability to out-perform monoculture
teams, especially when the requirement is of multiple skills and judgement.
However, its not all well and good with multi-cultural project teams, as due to the
widespread locations of the team, it can become really problematic to work
effectively and efficiently due to cultural ethical working differences. The statement
is supported by Rijamampianina and Carmichael, (2005) who research about a
human resource management firm in South Africa, stating how the organisation did
not take into account cultural differences, which meant that employees in the
organisation had various ways of working. The company had offices spread out all
over the African continent and due to that weekly meetings could only be done
through Skype, which caused anxiety between staff members, as when tasks weren’t
being completed, they couldn’t physically demonstrate the method to other staff
members in the organisation due to location differences.
In relations to the above, due to globalisation, many projects around the world are
now being dealt through technology rather than physically. Globalisation has led to
projects being conducted internationally with various kinds of people and due to
that, IT projects are flourishing. In regards to IT projects, many firms are saving on
costs such as traveling and physically meeting, however, IT projects have had various
issues in the recent years. The major issues those have occurred in IT projects,
especially overseas IT projects are uncertainty, unknown identity and
interdependence as talked about by Lewis, (2006), which translates to members
having indecisions, allowing them to not distribute efficient information as they are
unsure about their work, leading to incorrect decisions being made. These issues
have come into play due to the failure of integrating effective flow of knowledge
within these projects.

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Furthermore, the geographical location of multi-cultural project teams, posses its
very own challenges in regards to delivery of information and data. Emmitt and
Gorse (2007) has studied that many communicational issues have been resolved
from multi-cultural project teams, such as telecommunications where the usage of
email and Skype allows project teams to communicate with one another from
various parts of the world, however some communicational issues such as direct
delivery of speech and signals remain unresolved. Emmitt and Gorse (2007)
articulates that the “loss of face-to-face communication can lead to
misunderstanding and the loss of non-verbal signals – such as eye contact and body
language”. This consequently will lead to major implications in achieving mutual
trust and confidence within multicultural project teams, it can also become
extremely difficult to manage or even supervise multicultural project teams without
face-to-face contact. This then hinders chances of building client relationships, which
then affect the project as whole in a negative way.
As Earley and Mosakowski (2000) mention earlier that project teams have a working
culture, they discuss how distribution of information is used to build that culture.
The stimulation of effective information and data encourages a strong working
culture in a project, although individuals have various different perceptions of ways
of communicating and this can cause conflicts in the long run. This is where Ochieng
& Price (2010) illustrate how many individuals are resistant to change and different
types of communication can cause them to retaliate as they may be told to
communicate and work in a manner in which they are nit suited to or feel
confortable with, this can break a team moral and hinder more damage on a project,
especially large scale projects.
2.3 Communication issues in projects
Research illustrates that in extreme scenarios, misinterpretation of information and
data in projects in general has such a catastrophic affect as researched by Hass
(2007) that USA in 2006, 65% of projects had either failed or gone over time and
budget. This ended up costing the US businesses over $30 billion due to application
failure leading to misunderstanding of information. Following on, Hass (2007)

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mentions how many of these projects were missing a loop of management; where as
flow of information would travel across projects or even organizations as mentioned
earlier in the study by Galle’s model of communication (1999).
In relation to the above, James et al, (1998) discusses how construction firms tend to
less communication methods within their hierarchy systems. Meaning that many
construction companies, especially in the UK prefer or have a high level of face-to-
face communication. The reason being that, due to the high levels of risk in
construction projects, face-to-face communication narrows down the chance of it
leading to misinterpretation of dialogue, which could lead to catastrophe within
construction projects. This interlinks with Limaye and Victor (1991) stating how it’s
the completely opposite for Middle Eastern firms, which doesn’t allow that
management loop to build and have a steady flow of information when working on
cross-cultural projects. (Hass, 2007)
2.3.1 Project Africa – 1
In project management, the process of delivering information and knowledge very
much coincides with culture as the approach of delivering information is done
according to the culture of the project or the project team members. Ndiritu & Lynn
(2003) talks about a couple of projects in the African continent those had issues due
to communication from cultural differences. The first project that Ndiritu & Lynn
(2003) mentions is the “Cut-Flower Project” in Uganda, where the project was failing
due to it being poorly capitalised and having weak management. The scope of the
project was very poorly delivered within the project team members even though the
business plan and structure was designed to a very good level. Ndiritu & Lynn (2003)
also states that the African culture is very much based on “High Power Distance”
founded by Hofstede, (1984).
The failure of the projects leads to failure of information distribution within the co-
members. The project owners in this case were very reluctant to discuss further
objectives and aims of the project with the co-members, as they feared for loss of
control of the project. Hence, the high power distance is very much a cultural factor

25
in the African culture, which has caused poor levels of delivery within the project
and leads it to be poorly handled.
The conclusion of the “Cut-Flower Project” was that it was completed, however, it
was done very poorly and Ndiritu & Lynn (2003) says that the project owners had
firstly implemented ideas beyond the scope of the project, henceforth mentioned
earlier that the scope of the project was not fully clarified to the co-members and
due to the fear of loss of power in regards to the culture of the owners, issues were
not distributed or even distributed around the project.
2.3.2 Project Africa – 2
Similarly, Ndiritu & Lynn (2003) also discusses the ICDC project in Kenya, which is
more of an internal organisational project, rather than a singular project. The project
stands for “The Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation”, here the firm
is trying to separate management from ownership and trying to implement
processes for further business development, which can aid the company in gaining
better results. Ndiritu & Lynn (2003) speaks about the issues those occurred in the
firm that this project had to be evolved.
The organisation had owners, who also came under management and due to the
high levels of power distance Hofstede, (1984) in the African culture, they didn’t
delegate tasks as much, which led to the interaction levels between the
management and staff being low and poor. The firm then due to this experienced
some negative results as the company had 41 equity investments, out of which 12
went into liquidation. This occurred as there was overload of work that the owners
had taken on and not delegated it around the firm, which led to the work being over
due and causing this negative effect. Due to the lack of interaction between the
owners and staff, the firm then decided to split the management from ownership, so
that way managers/project managers can interconnect more often with their co-
members and achieve future aims and objectives effectively.

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2.3.3 IT Projects
As mentioned earlier in the study, that IT projects are the ones that have major
issues in relation to delivering precise information within them as they have
involvement of teams from around the globe. Carvalho & Laurindo (2008) talks
about a study that he conducted on an organisation that has a turnover of R$ 700
million, with 2,500 employees and carries out large size projects on a regular basis.
In one of the projects that the firm carried out, had particularly major implications
due to transferring of data, as the project was done globally, which involved team
members from around the globe. Carvalho & Laurindo (2008) doesn’t give in many
details as to what major implications were caused due to communication, other than
the fact that the project was not as efficient and the international clients were not
very pleased with the performance of the project team members, which caused the
firm a lot in revenue.
Carvalho & Laurindo (2008) states that the reason for project failure came about due
to three major reasons, which the organisation recognised after the project, had
come to an end. The three reasons were, that there was difference in language
between systems and business, which led to a difference in perception and due to
that their was a lot of misunderstanding of tasks during the project. The firm then
also realised that they didn’t plan for project delivery, when they believe should
have, as there was over 80% of co-operating with clients overseas.
In the end Carvalho & Laurindo (2008) illustrates some of the points that the
company is setting out, which can help them perform much better in future projects
such as:
 Preparing a formal meeting plan
 Holding monitoring meetings, but previously scheduled between participants
 Preparing minutes from the meetings and distributing them to everyone
interested in the project
 Using, with common sense, emails to publicize project progress.

27
To conclude the project, Ruuska and Vartiainen (2003) state that “a project as a
complex work system in which human elements, organizations, procedures and
techniques are integrated with communication”. The statement relates with the
above project, as the project should have integrated all the tasks with effective
interaction, which would have allowed the project to be performed much better.
2.3.4 APC–YRTSB Hotel Project (China)
In construction projects, face-to-face interaction is more essential than almost
anywhere else as there is a much higher risk proportion involved and uses of many
resources. In a case study by Pheng, (2000), it illustrates how a construction project
in China of the APC–YRTSB hotel took a much longer time period to build/complete
than anticipated due to the failure of cross-cultural interaction. The project itself had
workers from various parts of China and as the hotel was preparing to welcome
customers from various parts of the world, its project managers were liaising with
other hotels around the globe to build a partnership.
The author states that the Chinese followed “one-way communication” process,
where they would only pay attention to their contractor, who was in charge of
providing all the construction, installation and design services. This led to the
company entering alliances those do not suit their interest. Furthermore, the firm
was then collaborating with businesses that they didn’t need to liaise with, which in
the end caused the project to be delayed and also run over budget, as the scope of
the project was not clear from the outset. The firm then ended all ties with firms it
was liaising with that had to profit towards this project, which ended up costing the
organisation much more than anticipated and led to the project being well over
budget.
However, Pheng, L. S. (2000) talks about having a ‘two-way communication’, where
the project managers would interact with their partners and build the scope of the
project around that, which would assist the project staff to gain better insight and
this is exactly what APC–YRTSB hotel did by paying more attention to their Chinese
partners, in order to complete future construction projects on time. Liaising with

