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Title: The Solomon Islands and Their Natives
Author: H. B. Guppy
Release date: March 22, 2013 [eBook #42388]
Language: English
Credits: E-text prepared by Steven Gibbs, Harry Lamé, Veronika
Redfern, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously
made available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOLOMON
ISLANDS AND THEIR NATIVES ***](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2353788-250528053149-b92682bd/85/Distributed-Generation-A-Nontechnical-Guide-Chambers-Ann-Schnoor-30-320.jpg)
![T
INTRODUCTION.
he Solomon Islands cover an area 600 miles in length. They
include seven or eight large mountainous islands attaining an
extreme height, as in the case of Guadalcanar and
Bougainville, of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet, and possessing a
length varying from 70 to 100 miles, and a breadth varying
between 20 and 30 miles. In addition, there are a great number of
smaller islands which range in size from those 15 to 20 miles in
length to the tiny coral island only half a mile across. The islands fall
naturally into two divisions, those mainly or entirely of volcanic
formations and those mainly or entirely of recent calcareous
formations.
In the first division, St. Christoval may be taken as a type of the
large mountainous islands possessing massive profiles, such as
Guadalcanar, Malaita, Isabel, etc. St. Christoval, which rises to a
height of 4,100 feet above the sea, is composed in the mass of
much altered and sometimes highly crystalline volcanic rocks (such
as, in their order of frequency, dolerites, diabases, diorites, gabbros,
serpentines, and saussuritic felspar-rock) which, as I learn from Mr.
T. Davies, have been both formed and altered at considerable depths
and indicate great geological age and extensive denudation. Recent
calcareous rocks, such as will be subsequently referred to in the
description of the second division of islands, flank the lower slopes
at the sea-border up to an elevation of 500 feet. Fragments of
similar diorites, dolerites, and other dense basic rocks, all much
altered and often schistose, have been transported by trees to the
coral islets off the coasts of Guadalcanar and afford evidence of the
geological structure of that island. Serpentines were obtained by Dr.
Hombron in 1838[1] from St. George’s Island, which is “ipso facto” a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2353788-250528053149-b92682bd/85/Distributed-Generation-A-Nontechnical-Guide-Chambers-Ann-Schnoor-40-320.jpg)
![portion of Isabel. Bougainville and New Georgia are largely of more
recent origin, as is indicated by their numerous symmetrical volcanic
cones. However, the geological evidence at present at our disposal
points generally to the great antiquity of the larger islands. The
significance of this fact will be subsequently referred to. There can
be little doubt that some of the mountainous islands will be found to
yield in quantity the ores of tin and copper. A resident trader, Captain
John Macdonald, has discovered arsenical pyrites and stream tin at
the head of the Keibeck River in the interior of St. Christoval. A
sample of stream tin from the south-east part of Bougainville was
given to me by the Shortland chief. Copper will not improbably be
found in association with the serpentine rocks of these islands.
[1] “Voyage au Pole Sud et dans L’Océanie,” (D’Urville). Géologie: part ii.,
p. 211.
The smaller islands of volcanic formation group themselves into two
classes:
(1.) Those which, like Fauro and some of the Florida Islands, are
composed partly of modern rocks, such as hornblende and augite-
andesites with their tuffs and agglomerates, and partly of ancient
and often highly crystalline rocks such as, as I am informed by Prof.
Judd and Mr. T. Davies, quartz-diorites, quartz-porphyries, altered
dacites and dolerites, serpentines, saussuritic felspar-rock, etc.
(2.) Those that are composed entirely or in the main of recently
erupted rocks, islands which preserve the volcanic profile, possess
craters, and sometimes exhibit signs of latent activity. Eddystone
Island, which I examined, is probably typical of the majority of the
islands of this class, such as Savo, Murray Island, and many others.
It is composed of andesitic lavas of the augite type, is pierced by
many fumaroles, and has a crater in the solfatara stage. Savo,
though quiescent in the present day, has been in eruption within the
memory of living men, and was in a state of activity in 1567 when
the Spaniards discovered the group. Fumaroles and sulphur-deposits
occur in Vella-la-vella. It may, however, be generally stated that the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2353788-250528053149-b92682bd/85/Distributed-Generation-A-Nontechnical-Guide-Chambers-Ann-Schnoor-41-320.jpg)
![volcanic forces in these regions are in a quiescent condition at the
present day, there being only one vent in active eruption, viz., Mount
Bagana in the interior of Bougainville. Many small islands with
volcanic profiles show no evidence of a latent activity. Amongst them
I may mention those of Bougainville Strait, which are composed of
andesitic lavas of the hornblende type.