28
their Chinese partners would help the hotel execute their project and build the hotel
that will be suitable for all foreign customers.
2.3.5 Persian Gulf Construction Project
As mentioned earlier in research, a construction project in The Persian Gulf had also
experienced issues in inter-cultural interaction, as UK construction companies those
were looking to operate in Persia could grasp effective flow of information straight
away. Here, Loosemore & Muslmani (1999) states that UK construction companies
failed to co-operate with their Arabic counter parts due to cultural differences. In the
Arab world, you must converse with Arab clients in some Arabic language to gain
their trust, only then you can work well with them. The author here makes an
analysis that during the late 1990’s, the UK construction industry was in decline as
there were not many construction projects available. The opportunity arose for UK
construction firms to seek out projects in the gulf of Persia, as this was a growing
market with major opportunities to exploit.
Loosemore & Muslmani (1999) illustrates that even though the UK firms conducted
projects in the Persian Gulf, those projects still weren’t as successful as they would
have expected them to be. The main reasons for those project encountering trouble
was issues with inter-cultural collaboration, as the Arabic clients have certain ways
of working, this caused many tasks in the projects to be delayed. Limaye and Victor
(1991) researched about Arabic culture and explain how there are certain factors
that need to be considered when doing business with them, such as very less eye-
contact, not shouting and have a very family orientated atmosphere within the
team. The author’s mention that these factors are not very much used in the
western world, hence alliance issues will occur when doing businesses with Arabic
clients.
The projects in the end had been delayed due to the flow of information being slow
and late. This then caused a lot of objectives to be held back as there were some
conflicts within the projects teams from the UK and the Persian Gulf, while delivering

29
information data. In the end the projects, just as the earlier ones mentioned in the
dissertation, ran over time, which ended up costing the firm a lot more than
expected and this caused the project to go over budget, as stated by Loosemore &
Muslmani (1999). The projects were completed, however, due to co-operation
issues, some UK firms had withdrawn businesses from the Persian clients, reducing
the amount of foreign projects in Persia, which has led the nation to conduct its very
own domestic projects and work with Arabic firms.
On the other hand, Loosemore & Muslmani (1999) suggests that gaining trust is the
best way to work in cross-cultural construction projects as this will then lead to the
foreign project team members to correspond much more effectively and work
towards the success of the project. The trust factor will allow the project members
to interact in the same way as the culture tells them to depending on which type of
client they are dealing with.
2.3.6 AEI Project
Project management culture is based on the team ethics and workmanship, which
then creates the path for success in a project and allows the project manager to
handle future hurdles. Kerzner, H (2013) talks about a research project about
development materials that was being conducted by the “American Electronics
International”. In 2002 the organisation won the chance to deliver this project and
decided to use the matrix approach to conduct this project and in the proposal stage
of the project, the project manager decided to hold a meeting, which will look to
satisfy customer requirements and delegate tasks to each management member to
shift the project from the proposal stage to the planning and execution stage
successfully.
The project was already half completed and so far it was a great success, with all the
aims and objectives being met and also the budget being controlled. In the latter
stages of the project, the current project manager had to leave the project due to
personal circumstances, which mean that a new project manager was assigned. The

30
team was still working at a good pace and effectively, however, the new project
manager liked to work at his own pace and during a meeting, the project sponsor
had asked the project manager for the project report and the project manager had
failed to produce it. Therefore, this would lead to many conflicts and
misunderstanding between the project sponsor and manager in the latter stages of
project.
Furthermore, meetings were cancelled in the project as due to laid back attitude of
the new project manager and this led to project staff not interconnecting enough
with their project manager and as the project was going from the controlling stage
to the closing stage, this would cause many implication. Kerzner, H (2013) then
states how the project went into the closing stage and all tasks those were nearing
completion, still had much work left to do and due to less co-ordination between
project team members, more and more work was being delayed.
In the end, the project did reach its completion stage eventually and what had
looked like a perfectly stable and efficient project, in the end turned out to be a
disaster, as some of the aims weren’t met such as client satisfaction, as the project
was dealing with many electronic firms and those firms were very disappointed as
the project looked to be successful but then had a major downfall. Due to this some
project staff had left the project, as they didn’t want to work under the new project
manager to due to working cultural differences. The project manager was eventually
let go off and “American Electronics International” failed to secure another large-
scale project for then next few years. Kerzner, H (2013) mentions how the new
project manager failed to even interconnect with its staff through emails, which in
the end led to the project culture being very conservative and leading the project to
be a failure.
2.4 Communication Methods
“The realm of mistakes that can be made related to communication is boundless” as
stated by Cervone, (2014). The author discusses how there are various

31
communication issues and to name them all would be impossible, therefore here
outlines some of the major ones that do have an adverse impact on a project.
To begin with Cervone, (2014) lays out and describes 3 major implications from not
having efficient interaction during a project life cycle:
 Not differentiating stakeholder needs – During a project life cycle, the teams
will come across various different stakeholders and they won’t all have a
monolithic way of thinking. Different stakeholder will have various methods
of working and engagement level in the project. Subsequently, project teams
need to consider different ways and forms of co-operating, which will be
effective on different stakeholders.
 Overlooking cultural differences – As mentioned earlier that different
project groups work differently and due to projects having teams from all
around the globe, not all working styles will be the same. Hence, a project
that solely plans on interacting with its team through blogs or emails may not
be acceptable in other working cultures, which will in the long-run lead to
issues arising and affecting the project in a large-scale manner.
 Not recognizing the need to change communication over time – During a
project life cycle, the levels of interaction changes depending on what phase
the project is in. During the start of the project, what was said may not be
implemented in the correct manner as aims and objectives may have been
altered. In regards to this, if there is no feedback mechanism and flow of
information is similar to how it was at the start of the project, then not
enough or efficient flow of information will be passed around in the project
for it to be a success.
Following on, Cervone, (2014) talks about two strategies, which can be implemented
in order to have effective collaboration in a project. The first strategy it states is to
have engagement of all stakeholders throughout the project; in this manner every
stakeholder is being informed throughout the project as well as engaging in the
project. This is the long-run helps build a communication loop, which is a pathway
for the feedback mechanism mentioned earlier in the thesis and allows the project

32
to run its course. The second strategy Cervone, (2014) explores is to have less
passive communication, which correlates to emails and podcasts. Cervone, (2014)
states that passive communication can allow less engagement for stakeholders in a
project, which leads to the lack of concentration. However, face-to-face
communication, telephones, video conferences or even presentation will allow
stakeholders to engage more in a project and eventually producing their best work
for the welfare of the project.
2.4.1 Communication framework
In relation to the above about sufficient distribution of information or information
strategies by Cervone, (2014) the author Wellman, (2012) states that effective flow
of dialogue assists a project to thrive under difficult circumstances and one of the
many ways to have an effective dialogue in projects those are struggling, is to “over
communicate”. This aids the project teams to immediately respond to change and
successful projects are usually those, which respond to change. This type of
interaction also helps build a strong team culture in a project (Wellman 2012).
Following on, Johannessen, & Olsen (2011) draw upon a framework, which describes
four types of communications, which interlink and this requirement in project
management is essential to implement a successful project. The framework is
illustrated below:
Fig.1.3 Communication capabilities framework

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Firstly, the ‘economic/technical’ communication is a type of interaction, which is
used for current situations. This type of communication is considered to be a
“feedback communication”, as the project manager must define the boundaries set
in the project, resources being used in the project and then gains the information
back in regards to whether or not the project is being constructed in the manner in
which it was communicated. Secondly, ‘management communication’ is a detailed
type of co-operation, where the project manager must focus and deliver instructions
on detail and the correct allocation of resources. This helps gain control of the
project, which assists the economic/technical communication to give feedback.
Thirdly, ‘cultural communication’ plays an integral part in project management
success. This type of delivery sets a system in the project, which enables the team
member and project managers to adapt to unseen change; those can hinder the
project as cultural communication moulds the surroundings into the system. This
system is about exchanges experiences, bringing innovation into the project and
learning from outcomes. The final and the fourth type of communication is ‘social
communication’, which is interaction in the system as a whole. Here the role of
communication is to remain effective through stability and change, therefore,
promoting innovation, dynamism and creativity in the project. Social communication
integrates with all the other three types of communication as it looks at the system
of communication is projects as a whole (Johannessen & Olsen, 2011).
2.5 Conclusion
To conclude the literature of the study, all the issues discussed above relate to one
central factor, which is communication. Beginning from the issues of delivery of
information to the interaction with overseas clients, all issues relate to
communication, which is a huge factor in project success and failure. The theme of
the research was to highlight the issues within communication in project
management, which is very significant as many projects fail or are unsuccessful due
to these issues as explained earlier by exploring various projects around the globe
such as the Persian Gulf construction project researched by Loosemore & Muslmani

34
(1999), where due to ineffective interaction between two parties, the project in the
end was unsuccessful. Similarly, this issue also caused the AEI Project to be very
unstable and ineffective as Kerzner, H (2013) explained how not enough face-to-face
interconnection occurred in the project, which meant many meetings and plans
were cancelled, leading the project to be unsuccessful.
The study tries to explain this by listing various reasons as to why communication
leads to so many issued within project management. The research study compiles
together many descriptions by authors such as Earley and Mosakowski (2000) who
talk about cultural issues being the main cause of problems in projects from
communication, as projects now contain members that have different working styles
and how that can cause conflicts as it builds form anxiety from not being able to
demonstrate something to one another. Furthermore, the study mentions how
communication issues can be caused by something as simple as the lack of face-to-
face communication stated by Emmitt and Gorse (2007). The author also mentions in
the research that due to the lack of face-to-face interaction, the stimulation of a
project weakens, causing it to be ineffective, as many project staff will not have to
motivation to work.
The research has a huge a part in illustrating the means of information and
interaction by discussing communication theories. The study explained the meaning
of communication by describing two major models in academia in firstly the
Shannon and Weaver (1964) and Galle’s model of communication (1999). The
models explain how communication is described in academic terms, for instance the
Shannon and Weaver model illustrates a process, which describes how information
is passed along effectively and how it’s important to keep that information as clear
as possible, so the information can reach the desired destination and be seen as
successful flow of communication. Following on, Galle’s model also discusses the
importance of having a effective flow of information, however this model explores
more side of stakeholders by highlighting there importance in the project and how
information should be distributed differently to different stakeholder depending on
how each stakeholder receives and interprets information.

35
Ultimately, the goal of the study is explain to the issues of communication, especially
in multi-cultural projects as all projects in the future will be multi-cultural and the
importance of the discussion is that communication comes in various forms and as
there will be plenty of communicating in multi-cultural projects, future projects need
to be aware of the negative effects that communication have on them. The study has
structured it self a in a way in which it begins by explaining the term
“communication” in academia and then moves on to discussing various forms of
communication in multi-cultural projects and how then can be real issues. The study
then moves onto illustrating the effects of poor communication by exploring real life
projects in 5 case studies, the study then breaks down into explaining how those
issues can be dealt with by examining some important points by Cervone, (2014) on
the project life cycle and Johannessen, & Olsen (2011) on how to build a
communication framework to work around.

36
3.0 Methodology
The foremost purpose of this chapter is to summarise and justify the methodology
chosen to conduct this particular research. Also to deliver an explanation of the
methods used during the progression of this study and samples from which data was
gathered.
3.1 Introduction
The methodology is designed to address the most important question in the study
that is going to be conducted, ‘how shall I gather my research’? The methodology
will consist of the following headings from the “research onion” to explain how the
dissertation research has been conducted; Research philosophy and rationale,
research approach, research strategies, research choices, time horizon, data
collection/data analyses, limitation/problems caused in the research and anticipated
time the research took (Saunders, 2012).
Fig. 1.4 – Research onion by Saunders, (2012).

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3.2 Research philosophy
Johnson and Clark (2006) state that as a business researcher, the student must be
aware of philosophical commitments they make, as this helps us to understand the
choice of research strategy we intend to make. This has a significant impact on not
just what we do but also how we do it and whether we understand the study being
investigated. This particular study has taken the path of ‘Interpretivism’ as the study
looks to achieve the research objective. The reasoning behind conducting this
particular philosophy is because the study required qualitative data and in depth
investigations of case studies those have already been written about the research
topic. The methodology approach in this research is of content analysis; it’s an
approach to the analysis of documents and texts that seeks to measure background
in terms of fixed categories and in an efficient and replicable manner (Bryman and
Bell 2007). The content research analyses looks at consumer behaviour, which
involves printing materials and more importantly verbal and non-verbal
communications. It is skilled at determining relationships between different
concepts, which in this case will be used on project management journal articles as
well as business management articles, which relate to the topic of “communication”.
The project management journals used are from 1999-2010, which covers a 10/11-
year period and other business journals, which range from the past two decades.
Furthermore, the prime research method is the qualitative method, which will is
used throughout the study. The type of research that has been taken to conduct this
particular study is “Interpretivism” as mentioned earlier and Interpretivism can be
signified as the Social Constructionism in the field of management research.
According to this philosophical approach research give importance to their beliefs
and value to give sufficient explanation for a research problem (Cooper, 2006).
Through the help of this philosophical, researchers focus to highlight the real facts
and figures according to the research problem. This kind of philosophical approach
understand specific business situation. In this approach, researchers use slight
sampling and evaluate them in detail to understand the views of large people (Kasi
2009).

38
The research is solely based on qualitative research and research of theories by
various authors on the research topic, which in this case is “Communication” in
relation to project management over the past two decades. The journals analyzed
give theories and concepts, which have been put into “selective coding” to refine the
theory and give it more meaning to the reader. Strauss and Corbin (1998) describe
selective coding as refining and integrating emergent theories and/or concepts to
illustrate to the reader, as to what the theory describes in terms of the research
topic.
Fig. 1.5 The four management research philosophies
Saunders, A (2012)

39
3.3 Research Approach
The dissertation is observing the role of communication research within project
management, with the use of project management journals from 1999-2010, use of
many other business journals which relate to communication in organisations and
few communication journals those illustrate general understanding of the concept of
communication. In order to achieve this particular research, the approach taken
from Saunders, A (2012) is an inductive approach. This allows the research to
gradually build overtime; it gives the researcher and the reader a close context of
the research and it allows a structure to be built to permit changes of the research,
as the research progresses. Finally, one of the most important part of this research,
it allows the study to collect qualitative data, which is one of the reasons that this
study isn’t a deductive study as the inductive patterns of this study don’t allow the
research to build a hypotheses, as its an exploratory thesis.
As research illustrates that the study is going on the Interpretivism route, which
requires the study to go down the inductive pathway. Goddard and Melville (2004)
state that inductive research involves observations and development of explanation
in theories, as the study doesn’t know what type of methodology it will follow. Fig
1.6 is displaying something called a “bottom up” approach, as there are no theories
to begin with but may evolve as the study carries on, plus no theory pattern need to
be tested before conducting the study.
Fig. 1.6 Bottom up inductive approach
Goddard and Melville (2004)

40
3.4 Research Strategies
As the majority of following research is of qualitative data, therefore, the following
steps that have been taken to achieve those data throughout the research are:
3.4.1 Grounded Theory
This is the best example of an inductive approach research. In grounded theory, data
collection is begun without a framework; observing a series of data generates
theory. Once many theories have been observed and looked at, the researcher then
comes up with choices of theories that it will implement in his/her study and look for
various other studies, which replicate or even argue the theories researched by the
researcher to build a literature review. Furthermore, various coding methods are
required to conduct a grounded theory and in this study, there are two types of
coding methods chosen, which is open coding and selective coding as mentioned
earlier in the research philosophy section. Strauss and Corbin (1998) illustrate the
process of open coding as breaking down, comparing, examining and categorizing
collected data. On the other hand, selective coding is refining an emergent theory
and making it central, which in this case are “Communication” and other theories
are generated in comparison to the core theory.
3.4.2 Ethnography
Ethnography is the study of social interfaces, behaviors, and observations that occur
within teams, groups, communities and organizations. The fundamental aim of
ethnography is to offer holistic insights into people’s views and actions, as well as
the nature that is, sights, sounds of the location they occupy, through the collection
of detailed interpretations, discussions and interviews (Saunders, A. 2012). In this
case the study has observed two major organizations in different parts of the world,
in order to make a comparative analyses. The study has had discussions with project
managers and team members in “Adobe India” located in New Delhi, the capital city
of India. The discussions were about the researched topic of communication and
how much of an influence it has on the projects that are conducted within the firm.
Furthermore, another firm observed is “The Authentic Food Company”, which is a

41
frozen food supplier in the United Kingdom in Manchester and carries out various
projects around the world, including China, India and Germany. The discussions in
this firm were also with various project team members from various department on
how influential and important communication is, when carrying out international
projects. The study will look at the difference between the communication influence
and importance between these two firms, in order to evaluate the research topic of
communication in finding out its importance in project management in practice. The
study will interview 9 project managers from the two firms combined, and it will ask
them questions from a questionnaire built to gain relevant data for this study via
research. The questionnaire will be attached on to the appendix, as well as the
transcript of the interview, with an addition of confirmation letters from the both
firms confirming that the interviews have taken place and that the permission has
been granted to take the interviews.
3.4.3 Case Study Research
The study contains slight bit of case study research, as it does look at case studies
about construction projects from various parts of the world, in order to give the
study a general insight into how communication affected these projects and what
steps were taken to improve communication in these projects. However, due to
confidentiality issues, not many projects could be researched, which allowed the
research to study three different international projects from the time span of 1999-
2007, giving the study a general idea of communication issues that occur in various
projects around the world. Yin, R. K. (1984) describes the case study methodology as
“an understanding of a complex issue or object, which can extend experience or add
strength to what is already known through previous research”. Many researchers
over the years have used the case study methodology, however, due to this study
containing only three cases, researchers also believe that such a small amount of
research is invalid to provide any form of conclusion. Hence, the study mentions that
only a slight bit of case study methodology was adopted to give only a general
insight about construction projects and their issues with communication.