I now pass to those islands which are composed mainly or entirely of
recent calcareous formations.[2] Excluding the innumerable islets
that have been formed on the coral reefs at the present sea-level,
we come first to those small islands and islets less than 100 feet in
height, such as the Three Sisters and Stirling Island, which are
composed entirely of coral limestone. In the next place there are
islands of larger size and greater height, such as Ugi, which are
composed in bulk of partially consolidated bedded deposits
containing numerous foraminifera, and possessing the characters of
the muds which were found by the “Challenger” Expedition to be at
present forming around oceanic volcanic islands in depths probably
of from 150 to 500 fathoms. Coral limestones encrust the lower
slopes of these islands and do not attain a greater thickness than
150 feet. The next type is to be found in Treasury Island which has a
similar structure to that of Ugi, but possesses in its centre an ancient
volcanic peak that was once submerged and is now covered over by
these recent deposits. Then, there are islands, such as the principal
island of the Shortlands, in which the volcanic mass has become an
eccentric nucleus, from which line after line of barrier-reef has been
advanced based on the soft deposits. These soft deposits contain
amongst other organic remains, the shells of pteropods and the tests
of foraminifera in great abundance. In such islands I did not find
that the coral limestone had a thickness of as much as 100 feet. In
this island the upraised reefs are based upon hard foraminiferal
limestones. Lastly, we have the upraised atoll of Santa Anna which
within the small compass of a height of 470 feet displays the several
stages of its growth; first, the originally submerged volcanic peak;
then, the investing soft deposit resembling in character a deep-sea
clay and considered to have been formed in considerable depths,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2353788-250528053149-b92682bd/85/Distributed-Generation-A-Nontechnical-Guide-Chambers-Ann-Schnoor-42-320.jpg)
![probably from 1500 to 2000 fathoms; and over all, the ring of coral
limestone that cannot far exceed 150 feet in thickness. The islands
formed mainly of the soft foraminiferous deposits have long level
summits free from peaks. Judging from their profiles, the islands of
Ulaua and Ronongo will be found to possess the structure of Ugi and
Treasury. The western end of Choiseul has a very significant profile,
and I have little doubt from my examination of the lower slopes that
this extremity of the island is mainly composed of the recent soft
deposits.
[2] Vide my paper on this subject (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.: vol. xxxii., p.
545), and my work on the geology of this group.
I now proceed to refer very shortly to the coral reefs[3] of these
islands. The three principal classes are to be found in this region;
but of these, the fringing and barrier-reefs are more commonly
distributed, whilst the atolls are comparatively few in number and of
small size. A line of barrier-reefs, probably not much under 60 miles
in length and bearing innumerable islets on its surface, fronts the
east coasts of the islands of New Georgia at a distance of from one
to three miles from the shore. Extensive reefs of the same class,
having a broad deep-water channel inside them, lie off the large
island of Isabel and off the south-coast of Choiseul. Barrier-reefs, of
smaller extent, also skirt the west end of Guadalcanar and the
southern end of Bougainville. I have referred particularly to these
reefs because at the time that Mr. Darwin wrote his work on “Coral
Reefs,” fringing-reefs were alone believed to exist in these islands.
[3] Vide my paper on this subject. (Proc. Roy. Soc., Edin., 1885-86.)
The larger islands of the Solomon Group are often separated from
each other by depths of several hundred fathoms. St. Christoval, for
instance, is separated from the neighbouring islands of Guadalcanar
and Malaita by straits in which casts of 200 fathoms fail to reach the
bottom. On the other hand, the same 100 fathom line includes both
Bougainville and Choiseul. Judging, however, from the soundings
obtained by Lieut.-Commander Oldham between the islands lying off
the north coast of St. Christoval, it would appear probable that](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2353788-250528053149-b92682bd/85/Distributed-Generation-A-Nontechnical-Guide-Chambers-Ann-Schnoor-43-320.jpg)
Distributed Generation A Nontechnical Guide Chambers Ann Schnoor
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- 5. istributed eneration Distributed Generation: A Nontechnical Guide by Ann Chambers with Barry Schnoor and Stephanie Hamilton
- 6. Disclaimer The recommendations, advice, descriptions, and the methods in this book are presented solelyforeducationalpurposes.Theauthorandpublisherassumenoliabilitywhatsoever for any loss or damage that results from the use of any of the material in this book. Use of the material in this book is solely at the risk of the user. Copyright© 2001 by PennWell Corporation 1421 South Sheridan Road Tulsa, Oklahoma 74112-6600 USA 800.752.9764 +1.918.831.9421 sales@pennwell.com www.pennwellbooks.com www.pennwell.com National Account Executive: Barbara McGee Director: Mary McGee Managing Editor: Marla Patterson Production/Operations Manager: Traci Huntsman Cover & Book Designer: Kay Wayne Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chambers, Ann. Distributed Generation: a nontechnical guide / Ann Chambers p. cm. ISBN 0-87814-789-6 ISBN13 978-0-87814-789-2 1. Distributed generation of electric power. I. Title. TK1006 .C43 2001 621.31--dc21 2001021234 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 2 3 4 5 13 12 11 10 09
- 7. CONTENTS 1 Introduction ....................1 2 History and Drivers ..............21 3 Microturbines by Stephanie L. Hamilton ........ 33 4 Engines and Portable Power .......73 5 Fuel Cells 6 7 8 9 10 AppeftdixA Appeftdix B Iftdex by Barry Schnoor ..............83 Renewables .................. .121 Technical Issues ...............149 Utility Issues ..................157 Case Studies ..................167 Conclusion ...................185 Industry Contacts ............. .189 Distributed Generation Glossary ...205 ............................251
- 8. IIntroduction to Distributed Generation • ~ w Wft"'r""'X oday's distributed generation installations are in some ways a return to the early days of electrification. Thomas Edison's first power plants were small installations that illuminated only one or two square miles. Soon, however, Edison's de power facilities were overshadowed by George Westinghouse's ac facilities that could transmit power over great distances, leading to the utility-scale mammoths that became the mainstay of electric power generation in the United States. The large plants offered great economies of scale and transmitted power over a massive transmission grid. This is the technology that brought affordable electric power to our nation. These facilities ran primarily on fossil fuels. Our nuclear plants are general- lyeven larger versions of this utility-scale plant, with nuclear fuel running the steam generators. But the changing times have brought changing technologies and eco- nomics. Over the past decade or so, the uncertainty of impending dereg- ulation caused utilities to hold off on capital intensive construction proj- ects. This brought narrowing margins of excess capacity as our country's energy use continued to grow. These facts have given birth to the mer- chant power movement, powered primarily by large-scale gas turbines. But they also have led to the inclusion of smaller technologies in our power generation mix.