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3.5 Research Choice
The choice of research in this study is a qualitative one and "a qualitative approach
to research aims to understand how individuals make meaning of their social world.”
(Hesse-Biber, S. N. 2010) There are various methods of gaining qualitative research
and those methods can be discussions, journal research, interview and reading
theories. This gives the study a range of insight into the research question, especially
as it allows the study to build an argument and a comparative analysis to draw upon
a conclusion. The way in which Hesse-Biber, S. N. (2010) explanation about
qualitative research being able to be researched through a various of methods links
in to this particular dissertation is by this study using various journals from project
management to general business journals, as well as books and other article and
finally interviews with a couple of companies. All of these methods lead to the
results being interlinked with one another to form a dissertation research. Hesse-
Biber, (2010) illustrates in fig 1.7 about how methods of qualitative research relate
back to each area of the research, which gives the research a broad view of the study
conducted.
Fig. 1.7 Qualitative method design
Hesse-Biber, (2010)

43
3.6 Sample
In a content analysis, the research conducted can only be dependable if the
documents its being researched from is well used and popular between many
colleagues. As the researched is based on communication and project management,
various journals on these two topics have been researched throughout this study
and the intent is to only use journals based solely on these two topics.
3.6.1 International journal of Project Management
The International Project Management Association (IPMA) publishes this journal.
This is a non-profit project management firm and it embodies over 50 project
management associates from all over the globe, including the UK’s very own
association of project management (APM). Including the journal of project
management, the IPMA has been used in this research eleven times, and those
journals used have been from a time span from 1998-2010. This particular
association published any journals, which talk about the project management
practises that are happening around the world, various projects, further research
into new practises and it even has a forum from which project managers from
around the globe can discuss and share their skills.
3.6.2 Business Source Premier
The study has used “Business Source Premier” from Manchester Metropolitan
University to find six journal articles. Business source premier is an online library
service provided to students from many universities. The one used in this study is
from The Manchester Metropolitan University, which is one of the largest
universities in the UK in terms of students and campus size. Also, business source
premier provided from the university has numerous numbers of journals to search
from in any particular topic and the search engine in business source premier allows
the searcher to refine its search, so any journal on any specific topic can be
retrieved.

44
3.6.3 Overview
Looking at international journal of project management, it is fair to say that many
professionals use these journals across the globe and its safe to say that it’s the
leading journal for any research in project management. This outlines that the
research conducted in this study from these journals is reliable and critical in
analysing any topic in relation to project management. Moving on to business source
premier, this system as been embedded in many universities across the UK and is
used by thousands of students everyday. It’s fair to say that any sources of journals
gathered from here are also very much reliable. The dissertation also used journals
from “Google Scholar”, which is also a very trust worthy location to gain information
from, however, the only downside to Google Scholar is that sometimes the
researcher doesn’t get the journals it wants due to the broadness of the search
engine. Altogether, the research tries to gain as many journals as possible to make
the study as strong as possible, nevertheless, due to the time frame in which this
study has to completed, its not possible to analyse every single project management
or even communication journal. Therefore, the dissertation went simply for the IPM
journal, as it’s the leading journal in project management and helped gain this study
the information it needs.
3.7 Research Time Horizon
This dissertation study had a submission date of 8th of September and the
dissertation began on the 8th of June. Therefore the study had a time horizon of
being cross-sectional, where the study is more like a “snapshot”. Saunders, (2012)
says that cross-sectional study is a study on a particular phenomenon and most
academic courses undertake these study. Cross-sectional studies usually employ
survey strategies as well as interviews and also may employ qualitative
methodology.
This particular study has taken the qualitative methodology, as well as conducting
interviews as mentioned earlier, however, the study has also analysed a few case
studies, which means that study also contains some form of longitudinal study. The

45
reason being because analysing case studies, those have been researched over an
extensive period of time can also constitute of being a longitudinal method
(Saunders, A. 2012). Although, the most of the research is or will be classed as cross-
sectional as the study wasn’t conducted over a vast period of time.

46
4.0 Data Analysis/Collection
The succeeding chapter presents data collection and analyses throughout the course
of this research. The chapter has many parts in which it explains, the open/selective
coding, it then illustrates journal coding as well as the project management journal
coding done for the collection of the data for this research and it then condenses the
journals to communication journals and displays the coding for those journal articles.
The chapter then draws out coding for articles chosen to input information in the
research, then a model of communication shows expresses each topic used to get to
the final research question, in order to try and answer it. The chapter then moves
onto discussing about the interviews conducted, presents the data from the
interviews and then finally draws to a close by displaying the data collection
methods to demonstrate which type of method was used and why.
4.1 Open coding analysis
Open coding analysis is the initial phase of the coding process in terms of grounded
theory approach in qualitative research. The purpose of open coding is to begin from
raw data and break that data down into various segments, in order to interpret
them. The data that is broken down will form a basic unit for the research, which will
create a phenomenon for the study. There are three ways of conducting the open
coding analysis, which are line-by-line analysis, sentence or paragraph analysis and
perusing a whole document for data analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). The method
implemented in this dissertation study for open coding is paragraph analysis, to try
and locate any well-used term in relation to communication in project management.
4.2 Selective coding analysis
Selective coding is the latter stage of coding analysis of grounded theory approach of
qualitative data. The purpose of selective coding is to figure out the core variable
that includes all of the data. Selective coding come around when researcher has
decided which category is central to the research and when all the segments and
sub-segments are systematically linked with the core segment. Fig 1.8 illustrates

47
selective coding with all the sub-categories linking to the core category of a study in
a qualitative research. (Anselm, 1987)
Fig. 1.8 Selective coding and core category
Anselm, (1987)
4.2.1 Research Journal coding
The sample of journal articles covered were 156, each and every article abstract was
read thoroughly and analysed. The articles were searched for findings of
communication themes in project management, business and communication
theories. There was a contextual analysis of the journals done by searching for vital
words, themes or phrases of communication in management terms. This resulted in
the study picking in 39 journal articles were coded as “communication articles” for
management, the rest of the references used were books and online articles.
Following on from that, there were 12 journals categorized as “Project management
journals”, which meant that there was 22 journals were categorized as just plain and
simple “Communication journals”. Furthermore, that leaves only 5 journals, which
were “non-communication” articles, however, they were used because they had
links of communication in management study. In terms of all of the articles used 6 of
them were from “Business source premier” from the online library of Manchester
Metropolitan University and the rest were from “Google Scholar” and “Emerald
Journals of management”.

48
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
PM Journals picked
PM Journals Analysed
Fig. 1.9 represents a pie chart of open coding in journals used in the dissertation
study. The chart illustrates total number of articles used and divides the articles into
the categories of the type of articles that they are.
4.2.2 Project Management Journal Coding
Project management journals were used to make analysis on the project
management side of the research as 12 journals were used from an analysis of 59
project management journals. The 12 journals chosen were coded because they had
data and information about “Communication” on project management, which linked
perfectly with the research. The journals looked at were from the time line of 1994-
2014, which is time span of 20 years, however, the ones coded and selected were in
the time horizon of 1998-2010, which is a time span of 12 years.
Fig 2.0 Project Management journal coding
32%
58%
10%
Fig 1.9 Research Journal Coding
Project Management
Journal
Communication Journal
Non Communication
Journal

49
The above fig 2.0 illustrates the number of journals used in each year in comparison
to the journals analysed each year. The years between 1994-1997 and 2012-2014
don’t seem to be on the graph, as no journal was picked in those years to use in the
research. Although there are a few years in the graph shown as well where the
journals from those years were not picked to analyse and the reasoning behind that
is that those years fall in between the other years, so not including them would have
been near enough impossible. Furthermore, 6 journals were looked at or analysed in
1998, from which 2 were used as those included “Communication articles” and
similarly for 2005 where 6 journals were analysed and 2 were picked as they strong
links with “Communication in project management”. The rest of the years only 1
journal was picked to put into the study as only those journals had strong links with
the topic of “Communication”. Also as the research is about communication
organisational project as well as construction projects, the years in which only 1
journal was used, only they had data about communication in construction projects
and that’s what was required in the dissertation.
4.2.3 Communication Journal Coding
A further 22 journals were also used in the research from a selection of 97 other
journals analysed which were categorized as “Communication articles”. These
journals had strong links with communication, theories on communication and also
talked about communication is organisations and construction. The chosen 22
journals on communication also includes the 3 case studies used in the literature
about construction projects. A further 5 articles were also used in the study,
however, those articles were “non-communication articles” and their usage came
about as they minor links to communication, although they weren’t articles specially
about communication. Meaning that a total of 27 journal articles were used,
separate to the project management journal articles. There was no time horizon set
for these particular journal articles as communication as whole topic in management
was being searched and due to the study being qualitative, there was also a need to
find theories from past authors, which led to journals being searched from 1970 to
2013.

50
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1970
1972
1979
1989
1999
1995
1998
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Communication Articles
Articles Analysed
Non-Communication Articles
Fig 2.1 Communication Journal Coding
The above fig. 2.1 differentiates the communication articles analysed from the
communication articles chosen and the non-communication articles chosen. As it
should be, more articles were analysed than picked and one of the reasons for
choosing the articles those were chosen was because they contained information
regarding communication in either general projects or organisational projects. The
years not included in the graph must not be mistaken for not having any literature
about communication, as those years were not researched due to the information
being found in other journals in other years. The years in which many more journals
were analysed are the years in which the availability of those journals was a lot,
hence the usage of much more journals.
4.2.4 Articles Coding
The final trait of open coding data analyses is present on the table below in fig 2.2
illustrating the different articled searched to input information in various headings
within the research. As there were a total of 38 journals used, with 3 books and 1
online article, which equals to a total of 42 references used for only dissertation
research, the table below represents the coding for each journal and shows how
many articles were required to input data into each topic. The table shows the
popularity of topics within the topic of communication, illustrating the most journals
used for topics in the dissertation study. The table also illustrates project
management topics used in relation to communication, presenting a diverse

51
research on the topic of communication in project management. The topics listed
below are the main topics of the articles used in the research and not all of the
topics are listed as it been coded.
The topic-coding table outlines very clearly that most of the articles have been used
to cover the communication management topic, which is the topic that outlines the
importance of communication and its influence on projects. Furthermore, project
management is also a topic that has had many articles used on it, as it’s also a vital
part of the dissertation study and all the other topics have an almost similar articles
used on them for data collection, as they are important but not core.
Fig 2.2 Topic themes open coding
Topic Articles
Project Management 8
Communication Management 11
Organisational Communication 4
Project Communication 3
Construction Case Studies 3
Effective Communication 4
Non-Communication Articles 5
Fig 2.5 Model of Communication Management in Project Management
The model of communication in fig 2.3 illustrates the chose topics of this study and
how they have been combined to put into one-research question. The beginning two
topics are just on communication as whole, which then links into the project
management side of things, furthermore, the project management side of topics
spread out into various communication topics, which fulfil the literature on
communication in project management. All the topics then come to one conclusion
on stating the importance of communication and its influence on project
management, which tries to answer the dissertation research question.

52
4.3 Interview data collection/analyses
Conducting interviews was a large part of this dissertation study and there was
interviews conducted between two major firms as those firms had experienced and
qualified project managers. The study had chosen 3 organisations to interview;
however, it could only have been possible to interview 2. The 2 firms interviewed
were “Adobe” a software organisation and “The Authentic Food Company”. To
conduct the interviews at “Adobe”, there was a need to travel to India, as that’s the
branch of adobe the interviews were set up at. There was a questionnaire designed
to use in all the interviews, which is attached onto the appendix of the study.
Communication
Management
Non-Communication
Articles
Project
Management
Organisational
Communication
Project
Communication
Construction
Case Studies
Effective
Communication
Importance of
communication and its
influence on project
management

53
The reasoning behind choosing adobe was because; research showed that adobe
carry out many project on a daily basis and this could be the scope for researching
organisational projects, for this study. The advantage here was that, there was no
issues in gaining permission to interview the project managers as my uncle was a
project manager himself, which allowed the study to interview not just the project
manager but the project team members as well. The firm is based in New Delhi,
India and so a trip was taken to India to conduct this particular research. The second
firm interviewed was “The Authentic Food Company” which is frozen food
manufacturer and supplier, based in Manchester. The reasoning behind choosing
this firm was because; this firm has 3 project managers and all 3 in different
department, which would be very useful for this research study, as most of the
company projects are based in Europe, which requires the project managers to
communicate heavily with foreign clients.
Once again, as my father is a development chef in the firm, it wasn’t an issue to gain
permission to interview the project managers in the firm and before picking this firm
to be interviewed, there was research conducted via gaining insight information as
to how many projects the firm has and how strong is the firms base on project
management. Once there was enough evidence that the firm has strong bonds with
project management practises and it communicated with foreign clients, it was clear
that this firm was perfect for this dissertation study. The third firm selected was a
construction firm called “Manchester and Cheshire Construction Co. Ltd.” This
particular firm was not interviewed as non of the project managers were able to chat
or have a professional interview before the 21st of September, due to work
commitments. There was also an attempt to try and get the project managers to
answer the designed questionnaire in their spare time, however that wasn’t possible
either and so the only data collection possible on construction projects was done
through case studies in the literature.

54
4.3.1 Adobe interview/Focus group
The interview at adobe was more of a focus group as 5 project team members were
interviewed together, with the project manager as well, altogether 6 candidates
interviewed. The age group of all the group members was between 30-40, however
the project manager was 42. The response was very similar, through the analyses of
the questions answered, most if not all the candidates believed that electronic
communication was the most effective and considered communication a vital part of
project management in practise. The differentiation was that all 6 candidates stated
that electronic communication was important but only for large-scale projects and
for smaller to medium sized projects, all types of communication are essential but
more verbal communication as the hierarchy levels in small to medium sized firms
are very flat and communication verbally can be reached far out easily.
4.3.2 The Authentic Food Company Interview
The interview at “The Authentic Food Company” was conducted between 3 different
project managers and surprisingly all 3 were aged between 35-40. Similar responses
were also collected in this firm as like adobe, as all 3-project managers agreed that
communication was the most vital part of project management, especially projects
that are conducted abroad. Electronic communication was once again chosen as the
most effective way of communicating and reasons the given reason for it was the
increase in technology and the enlargement of the global village. On the other hand,
only one candidate chose face-to-face communication as he worked in purchasing
and he claimed that for him its face-to-face communication, which seems effective.
On the other hand, all three project managers did state that electronic
communication is at its most effective in large-scale projects due to the hierarchy
being on a large scale. Furthermore, in small to medium sized projects, it’s not
essential which communication is effective as they all are.
4.3.3 Interview results
A total of 9 candidates were interviewed, from which 8 agreed on electronic
communication being the core of project management success, however, all 9 also
stated that its only most effective in large-scale projects and in small/medium sized

55
0%
11%
89%
Fig 2.4 CommunicationBreakedown
Non Verbal Communication
Face-To-Face Communication
Electronic Communication
projects, all types of communication can work. Fig 2.4 displays the percentage of
candidates favouring electronic communication and clearly outlines the importance
of electronic communication.
4.4 Data collection methods
The research was done over a three month time period and in those months there
was various ways in which the data was collected, fig 2.5 presents the different types
of methods used in the collection of the data for this particular research, outlining
the amount of each method being used in the research. As demonstrated in the
below chart that 73% of the data was collected through journal articles as it’s a
qualitative research and the use of grounded theory was implemented on the
research. Following on, only 6% of case studies were used, which was to cover the
construction projects side of the research and only a few books were analysed as
most of the data required would have come from journals and not books. The usage
of books was only implemented to search for theories from famous past authors on
the particular subject. Hence, only 4% of the data collection was books. To conclude,
17% of data collection was interviews as 9 candidates were interviewed to gain data,
still meaning that the large chunk of the research was virtuously gained from journal
data collection.

56
17%
6%
73%
4%
Fig 2.5 Data Collection
Interviews
Case Studies
Journal Articlas
Books

57
5.0 Discussion
The Penultimate chapter of this dissertation study will look to summarise and discuss
the findings of this particular study, presented in the previous chapter and how they
associates with the literature presented on this topic in Chapter 2. The chapter will
further illustrate the implications in the literature of the research before drawing on
the final chapter of this study, which is the conclusion of the research.
5.1 Discussion
The results of this study were achieved in two different manners in that literature
was highlighted via researching communication and project management articles,
which were then analysed through the open coding methodology. The findings of
the literature of Catalin, D. (2008) were very similar to the model of “Information
Transmitter” developed by Shannon and Weaver (1964). Identifying that Catalin, D.
(2008) communication process, portrayed a similar model of communication to the
one by Shannon and Weaver (1964) illustrating that the published communication
journals had chosen similar models to demonstrate the flow of communication in
management.
The paper includes various models and concepts, however the core model, which
defines the research or is the most important part of the research, is the
“Communication Capabilities Framework” by above Johannessen & Olsen (2011) as
it identifies all the capabilities required in various types of communication, for it to
result in success in project management. The model assists in understanding the
capabilities communication has and what need to be done in order to achieve those
capabilities in various types of communication from, social, economic, management
to cultural communication. One of the most interesting factors about the model is
that it doesn’t look at the communication capabilities from a project management
view fully, it looks at communication in general management within projects, which
in the long-run can be used to inter-link with project management as identified by
Johannessen & Olsen (2011). The reason being that the “Communication Capabilities
Framework” doesn’t fully look at the project management side of things is because it

58
believes that it’s almost logical to inter-link with general management rather than
specifying it to project management, as it gives the framework an opportunity to
work in all sorts of projects. The concept of the model helps in understanding the
communication process that should be adopted in project management as each
capability identifies multiple types of communication scenarios which can occur
during organisational projects or projects in general. Therefore, depending on the
situation, a project manager can adopt to a certain type communication method to
inform their team for e.g. cultural communication is used when unseen change
occurs in a project, which then allows this type of communication to set a system in
the project, which includes exchanging experience and learning from outcomes.
Hence the importance of the model in project management, however, the model
itself was part of communication journal and not the international journal of project
management.
Further studies in the research on identifying which communication process leads to
project success have led too much more concepts and models being identified.
Author Galle (1999) draw upon a mechanism that identifies strategies that should be
applied in communication to make it the most essential part of project success. Galle
(1999) states that communication processes it’s strongest suit in stakeholders and
that how ideas those are generated withina project must be conveyed around the
whole project to gain feedback, which is majorly discussed in the research by
Engelbrecht A, (2010). The theory has been verified or used by the “International
Journal of Project Management”, which gives the model an acknowledgement of the
fact that it’s used in project management practice. The mechanism however, focuses
the model on construction projects as it’s trying to explain large-scale projects,
which is similar to the research conducted on “Adobe” and “The Authentic Food
Company” as both of the firms had similar answers in stating that large scale projects
benefit largely from electronic communication than another type of communication.
The aim for the model is to give the project managers a better environment for
decision-making, as that’s the toughest and the most crucial part of their job. The
model states that by making communication transparent, it helps project managers
build trust within their teams, which makes for better decision-making.