- 9. llntroduction to Distributed Generation Over the past decades, great strides have been made by research and development groups on a great many technologies. Fuel cells first used by NASA received government funding and industry participation for several decades. This technology is now on the verge ofcommercialization for trans- portation and stationary power generation. Similarly, small gas turbines have benefited from the advances in large- scale turbine development, bringing this technology to recent commercial competitive standing. Diesel and gasoline-powered engines, used in trans- portation, are suitable for a variety of power generation uses and they have certainly made great advances in efficiencies, reliability, and emissions reduc- tion from the transportation industry. These are becoming ever more com- mon in the power generation world. (Fig. 1-1) Renewable technologies such as wind power, landfill gas, solar, and geo- thermal are also vying for a portion oftoday's much needed new power gen- eration capacity. Government assistance in research and, in some cases, tax Fig. 1-1 Small modular units needlittle space and take very little time to install ThisJS 100 Euro Silentgeneration package is equipped with aJohn Deere 4045 HF 157Powertech engine. Itgenerates 100 kwe with relatively little noise - 70 dBA at 23 feet. 2
- 10. IQ)istribu~i~!!,~eneration: A Nontechnical Guide Fig. 1-2 Completion ofa NedWind 500 kW wind turbine generator. The plant is expected to generate 2.6 million kWh annually, enough to meet the annual electricity demand ofmore than 800 households. Wind generation is particularly popular in rural areas, because it can allow formers to generate additional income from grazing lands while still using the landfor forming. The wind turbines use only a tiny frac- tion of the land they are sited on. Today's wind turbine models are for quieter than previous generatiom. credits or other incentives, help make these technologies more viable. With the national grid showing its age, and with new transmission lines almost non-existent, distributed gen- eration receives a great boon. These small, generally quiet facilities can be placed next to or near to the customer or customers needing their power. (Fig. 1-2) Restructuring and Deregulation Utility restructuring, technology evolution, environmental policies, and an expanding power market are pro- viding the impetus for distributed generation's growth into an important energy option. Utility restructuring opens energy markets, allowing the customer to choose an energy provider, method of delivery, and ancillary services. The market forces favor small, modular power technolo- gies that can be installed quickly in response to market signals. This restructuring comes at a time when the demand for electricity is escalating both domestically and internationally. Impressive gains have been made in the cost and performance of small, modular distributed generation tech- nologies. Regional and global environ- 3
- 11. ITntroduction to Distributed Generation mental concerns have placed a premium on efficiency and environmental performance. Concerns are growing regarding the reliability and quality of electric power. A portfolio of small gas-fired power systems is coming onto the market with the potential to revolutionize that market. Their size and clean per- formance allow them to be sited at or near customer sites for distributed gen- eration applications. These systems often allow fuel flexibility by operating on natural gas, propane, or fuel gas from any hydrocarbon. These include coal, biomass and waste from an assortment of sources including refineries, municipalities, and the forestry and agricultural industries. Technologies such as gas turbines and reciprocating engines are already making a contribution and they have more to offer through focused devel- opment efforts. Fuel cells are entering the market, but need more research and development to see widespread deployment. Also, fuel cellfturbine hybrid systems and upcoming generation fuel cells offer even more poten- tial. (Table 1-1) Distributed Generation Defined Distributed generation generally applies to relatively small generating units of 30 MW or less sited at or near customer sites to meet specific cus- tomer needs, to support economic operation of the existing distribution grid, or both. Reliability of service and power quality are enhanced by the proximity to the customer, and efficiency is often boosted in on-site appli- cations by using the heat from power generation. While central power systems remain critical to the nation's energy sup- ply, their flexibility is limited. Large power generation facilities are capital- intensive undertakings that require an immense transmission and distribu- tion grid to move the power. Distributed generation complements central power by providing a rela- tively low capital cost response to incremental jumps in power demand. It avoids transmission and distribution capacity upgrades by siting the power where it is most needed and by having the flexibility to send power back into the grid when needed. 4
- 12. IQ)istribl:!!~~n Generation: A Nontechnical Guide Combustion Di...cb, Internal Fud Microturbin... Fi;:'~ Turbin... Combustion Cells H rids Applications On/off grid On/off grid Onloffgrid On/off grid Onloffgrid Capacity 1-2SOMW SO kW-IOMW 2kW-2MW 2S-SOOkW 2SOkW-3MW Operating life 40,000 hr 40,000 hr 10,000 hr 40,000 hr 40,000 hr Capital cost ($) 400-600/kW SOO-800/kW 3,000/kW SSO/kW I,SOO/kW' O&Mcost S-IO miUs/kWh 10-IS mills/kWh S-IS miUs/kWh S-IO mills/kWh S-10 mills/kWh Heat rate 8,000-10,Soo 9,000-11,000 9,SOO 12,SOO 6,000 (BtnlkWh) Source: Edison International *proj"ud at maturity Table 1-1 Distributed Generation Technology Statistics Technological advances through decades of research have yielded major improvements in the economic, operational, and environmental perform- ance of small, modular power generation options. This emerging group of distributed generation choices is changing the way energy service companies, independent power producers, and customers VIew energy. Applications The main applications for distributed generation so far tend to fall into five main categories: • Standby power • Combined heat and power • Peak shaving • Grid support • Stand alone Standby power is used for customers that cannot tolerate interruption of service for either public health and safety reasons, or where outage costs are unacceptably high. Since most outages occur as a result ofstorm or accident related T&D system breakdown, on-site standby generators are installed at locations such as hospitals, water pumping stations, and electronic depend- ent manufacturing facilities. Combined heat and power applications make use of the heat from the process ofgenerating electricity, increasing the efficiency ofthe fuel use. Most 5