59
In the study, as 89% of project managers from “Adobe” and “The Authentic Food
Company” agree that electronic communication is the most effective way of gaining
project success, Johnson, J.D et al (1994) claims in the literature that face-to-face
communication is most effective. The author in the literature states that face-to-face
communication is a procedure, which cannot be ignored in comparison to non-
verbal communication such as a written letter or report, which aren’t as effective as
there is a tendency to ignore them. The literature by Johnson, J.D et al (1994) mainly
compares non-verbal communication to face-to-face rather than a comparison
between electronic communication, which doesn’t make the comparison in the
dissertation study as much effective as it should be. However, the literature doesn’t
distinguish between the sizes of the projects like Alshawi, M. (2003) and Diallo A. &
Thuillier D. (2005) do by stating that electronic communication is at its most effective
in large-scale projects, which is backed up by project managers in “Adobe” and “The
Authentic Food Company”.
On the other hand, it could be said that the literature by Johnson, J.D et al (1994) is
in the early 90’s where electronic communication wasn’t given as much attention as
it is now due to technological development and market completion. Hence, the
interviews with “Adobe” and “The Authentic Food Company” proving the attention
given to electronic communication nowadays, in order to keep competitive and lead
to project success.
The research as whole focuses on communication project management as a whole
and in order to explain each success factor in relation to each type of project, the
research needs to look at the communication topic as a whole. This resulted in
communication journals being dug out from 1970’s and project management
journals being analyzed over a period of 12 years. This paper then gives the reader
an idea of the importance of communication and its influence in project
management. The research builds a strong map for communication process in
project management via the uses of journals from both topics.

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5.2 Implications
The focus of the study is to understand the importance of communication and its
influence on project management practice; the study highlights various types of
communication and explains the importance of each communication on
organisational and construction projects. The research study illustrates effective
methods of communication, which are bespoke to project success.
The implications of the findings will act as standards for building a relationship
between project success and communication, which will then build project
management concepts for delivering specific data on communication in project
management. All of the communication concepts and framework need to transform
or adapt to newly formed project management concepts in order to create project
success and have a major influence in project success. An illustration for this would
be to identify communication strategies at each stages of the project management
life cycle because as the project develops, it requires a much stronger vision,
strategy and mission explained by Jugdev, K., & Müller, R. (2005). Firms that adopt
these assets are the ones that keep themselves sustained and developed, which
allows them to keep a competitive edge.
The theories need to be developed throughout time, as project management is
about expectations and expectations change throughout time, the importance and
influence of communication on project management must be developed as James B.
(1998) believes that project managers must communicate face-to-face, however, the
author must develop their belief according to the development of technology as
Alshawi, M. (2003) claims his belief that project managers need to use electronic
communication more in order gain project success as nowadays that give them a
competitive edge.
Project management success is based exclusively on the product life cycle, which is
very ambiguous and complex as it varies over time explained by Baccarini, D. (1999)
and in terms of respecting that project managers need to utilise the importance of

61
communication in a positive manner and the influence of electronic communication.
This in the long run will allow project managers to use electronic communication as
an asset to gain competitive advantage, which will give them a greater chance of
project success.

62
6.0 Conclusion
The final chapter of the dissertation study draws upon the conclusion of the entire
research. The conclusion will refer back to the aims and objectives of the study in the
perspective of project management communication and its importance on the
subject, as well as its influence on project management practice. The chapter will
then look at the limitations of the study and conclusively make recommendations for
any further opportunities or improvements; those could be done if the study had
been conducted again.
6.1 Conclusion
The study acknowledged the importance of communication and its influence on
project management by displaying various models and concepts gained by adopting
the grounded theory methodology. Data was collected by assessing approximately
280 journals, which had links with communication data and primarily with project
management. The journals assessed were not all the chosen journals to be analysed
as explained in data analysis that only 156 journals were chosen to be critically
analysed, from which 22 journals chosen were communication management
journals. As communication as a whole subject was being studied, there was no time
frame set towards it, so journals from 1970’s to 2010’s were analysed. The project
management journals analysed were 59 from a time span of 1994 – 2014, however
the chosen project management journals those data got inputted into the study
were only 12 from a time span of 1998 – 2010.
It’s very important to understand the role of communication in project management
and how much attention should be given to communication in order to achieve
project success. Project managers must appreciate the vast influence that
communication has on project management and the difficulties that can arise in the
project life cycle from not giving enough attention to effective communication. As
this will assist them in achieving successful projects at a much higher rate in
comparison to their previous projects.

63
The purpose of this research study was to investigate literature in communication
with interlinks with project management. This particular aim was achieved by
analysing journals of communication management and building models and
concepts such as “The conceptual model of function communication” in fig. 1.1 and
“The conceptual model of function communication” model in fig. 1.2. This allowed
the study to analyze various styles of communication produced by many authors.
One of the other aims of the study was to analyze communication strategies in
organizational projects and construction projects. The manner in which this objective
was tackled was by firstly looking at organizational literature by Tushman, M. (1979),
who presented data on how communication should be prepared for effective
projects in organization. Furthermore, 3 case studies were analyzed on construction
projects from around the globe to acquire data on communication methods in
construction projects, as well as gaining literature from Deng et al. (2001) on the
importance that should be given communication in construction projects as most of
them are large-scale projects. The next goal of the research study was evaluate
different types of communications and distinguish as to which one is most effective
in project management. To achieve this particular aim, interviews were conducted in
major organisations such as Adobe and The Authentic Food Company and to
coincide with that project management literature was also researched, which drew
upon fig. 1.3 illustrating that communication framework is the most effective form of
flowing effective information and data in project management.
As project management is growing vastly, there are many changes occurring in the
way project management is looked at. Projects are now growing on a global scale
and with projects gaining team members from all around the globe, communication
is more important than ever before. Throughout this thesis study, communication
has emerged as a vital factor in the success of a project by models and concepts
highlighting its importance in project management. Subsequently, the literature and
data analyses helps define key concepts of communication in project management
and illustrates the importance of communication and its influence in project
management, which illustrates the attention which should be given to
communication especially on large-scale projects in order to achieve project success.

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6.2 Limitations
The limitations to this particular research are that communication doesn’t have a
literate definition in terms of management. The phrases and key words used to
define communication is the basic and general definition of communication by
Catalin, D. (2008), however, after analyzing various journals of communication,
management and project management, the closest the study came was to the
communication process model by Shannon and Weaver (1964) of information
transmitter. The definition is very subjective, as it dialogs about general
communication and still doesn’t explain communication theory in comparison to
topics like culture from (Hofstede, 1994) and leadership.
Another limitation with the study is that one of focus areas of the dissertation was
analysing construction projects, however, due to the study not able to gain enough
insight into an actual construction firm and relying on just three case studies for
data. As most of the case studies reviewed in goggle scholar and business source
premier had restricted data due to confidentiality, it was difficult to gain much more
in depth analyses; hence the data being a bit weak on the construction project side.
One of another weaknesses with the study can be that out of the 156 journals used
to analyse, some of the journals were neither communication management journals
nor project management journals. Those journals just included bits of
data/information about communication linking with projects and not so much
project management. This in the long run can be classed as a weakness as it doesn’t
quite give the inputted data strong back up especially for further comparisons.
Altogether, the vast majority of the research has adopted data from the
international journal of project management and communication journals, which
quantifies that the data is trust worthy and very analytical.

65
6.3 Recommendation for Future Research
This research study was an exploratory study and a part of an exploratory is to as
much in depth as possible, however, as mentioned beforehand that the research
lacked in depth analysis in the research of construction projects. If the research were
to take further steps in the dissertation, then there would be much greater analysis
conducted on construction projects and a construction firm would also be
interviewed with permission.
Further scope to develop this dissertation research will be through the uses of case
studies. The use of many more case studies will enable the research to gain much
more insight into real life projects and give the study a chance of building a
comparative analysis between communication literature and its use in real life
organisational and construction projects. To conclude, if the study was to carry on
further research then there will be a model built of a comparative study between
communication theories and communication case studies to discover any correlation
between communication literature and its influence and use in real life projects, in
both organisational and construction.

66
Acknowledgements
I would like to begin by thanking the Pushpraj Sharma, Project manager at Adobe in
India and his team members for sharing the information with me that they did,
which assisted me in conducting my research. Similarly, I would like to thank “The
Authentic Food Company” for granting me the permission to conduct interviews
with their three project managers and I would most likely thank those three project
managers in Aaron Donnelly, Paul Harnetly and Sean Floyd for sharing the
information that they did in assisting me to complete my dissertation.
I would really like to appreciate the help of my family in my mother, father and
brother who constantly gave me positive feedbacks and believed in my ability to
complete this dissertation on time. I would also like to thank my friends, who helped
me when I didn’t understand certain aspects of the dissertation and finally I would
like to thank Ruth McQuater in helping me as much as she could, even though she
was away due to medical reasons.

67
Appendix
Appendix 1 – Questionnaire
The set of questions that have been shown in this document are the questions those
will be used to gain data from interviewing the selected firms for this research in
“Adobe” and “The Authentic Food Company”. The questionnaire is an open style
questionnaire as there will be interviews conducted to various project managers and
an open style questionnaire allows the interviewee to give as much information as
they can, which can help gather as much data as possible. The questions chosen to
be asked are questions those are going to give the study a chance of answering the
dissertation question and the aims and objectives of the dissertation as well.
Questions are as presented:
1. How many projects are you dealing with on a daily basis?
2. Out of the projects that you are dealing with, of them, how many are online?
3. How important is communication for you in the projects that you are working
on? How would you rate it out of 10?
4. Which is that what type of communication do you use in you projects? Is it
verbal, non-verbal or electronic? Why?
 Verbal
 Electronic
 Non-Verbal
5. How do you manage communication effectively? Are their any procedures or
strategies involved?

68
6. How much communication is done between your clients in comparison to
your team?
7. How much communication is needed to make a project successful?
8. Which type of communication is the most important and influential to a
project success? Why?
 Electronic
 Verbal (face-to-face)
 Non-Verbal
Overview
There are 2 closed style questions in the questionnaire; however, the interviewee’s
will be asked to expand on their chosen answers in order for the study to gain as
much data as possible. There will be some extra questions asked along the way of
the interview, however, they will be questions those match the conversation and not
questions those have been already selected.

69
Appendix 2 – Adobe India interview (Transcript)
As a part of this research, an interview was conducted with the project manager of
the Adobe branch in New Delhi as well as an interview was done with the project
team members in a focus group manner. The interview asked questions related to
the dissertation aims and objectives and so the questions were about the
importance of communication and its influence on the projects that are done or
conducted in adobe. As the research was only in one branch, the project manager
did say, “I speak for only this branch and my team and not the whole adobe
organisation”. Taking that into account, the research can’t make a statement for the
whole of the adobe firm, however it can relate to the project management side of
things as its interviewing an experienced project manager and an experienced team.
Project managers name – Pushpraj Sharma
Project team members – 5
Names of the project team members:
 Team member 1 – Dev
 Team member 2 – Tushar
 Team member 3 – Karan
 Team member 4 – Varun
 Team member 5 – Priya
The interviews were conducted, as the author’s uncle is a project manager for adobe
India in New Delhi and after researching and asking around, the result came that
adobe conducts many projects on a daily basis. Due to the firm being a software
firm, it has many projects to work on, from which these six employees listed above
are responsible for in India (New Delhi). The team includes 4 males and one female,
not counting the project manager who is a male. The interview was conducted
during my trip to India, where the author took time to visit the firm, interact with the
employees and most importantly granted permission to interview them, which the

70
author got a couple of weeks before arriving their. The receipt for the permission
granted to interview would be attached onto the dissertation as evidence into the
appendix.
The interview as it began…………………
Me: Hello everyone, my name is Vardaan Sharma and I am a student from
Manchester Metropolitan University and today I will be interviewing you all about
the importance of communication in project management and its influence on
project management, as a part of my dissertation study. I hope you are all ok with
that?
Pushpraj (PM): Hello Vardaan, I have spoken to my team and they are more than
happy to answer your questions and help you to do your research for your
dissertation.
Me: Ok great, lets begin! First of all, how many projects are you guys dealing with on
a daily basis?
Karan: We usually have 4-5 projects that we work on a day but keeping in mind
some of them are updates to projects, which don’t require as much work as an on-
going project.
Me: Ok. How many of those project are online or require you all to perform your
work online?
Dev: All of the projects that we are handling are done online, as we are dealing with
clients from Africa and China.
Me: Wow! I’m guessing that keeps you guys busy.
Pushpraj (PM): Hahaha it’s just a part of the job, but yeah we like to be busy.

71
Me: Onto my third question, how important is communication to you all in the
project that you all do? How would you rate it out of 10?
Priya: It’s obvious that its very important, probably the most important factor in the
success and failure of our projects. In terms of rating it out of 10, easily a 10 or even
an 11.
Me: That’s great. Which type of communication do you use the most? Is it
electronic, non-verbal or verbal?
Varun: To be fair it’s a bit of all but mostly electronic. The reason being is that, we
communicate with various clients and project members through Skype and its
verbally, however, we also send out emails and faxes, which can be classed as non-
verbal communication but that’s only done to either confirm something or send a
receipt.
Me: So I’m guessing its mainly electronic communication?
Pushpraj (PM): Yeah I would agree with that.
Me: In terms of project management, how do you manage the use communication
effectively? Is there any procedures or strategies that you use?
Tushar: We have procedure called “Receipt Back” which is basically a paper
confirming the objectives that have been discussed with project members in china
and Africa, to confirm that everyone knows that they know what they are doing.
Me: What does this “Receipt Back” contain?
Pushpraj (PM): Its basically a document confirming each objective for each project
member and it also transcribes the discussion that took place about the project and
this is done so if there is any issues in the project in the future it allows us as project

72
managers to see what had gone wrong and who hasn’t performed their task or was
anything not properly conveyed. This basically goes to the project directors as an
archive of project millstones. And just so you know that HR who monitors all
discussions and communication does this procedure.
Me: Sounds like a very effective procedure. My next question is “How much do you
all as a team communicate with one another and your clients in Africa and China?”
Varun: We communicate a lot but we communicate more with our selves as a team
more than we do with the clients abroad, only because we as a team must
understand what we are doing and work together to achieve our project goals.
Whereas the team aboard is only for us to communicate with once a objective is
completed or we need assistance in completing it.
Me: Ok. My next question to you all is “how much communication is needed to make
a project a success?
Karan: It usually depends on the size of the project, if it’s a large project then we
usually communicate a lot but in major meetings only but if it’s a minor project then
communication is kept at a low level but done constantly as the candidates are more
than experienced here to handle the minor project without major assistance.
Me: Ok. My final question to you is that, which type of communication is the most
important and influential to a project success? Electronic, verbal or face-to-face?
Pushpraj (PM): It has to be electronic, I mean they are all important in their own
rights but you just have to look at the benefits that come with electronic
communication such as low cost, effective and efficient work and the
competitiveness that you most importantly need. Especially us as the market leader
in software developing.

73
Me: Well that’s great. All of this information will surely help me a lot. I would just
like to thank you all for your time and thank you all for sharing the information that
you did.
Team: Glad we could help Vardaan, hope you do well in your dissertation research.
Pushpraj (PM): I hope that helps you Vardaan and glad we could contribute, if you
need any other information, please feel free to contact me and I will try and get you
that information if its possible to. Thank you, and hopefully speak to soon. Good luck
with your research study.
Me: Thank you all.
End of interview (focus group).
Overview
Altogether, the interview conducted already had 8 key questions prepared for the
interviewees, however, there were more questions asked along the way of the
interview as they were related to the conversation that was happening in the
interview. The key questions prepared in advance are also on an appendix document
and the same questions were asked to “The Authentic Food Company” firm, whose
transcript will be on another document.

74
Appendix 3 – The Authentic Food Company Interview
(Transcript)
As a part of this research an interview was conducted with three different project
managers in three different departments. The interviews were conducted with
project managers from the IT department, manufacturing (operation) department
and the purchasing department. This particular organisation is based in Manchester
and Stockport and the reason behind picking this particular firm for my study was
because this organisation has major projects in China, Thailand and Iceland. The
company itself is a frozen foods company, they supply frozen foods to retail stores in
the UK, France and Germany, which in technically makes them suppliers. The
interviews were conducted separately with each project manager at separate times
due to their availability and as the author’s father is the development chef for this
firm, the author was able to gain permission to interview these project managers. As
the interviews are being done with qualified and experienced project managers, it
relates to the dissertation and to target the aims and objectives of the study, the
questions were designed in that manner.
Name of Project Managers:
PM – 1) Aaron Donnelly (IT Project Manager)
PM – 2) Paul Harnetly (Operations Project Manager)
PM – 3) Sean Floyd (Purchasing Project Manager)
The interviews were conducted in August and the permission was granted to
conduct these interviews in late July. The confirmation letter of conducting the
interviews has been attached onto the appendix of this dissertation as a piece of
evidence for the interviews. As mentioned earlier that the interviews were
conducted separately between the three project managers due to their availability
and also as it would be better for the thesis data analysis if the interview has been
done separately, rather than in a focus group manner as there are only three project
managers. The three project managers are all male and aged between 40-55.
Interview 1 - Aaron Donnelly (IT Project Manager)

75
Me: Hi there Aaron, my name is Vardaan Sharma and I am a student from
Manchester Metropolitan University and today I will be interviewing you about the
importance of communication in project management and its influence on project
management, as a part of my dissertation study. I hope you are ok with that?
Aaron: Hi there Vardaan, yeah of course I am ok with that. As long as some of the
information remains confidential and only in use for your study, we should be ok.
Me: Yeah of course, it will only be used for my dissertation study and for my tutors
to look at for any marking.
Aaron: That’s great. Lets get firing.
Me: Great. My first question is, how many project do you or are you dealing with on
a daily basis?
Aaron: With the company being a frozen food supplier, there aren’t that many
projects for the IT department. So on a daily basis I would say that I have to deal with
2 or maybe 3 projects.
Me: Ok. How many of those project are online or require you to perform your work
online?
Aaron: For me as the IT project manager all of them are online as I am dealing with
clients in France and Germany.
Me: How important is communication in the projects that you are working on? How
would you rate it out of 10?