- 13. ITntroduction to Distributed Generation power generation technologies create a great deal of heat. If the generating facility is located at or near a customer's site, that heat can be used for com- bined heat and power (CHP) or cogeneration applications. CHP significant- ly boosts system efficiency when it is applied to mid- to high-thermal use cus- tomers such as process industries, large office buildings, and hospitals. Power costs can fluctuate hour to hour depending on demand and gen- eration availability. These hourly variations are converted into seasonal and daily time-of-use rate categories such as on-peak, off-peak, or shoulder rates. Customer use of distributed generation during relatively high-cost on-peak periods is called peak shaving. Peak shaving benefits the energy supplier as well, when energy costs approach energy prices. The transmission and distribution grid is an integrated network ofgenera- tion, high voltage transmission, substations, and lower-voltage local distribution. Placing distributed generation at strategic points on the grid--grid support- can assure the grid's performance and eliminate the need for expensive upgrades. Stand-alone distributed generation serves the customer but is not con- nected to the grid, either by choice or by circumstance. Some of these appli- cations are in remote areas where the cost of connecting to the grid is cost prohibitive. Such applications include users that require stringent control of the quality of their electric power, such as computer chip manufacturers. Customer Benefits Distributed generation ensures reliability of the energy supply, which is increasingly critical to business and industry. Reliability is essential to some industries where interruption of service creates extremely expensive prob- lems by suddenly shutting down machinery or in industries where health and safety is endangered by sudden outages. Distributed generation is also able to provide the quality power needed in many industrial applications that are dependent on sensitive electronic instrumentation and controls that cannot withstand power dips or surges. It can also offer efficiency gains for on-site applications by avoiding line losses and by using both the electricity and heat produced in power genera- tion for industrial processes, heating, or air conditioning. 6
- 14. IQ)istri~,:!!!?,? Generation: A Nontechnical Guide Customers can benefit by saving on their electricity bill by self-generat- ing during high-cost peak power periods and by taking advantage of rela- tively low-cost interruptible power rates from their utility. It allows facilities to be sited in inexpensive remote locations without the need to incur the expense ofbuildingdistribution lines to connect to the main grid. Distributed generation increasingly offers an assortment oftechnologies and fuels, allowing the customer to choose an application that best suits his needs. Also, with each new generation in many technologies, the amount of space needed to house the generation systems shrinks, allowing more flexi- bility in siting. Supplier Benefits Distributed generation limits the capital exposure and risk because of the size, siting flexibility, and fast installation of these systems. It avoids unnecessary capital expenditure by closely matching capacity increases to growth in demand. It also avoids major investments in trans- mission and distribution system upgrades by siting the generation near the customer. It also offers a relatively low-cost entry into a competitive market. It opens the markets in remote areas that do not have an established grid and in areas that do not have power due to environmental concerns. National Benefits National benefits of distributed generation include the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through efficiency gains and through potential renewable resource use. Distributed generation responds to the increasing energy demands and pollutant emission concerns while providing low-cost, reliable energy industry needs to maintain competitiveness in the global marketplace. Recent technological advances have positioned the United States to export distributed generation to a rapidly growing world energy market, much ofwhich has no transmission and distribution grid. 7
- 15. ITntroduction to Distributed Generation It is establishing a new industry with the potential to create billions of dollars in sales and hundreds of thousands ofjobs. It also enhances produc- tivity through improved reliability and quality of delivered power. The Market The coming importance of distributed generation can be seen in the estimated size of the market. Domestically, new demand combined with plant retirements is projected to require up to 1.7 trillion kWh of addition- al electric power by 2020: That is almost twice the growth of the last 20 years. Over the next decade, the domestic distributed generation market is expected to jump to 5 GW to 6 GW annually to keep up with demand. Worldwide forecasts show electricity consumption increasing from 12 trillion kWh in 1996 to 22 trillion kWh in 2020. Much of this jump is expected to come from developing countrieswithout national power gen- eration grids. The projected distribution generation capacity increase associated with the global market is estimate at 20 GW annually over the coming decade. The anticipated surge in the distributed generation market can be attrib- uted to several factors. Under utility restructuring, energy suppliers, not the customer, must shoulder the financial risk of the capital investments associ- ated with capacity additions. This favors less capital-intensive projects and shorter construction schedules. Also, while opening the energy market, util- ity restructuring places pressure on reserve margins, as energy suppliers increase capacity factors on existing plants to meet growing demand rather than install new capacity. This also increases the probability of forced out- ages. As a result, customer concerns over reliability have escalated, particu- larly those in the manufacturing industry. With the increasing use ofsensitive electronic components, the need for reliable, high-quality power supplies is ever more important in most indus- tries. The cost of power outages or poor quality power can be disastrous in industries with continuous processing and pinpoint quality specifications. Studies indicate that nationwide, power fluctuations cause annual losses of $12 billion to $26 billion. 8