76
Aaron: oh its very important and with it being an IT project, it’s the most important
factor for me and my team, as we have to make Skype calls, emails and phone calls.
So yeah I would rate it 10 out of 10.
Me: That kind of answers my next question a bit, which is that what type of
communication do you use in you projects? is it verbal, non-verbal or electronic?
Aaron: It’s completely electronic, but we do communicate with clients verbally
through Skype and if we have to meet clients then it’s the sales and marketing team
that does that for us.
Me: In terms of project management, how do manage communication effectively?
Do you use any procedures or have any strategies?
Aaron: We don’t have a strategy, more of a procedure. We basically report each and
every Skype meeting to our directors, so they know exactly what’s been discussed
and what the IT team is up to.
Me: Seems effective. Well How much communication is done with your clients in
comparison to your team?
Aaron: The IT department has only got 4 members of staff, so it’s really something
you would call a big team. So we don’t really communicate a lot within our selves
because we are all working together anyway. So most of the communication is done
with our clients in the UK, France and Germany. The client communication is
basically done on a daily basis to keep up our information with our clients and the
team is only communicated with when any part of a project needs teamwork or any
team member requires any assistance.
Me: Ok that’s great. My next question is how much communication is needed to
make a project a success?

77
Aaron: Communication is done plenty but if the project is large or the client wants to
make a large investment, then I guess a lot of communication is required and if the
client doesn’t want to make a large investment or the project is not at a larger scale,
then communication isn’t the focus of attention as the project is finished before you
even know it and not much attention to detail is given.
Me: Well my final questions to you is which type of communication is the most
Aaron: its most certainly has to be electronic and also as your are asking an IT
project manager, it has to be electronic communication. It allows us to save cost, get
work done at a much more efficient rate and it keeps us competitive.
Me: Well that’s great. All of this information will surely be helpful to me. I would just
like to thank you for your time and thank you all for sharing the information that you
did. I really appreciate your time.
Aaron: Absolutely no worries Vardaan, I hope that this information will come of help
to you to achieve the grade you need in your study. I wish you all the best of luck for
your research. Thank you.
Interview 2 – Paul Harnetly (Operations Project Manager)
Me: Hi there Paul, my name is Vardaan Sharma and I am a student from Manchester
Metropolitan University and today I will be interviewing you about the importance
of communication in project management and its influence on project management,
as a part of my dissertation study. I hope you are ok with that?
Paul: Hello Vardaan, of course I am ok with this interview, if it helps you in achieving
your dissertation research then more than happy to do it. Just one thing before we
begin, I hope the information will be kept confidential and only for research
purpose?

78
Me: Yeah of course Paul, I already mentioned that to the commercial director before
he granted me the permission to interview.
Paul: Ok great. Lets begin.
Me: Great. My first question is, how many project do you or are you dealing with on
a daily basis?
Paul: With me being the operations project manager, I deal with plenty of projects.
To put it into perspective, I basically deal with most of the projects that are on going
in this company.
Me: Could you tell me in terms of numbers?
Paul: Hmm…. It varies from day to day but on an average, I would say I’m dealing
with or I’m in charge of over 6 projects, which brings our international clients into
this as well.
Me: Ok. How many of those project are online or require you to perform your work
online?
Paul: I would say most of them are online but I do deal with projects that require me
to travel up and down the country and meet clients. So most of them are online as
we have international clients and it saves costs, however, some UK clients we deal
with physically.
Me: How important is communication in the projects that you are working on? How
would you rate it out of 10?
Paul: Most definitely a 10 and that goes for all projects because there a lot of times
when even a small bit of miscommunication can lead to a catastrophic event in a

79
project, so its hugely important. Also as I am working on large-scale projects, it vital
that communication gets a lot of importance.
Me: Ah ok. My next question is that in terms of communication, which type do you
use the most? Is it verbal, non-verbal or electronic?
Paul: To be fair you will think I’m being too vague but I use all the communications
that you have just mentioned and this is only because as I mentioned earlier that
with me being an operation project manager, I’m dealing with major projects daily.
So require me to use all types of communication types really. I hope that answers
your question?
Me: Yeah that’s great Paul. It’s much more than I needed to be fair. Well my next
question is that in terms of project management, how do manage communication
effectively? Do you use any procedures or have any strategies?
Paul: No strategies, just a plain and simple procedure really, which is that all the
information discussed must be reported to the CEO and the project managers those
work under me, must report to me, which I basically transcribe onto a document and
keep for further records.
Me: Ok. Well, How much communication is done with your clients in comparison to
your team?
Paul: Both are done at an equal level, maybe I communicate much more with the
companies client abroad because they need a daily check up on what’s happening
and if the project is running smoothly.
Me: Ok. My next question is how much communication is needed to make a project
a success?

80
Paul: Well plenty is the word that your looking for and if you are talking specifically
about me, then a lot because like I’ve mentioned earlier in the interview that I’m
dealing with large-scale projects here and for them to be successful, communication
must be efficient and hundred per cent perfect.
Me: Ok. My final question to you all is which type of communication is the most
Paul: That’s the easiest question you have asked so far. Hahahha! It would most
certainly be electronic communication as it’s the most cost effective route for
project managers to work on projects, especially projects that are overseas.
Me: Well that’s great. All of this information will surely be of help to me. I would like
to thank you for your time and thank you all for sharing the information that you did.
I really appreciate you giving me your time.
Paul: Not a worry Vardaan, I hope the information I have provided you with is
helpful to you and helps you get a good grade.
Me: I hope so.
Paul: Hahaha! Anyway I wish you all the best in your research study. Thank you.
Interview 3 – Sean Floyd (Purchasing Project Manager)
Me: Hi there Sean, my name is Vardaan Sharma and I am a student from Manchester
Metropolitan University and today I will be interviewing you about the importance
of communication in project management and its influence on project management,
as a part of my dissertation study. I hope you are ok with that?
Sean: Hey Vardaan, firstly welcome to our company and yeah I’m more than happy
to answer your questions for your dissertation study. Although has the management

81
mentioned to you that this is to be kept confidential and for yours and university’s
use only?
Me: Yeah, I’m completely aware of that Sean and I have spoken to the management
about keeping this for university’s use and mine only.
Sean: Ok that great Vardaan.
Me: Should I begin?
Sean: Yeah of course, I feel like I’m in job interview Hahaha!
Me: Hahaha! I promise it won’t be as intense. Well anyway my first question is, how
many project do you or are you dealing with on a daily basis?
Sean: I deal with only a few, I’d say around 2 projects. Nothing more than that
because my job is to look after the purchasing of goods and then most of the work
gets past onto the operations manager.
Me: I see. So how many of those project are online or require you to perform your
work online?
Sean: Not many to be fair. As the purchasing project manager, I have to physically
look at the goods myself, which requires meeting clients and speaking face-to-face.
The only online projects we have are purchasing goods from abroad, for which we
would have a Skype meetings and send emails but even then we would be required
to go and make a visit.
Me: Quite a bit of mixture then really?
Sean: Yeah, I guess you could say that.

82
Me: Ok. How important is communication in the projects that you are working on?
How would you rate it out of 10?
Sean: it’s a huge aspect as we have to try and get the best raw materials from the
suppliers at the best rate, so I guess communicating is what we are or supposed to
be best at.
Me: So I’m guessing a 10?
Sean: Without a shadow of a doubt.
Me: You kind have already answered it but my next question is that in terms of
communication, which type do you use the most? Is it Face-to-Face, non-verbal or
electronic?
Sean: A bit of each, but you would expect that in the business world nowadays but
mainly its face-to-face as we are required to look at each and every raw material and
analyse it to make sure its good for use.
Me: Ok. My next question is that in terms of project management, how do manage
communication effectively? Do you use any procedures or have any strategies?
Sean: No strategies, possibly a procedure that we do have to transcribe a lot of the
purchases that we make and send them to the operating manager to have a look and
keep as record. This just allows us to know which supplier we use more than others.
Me: it pretty much seems to be a universal procedure in the company doesn’t it?
Because after speaking with the IT project manager and operations project manager,
they all sort of said the same?

83
Sean: Yeah I mean it just allows us to know as employees what procedure we need
to use to be at our most effective and it sort of keeps all of the employees on the
same working page.
Me: Ah I see. Well my next question is how much communication is done with your
clients in comparison to your team?
Sean: I have to mostly communicate with my clients, which are the company
suppliers. I mean the only real time I communicate with my team is when we have
decision-making to do, which is very vital.
Me: Ah I see and how much communication is needed to make a project a success?
Sean: Obviously a lot and especially for my team and me as we need to
communicate a lot to our clients in terms of suppliers.
Me: My final question to you is that, which type of communication is the most
Sean: I think you would have to say that its electronic communication because the
way that technology is evolving and its very cost effective for business transactions
and projects to through.
Me: Well that’s great. All of this information will surely be of a lot of help to me. I
would like to thank you for your time and thank you all for sharing the information
that you did. I really appreciate you giving me your time.
Sean: Glad I could help Vardaan, I hope you do well on your dissertation and wish
you all the best for it.
(End of interviews)

84
Overview
Altogether, the interview conducted already had 8 key questions prepared for the
interviewees, however, there were more questions asked along the way of the
interview as they were related to the conversation that was happening in the
interview. The key questions prepared in advance are also on an appendix document
and the same questions were asked to “Adobe” firm, whose transcript will be on
another document.

85
Appendix – 4) Permission letter from Adobe (India)

86
Appendix – 5) Permission letter from “The Authentic Food
Company”

87
Appendix – 6) Permission letter 2 from “The Authentic Food
Company”

88
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