- 16. IQ)istributi~,!"~eneration: A Nontechnical Guide As the electric power market opens up, the pressure for improved envi- ronmental performance increases. In many regions of the country, there is near-zero tolerance for additional pollutant emissions as the regions strive to gain compliance. Public policy, reflecting concerns over global climate change, is providing incentives for capacity additions that offer high effi- ciency and use of renewable energy sources. (Fig. 1-3) Overseas, the utility industry is undergoing change as well, with market forces displacing government controls and public pressure forcing more stringent environmental standards. There is an increasing effort to bring commercial power to an estimated two billion people in rural areas through- out the globe who are currently without access to a power grid. Distributed generation is becoming an increasingly popular solution for the future power needs of the United States, primarily because of continu- ing deregulation of electric power. Tying the merchant power trend to dis- tributed generation allows developers to take advantage of opportunities where traditional utility plants are not the best solution. Large utility plants may sometimes be at a disadvantage in a competitive environment. Big Fig. 1-3 Solar arrays such as this one in California are well suited to sunny locales. While the imtallation cost is relatively high, there is noflllowingfuel cost. A great benefit in areas with air quality concerm, renewable generation from solar or windpower, create no objectionable emissiom. 9
- 17. plants can generate a large amount of electricity at a moderate price, but there are often problems with running these plants at low loads. Transmission infrastructure construction is becoming more and more of an expense and problem for utilities as well. Distributed generation plants can avoid both problems by installing capacity where it is needed. With dis- tributed generation, a small power generation unit can be placed on-site, or very close, to the facility or facilities that need the power. This eliminates costly overbuilding ofcapacity and expensive transmission line construction. The mini-merchant for distributed generation is a new concept, refer- ring to a distributed generation facility that seeks to match its generating portfolio to a local or regional electricity demand profile in the most efficient and economic way. These plants are typically cogeneration facilities, with overall thermal efficiencies as high as 88%. When compared directly to the separate production ofelectricity and thermal energy, these plant can reduce the C02 emission by 50% for the same amount of useful energy. They may also reduce the amount offuel used by up to 50%. The mini-merchant plant model hinges on overall economics and how cogeneration and distributed generation fit together. For distributed genera- tion merchant facilities to work well, several characteristics must exist-flex- ible dispatch, load following, duty cycle, cogeneration, power production, and service territory. These plants can be run on internal combustion engines or Fig. 1-4 The Wartsila 1,200-rpm 18V220 SG engine provides intermedi- ate loadpower. It is rated at 2.5 Mw. 10 gas turbines. (Figs. 1-4 and 1-5) The electricity production capacity must be capable of being dispatched, cycling on and off based on the price of alternative sources of electricity. To facilitate dispatch, the mini-merchant relies on three classes of generators, responding to base load, interme- diate load, and peak load demand requirements. Effective dispatch requires that all engines be capable of starting and synchronizing in less than 30 seconds. In most
- 18. IQ)istribu~~~~~ ,~eneration: A Nontechnical Guide Fig. 1-5 Gas Power Systems 1.2 MWInnovator genset can use liquid orgaseous fuels. cases, this capability will be unnecessary, but it could be required. Rapid load changes must also be accommodated without tripping off the load and maintenance should not be affected by repeated starting and stopping ofthe units. These abilities make these small plants far more flexible than standard utility-scale units. For distributed generation applications, load following capabilities are essential. Reciprocating engine efficiency is reasonably flat between 40% and 100% load for individual generators. By having several engines, it is possible to load follow a local area from base to peak with little effect on efficiency. Large-scale utility plants do not enjoy this luxury. They generally have lim- ited load range for top efficiency. The difference between baseload and peak averages 100%. For instance, electricity load in the summer months is low at night, when many industri- al customers are closed and air conditioners are running very little. But dur- ing the day when the industrial customers are operating and air condition- ers are cycling, the power demand jumps 100% or more. To minimize the capital cost for a distributed generation plant, it is important to match the generating equipment type to the expected duty. Peaking requirements are met through peaking generating equipment, inter- mediate generation is used for intermediate needs and baseload equipment provides for baseload needs. 11
- 19. ITntroduction to Distributed Generation Thermal energy production, called cogeneration, helps optimize effi- ciency for distributed generation facilities. Thermal energy production must be reliable with or without electricity production for this ability to truly to be an asset. Natural gas engines have a fairly high exhaust temperature of more than 770 degrees Fahrenheit, corresponding to a plant thermal capac- ity of more than 24 MWth. Heat is recovered from exhaust gases and used for thermal needs in the facility. The amount of electricity produced at a cogeneration distributed generation plant or mini-merchant is determined by the size of the ther- mal host. This ensures that the production efficiency is maintained at an optimum level. When there is little thermal need, all of the generation costs are absorbed by the electricity cost, with none going to a thermal power cost. If electricity is needed at a time when thermal needs are low, the decision to produce electricity versus buying it from outside will depend on a comparison of the incremental cost of production and pur- chase. Normally the cost of purchasing outside electricity is lowest when weather is moderate. Extremes in climate in both summer and winter increase the electrical demands. In the open market, there are times when low electricity load conditions on the grid force "must run" facilities belonging to utilities to discount their energy to near zero pricing. When this happens, on-site generating facilities need to have the flexibility to purchase that low cost outside power. The goal of distributed generation, however, is to minimize reliance on the transmis- sion grid for peaking and intermediate generation, and to produce baseload generation when it is economically practical. Using distributed generation resources sited close to loads allows utili- ties and other energy service providers to • provide peak shaving in high load growth areas, • avoid difficulties in permitting or gaining approval for transmission line rights-of-way, • reduce transmission line costs and associated electrical losses, and • provide inside-the-fence cogeneration at customers' indus- trial or commercial sites. 12
- 20. IQ)istriblJ!j,~~peneration: A Nontechnical Guide Homeowner Demand One million homeowners a year are purchasing backup power systems for their homes, according to figures compiled by Briggs & Stratton. In recent years, Y2K fears, weather patterns such as EI Nino and La Nina and their ensuing ice storms, tornadoes, blizzards, hurricanes and heat waves are creating nervous customers looking to ensure their reliability. The summer outages of 1999 prompted the Department of Energy (DOE) to commission a Power Outage Study Team to evaluate electric reli- ability. The team's interim report was released earlier this year, predicting that sections ofthe country will continue to experience serious outages until operations, regulations, and technology can catch up with demand. There are a multitude of issues that can drive homeowners to backup power systems, including loss ofheat, flooded basements when sump pumps lose power, freezer and refrigerator contents spoiling, family members on life-sustaining home medical equipment, and telecommuters who need elec- tronic equipment for their employment. "I think it is a trend. People want to be protected, particularly those peo- ple who are working at home, where going without power for 30 to 36 hours would be a real problem," says Walt Steoppelwerth, known as the "Remodeling Guru." ''A lot of builders are now offering entire electrical packages to support all the needs in a home." Using a permanent transfer system makes a portable generator safer and more convenient for homeowners. The most critical circuits are connected to the generator via the transfer system. Then, if the power goes out, those circuits can be turned on at the transfer switch. Backup power systems, including a transfer switch and either a 5,000 W or 7,500 W generator and emergency power transfer system, can be pur- chased for $1,000 to $1,500. They are available at many home improve- ment, hardware or outdoor power equipment retailers. Combustion Turbines Two types of combustion turbines are available for 1 MW to 25 MW distributed generation. Heavy-frame models are relatively rugged with mas- 13
- 21. llntroduction to Distributed Generation sive casings and rotors. Aeroderivative designs, based on aircraft turbofan engines, are much lighter than the heavy-frame models and operate at high- er temperature ratios. They also have higher compression rations, so aeroderivative units have better simple-cycle efficiencies and lower exhaust gas temperatures than heavy-frame models. Combustion turbine designs typically have dual-fuel operation capabil- ity, with natural gas as the primary fuel and a high quality distillate, such as No.2 oil, as a back-up fuel. Because gas turbines have relatively high fuel gas pressure requirements, a natural gas compressor is usually needed unless the plant happens to be sited near a high-pressure cross-country natural gas pipeline. Combustion turbines typically require a minimum natural gas pressure of about 260 psi, while aeroderivative engines require a minimum natural gas pressure as high as 400 psi. A gas compressor can increase total plant cost by 5 to 10 per cent. Maintenance costs for heavy-frame units can be about one-half that of aeroderivative units. Major maintenance ofheavy-frame units may occur on- site, with an outage ofabout one week for a major overhaul. With aeroderiv- ative units, the gas generator can be replaced with a leased engine, minimiz- ing the power replacement costs associated with the maintenance outage. Aeroderivative engines can be replaced in two or three shifts, and the removed engine can be overhauled off-site. Microturbines The market for microturbine products will be a significant niche, total- ing $2.4 billion to $8 billion by 2010, and more than 50 percent of that market will be international. That's one of the conclusions reached by microturbine stakeholders, according to a market forecast from GR!. Microturbines are of growing interest for distributed power generation because they can deliver combined heat and power, onsite generation, and be the prime mover for refrigeration and air compression. (Fig. 1-6) Chicago-based GRI used the Delphi approach to conduct its "Microturbine Market and Industry Study." The project is intended to give an expert-based perspective of the market by separating hype from 14
- 22. lQ)istributi?~",?eneration: A Nontechnical Guide Fig. 1-6 Unicorn Distributed Energy and Honeywell/Allied Signal Power Systems have demonstrated the Parallon 75 microturbine at an energy efficient McDonald's in Bensenville, fL. economic reality. Thirty-seven experts, representing microturbine manufacturers, utilities, venture capital firms, energy service com- panies, government entities and other stakeholder organizations were surveyed. The study concludes that, while initial sales of microturbines will occur primarily in North America, more than halfofsales will be international by 2010. Many stakeholders feel microturbines can provide eight percent ofthe estimat- ed one million megawatts (MW) of new power capacity that will be needed by 2010. Manufacturers, experts, and utilities believe that the growth rate and market acceptance will be greater internationally, in the long run, because • fewer barriers are likely to be imposed by existing utilities, power providers or regulators; • fewer interconnection issues will arise because many appli- cations will be for "prime" power without grid intercon- nection, and • shorter value chains will exist, which reduces cost premiums. Reciprocating Engines Reciprocating engines vary greatly and have different designs depending on the fuel they burn. Natural gas-fired engines are known as spark ignition 15
- 23. ITntroduction to Distributed Generation or SI engines. Diesel oil-fired engines are known as compression ignition or CI engines. Compression ignition engines can also burn natural gas and a small amount of diesel fuel used as an ignition source. These are known as dual fuel engines. Distributed generation facilities using reciprocating engines often have several units, rating from 1 to 15 MW each. Medium-speed and high-speed engines derived from train, marine, and truck engines are best suited for dis- tributed generation because of their proven reliability, high efficiency, and low installed cost. High speed engines are generally favored for standby applications, whereas medium-speed engines are generally best suited for peaking and baseload duty. Reciprocating engines have long been used for energy generators in the United States. However, overseas their ruggedness and versatility have made them popular choices for remote power needs. Reciprocating engines have a higher efficiency than combustion tur- bines, although efficiency falls as unit size decreases. Aeroderivative tur- bines have higher efficiency than heavy-frame combustion turbines in this small size range. Reliability and availability are important cost-related issues for distrib- uted generation facilities. A 1993 survey found that 56 medium-speed engines at 18 different plants had an average availability ofmore than 91%. Combustion turbine plants demonstrate availabilities exceeding 95%. Environmental performance ofthese technologies depends on what emis- sion is being considered. For NOx and CO, combustion turbine emissions are 50% to 70% lower than those of reciprocating engines. The NOx and CO emissions can make it difficult to get permits for reciprocating engines in some states. For C02 emissions, reciprocating engines have lower emissions than combustion turbines because oftheir higher simple-cycle efficiency. Potential The worldwide market for distributed generation-size combustion tur- bines and reciprocating engines has grown in recent years. (Fig. 1-7) Combustion turbines saw 250 .orders in the 1 to 5 MW range in 1997, down from 280 orders in 1996. There were 187 orders in the 5 to 7.5 MW 16
- 24. IQ)istributi~~~~neration: A Nontechnical Guide range m 1997, up from 135 orders in 1996. There were 240 orders in the 5 to 15 MW range, up from 49 the previous year. Reciprocating engines in the 1 to 3.5 MW range saw 4,400 orders in 1997, up from only 1,200 in 1990. There were about 2,100 continuous duty engines sold in 1997, up from 1,300 in 1996. About 370 peaking-duty engines were sold in 1997, down from 870 sold in 1996. Distributed power systems account for less than 2 GW of electric power, but they are expected to provide as much as 50 GWby2015. Fuel Cells Fuel cells are poised to make signifi- cant contributions to the growing distrib- uted generation trend. After more than Fig. 1-7 The Capstone Model 330 can be grid connected or stand-aloneanditcan run on nat- uralgas, propane, orsourgas. They are used for load management, back-uppower orpeak shaving. 150 years ofresearch and development, the basic science has been developed and necessary materials improvements have been made to make fuel cells a commercial reality. Phosphoric acid fuel cells, the technology with the earli- est promise for large-scale generation, the phosphoric acid fuel cell, is now being offered commercially, with more than 100 200-kW units installed worldwide. More advanced designs, such as carbonate fuel cells and solid- oxide fuel cells, are the focus ofmajor electric utility efforts to bring the tech- nology to commercial viability. Fuel cells can be described as continuously operating batteries or an elec- trochemical engine. Like batteries, fuel cells produce power without com- bustion or rotating machinery. Fuel cells make electricity by combining hydrogen ions, drawn from a hydrogen-containing fuel, with oxygen atoms. Batteries provide the fuel and oxidant internally, which is why they must be recharged periodically. Fuel cells, on the other hand, use a supply of these 17
- 25. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 29. The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Solomon Islands and Their Natives
- 30. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: The Solomon Islands and Their Natives Author: H. B. Guppy Release date: March 22, 2013 [eBook #42388] Language: English Credits: E-text prepared by Steven Gibbs, Harry Lamé, Veronika Redfern, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOLOMON ISLANDS AND THEIR NATIVES ***
- 31. E-text prepared by Steven Gibbs, Harry Lamé, Veronika Redfern, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) Note:Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See https://archive.org/details/cu31924028691149 Please see Transcriber’s Note at the end of this text. THE SOLOMON ISLANDS
- 32. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. Large image (1500 x 990 px., 421 kB) THE SOLOMON ISLANDS
- 33. AND Their Natives. BY H . B . G U P P Y, M . B ., F. G . S . LATE SURGEON, R.N. L O N D O N : S W A N S O N N E N S C H E I N , L O W R E Y & C O ., P AT E R N O S T E R S Q U A R E , 1 8 8 7. S. Cowan & Co. Strathmore Printing Works, Perth.
- 35. W PREFACE. hen, in the beginning of 1881, H.M.S. “Lark” was being prepared for her commission as a surveying ship in the Western Pacific, I was selected by Sir John Watt Reid, the Medical Director-General of the Navy, to be appointed as Surgeon. For this selection I was also in some measure indebted to the late Sir Frederick Evans, then Hydrographer, who was desirous that a person possessing tastes for natural history should be chosen. I subsequently received some instructions from Dr. Günther, Keeper of Zoology in the British Museum, to whom I may take this opportunity of expressing my sincere thanks for the encouragement he gave to me during the commission. Unfortunately there were no public funds from which I could be assisted; and, as a matter of fact, I may state that all expenses had to come out of my pay as a naval surgeon. At the close of the commission I received, mainly through the influence of Dr. Günther, a promise of a grant of £150 from the Royal Society of London for the exploration of the interior of the large island of Guadalcanar; but a very serious illness prevented me from carrying out my intention, and thus an expedition, which I had looked forward to as a fitting completion of my work in these islands, was never undertaken. However, my disappointment was in some measure diminished on my arrival in England, after being invalided, by the important results arising from the examination by Dr. John Murray, Director of the Challenger Commission, of that portion of my geological collection which threw light on the formation of coral reefs, and which exhibited the deep- sea deposits of the Challenger Expedition as rocks composing islands in the Solomon Group. To Dr. Murray I am indebted for much kindness in many ways, and I gladly take this opportunity of expressing my sincerest thanks.
- 36. In this volume I have chiefly confined myself to my observations on the anthropology, natural history, botany, and meteorology of the group, having originally reserved my account of the geology and of the coral reefs, together with my special descriptions of the islands, for another volume, which I hoped to publish shortly, if my first undertaking proved a success. My reasons for thus acting were to be found in a lack of funds and in the necessity of not overlading my first venture, which, like a ship carrying a heavy though perhaps a valuable cargo, might founder within sight of the port of departure. This difficulty has been met by a generous arrangement of my publishers, in consequence of which both volumes will be brought out together. All my notes relating to these islands are there embodied, with the exception of my coral reef observations, which have been recently published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in their Proceedings (1885-1886). However, to make this volume more complete, I have added a short introductory chapter containing a general description of the islands. It is necessary that I should here briefly allude to the circumstances under which my observations and collections were made. Had I been previously aware of the difficulties and discomforts that would attend me, I should have hesitated to have performed more than a tithe of what I finally accomplished “per varios casus per tot discrimina rerum.” Inexperienced and deprived of any official support or recognition of other than my professional duties, I was only urged on by the consciousness of the importance of the work I had voluntarily undertaken. At length my health began to give way, and it was with mixed feelings of satisfaction and apprehension that I returned to the islands for the third and last year. One cause of continual worry lay in the fact that for two-thirds of the time spent in this region, I had only my cabin for the disposal of my collections, the size of the ship (a schooner of about 150 tons), and the arrangements made before leaving England, not permitting of any other plan.
- 37. Under these circumstances I received the greatest assistance from Lieut.-Commander C. F. Oldham, who, notwithstanding that he had received no instructions concerning myself, smoothed the way for me and gave me the opportunities I desired, often, it should be added, at the expense of much anxiety to himself. To the officers, Lieut. C. F. de M. Malan, Lieut. T. H. Heming, and Lieut. A. Leeper, I am lastingly indebted, not only for their constant aid, but also for the sympathy they evinced towards myself and my pursuits. From the petty-officers and crew I received much voluntary help, and I was often indebted to the services of Mr. Samuel Redman and Mr. Albert Rowe. My right-hand man was Mr. William Isabell who had been sent to the ship as Leading-Stoker to take charge of the condenser. Without his aid in the packing away of my collections and his cheerful readiness to assist me in every way throughout the commission, I should have broken down long before I did. To his careful attendance during my illness I owe my life. With reference to the different sections of this work, I should remark that the anthropological notes are for the most part now published for the first time. The translation of Gallego’s Journal and the historical sketch of the re-discovery of the group will, I hope, have a general as well as a special interest. In my natural history notes it will be seen that I am greatly indebted to the papers on my collections of shells and reptiles by Mr. Edgar Smith and Mr. G. A. Boulenger. For the identification of the greater part of my botanical collection, I am indebted to the courtesy of the officials at Kew and particularly to that of Prof. Oliver. I take this opportunity of acknowledging the kind assistance I received at Melbourne from Baron Ferd. von Mueller. My inexperience in botanical collecting considerably diminished the value of my collections, which have further suffered from the fact that I have been unable after repeated application to learn anything of a collection of ferns that I presented to the British Museum. During the commission I profited greatly by Lieut. Malan’s previous experiences of the Pacific Islands. To Lieut. Leeper I am greatly indebted, as shown in the chapters on the vocabulary of Bougainville Straits and on the meteorology of the
- 38. group. The enumeration of the many disinterested services I have received would carry me far beyond the limits of a preface. Of all of them I shall retain a lasting remembrance. HENRY BROUGHAM GUPPY. 17 Woodlane, Falmouth.
- 40. T INTRODUCTION. he Solomon Islands cover an area 600 miles in length. They include seven or eight large mountainous islands attaining an extreme height, as in the case of Guadalcanar and Bougainville, of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet, and possessing a length varying from 70 to 100 miles, and a breadth varying between 20 and 30 miles. In addition, there are a great number of smaller islands which range in size from those 15 to 20 miles in length to the tiny coral island only half a mile across. The islands fall naturally into two divisions, those mainly or entirely of volcanic formations and those mainly or entirely of recent calcareous formations. In the first division, St. Christoval may be taken as a type of the large mountainous islands possessing massive profiles, such as Guadalcanar, Malaita, Isabel, etc. St. Christoval, which rises to a height of 4,100 feet above the sea, is composed in the mass of much altered and sometimes highly crystalline volcanic rocks (such as, in their order of frequency, dolerites, diabases, diorites, gabbros, serpentines, and saussuritic felspar-rock) which, as I learn from Mr. T. Davies, have been both formed and altered at considerable depths and indicate great geological age and extensive denudation. Recent calcareous rocks, such as will be subsequently referred to in the description of the second division of islands, flank the lower slopes at the sea-border up to an elevation of 500 feet. Fragments of similar diorites, dolerites, and other dense basic rocks, all much altered and often schistose, have been transported by trees to the coral islets off the coasts of Guadalcanar and afford evidence of the geological structure of that island. Serpentines were obtained by Dr. Hombron in 1838[1] from St. George’s Island, which is “ipso facto” a
- 41. portion of Isabel. Bougainville and New Georgia are largely of more recent origin, as is indicated by their numerous symmetrical volcanic cones. However, the geological evidence at present at our disposal points generally to the great antiquity of the larger islands. The significance of this fact will be subsequently referred to. There can be little doubt that some of the mountainous islands will be found to yield in quantity the ores of tin and copper. A resident trader, Captain John Macdonald, has discovered arsenical pyrites and stream tin at the head of the Keibeck River in the interior of St. Christoval. A sample of stream tin from the south-east part of Bougainville was given to me by the Shortland chief. Copper will not improbably be found in association with the serpentine rocks of these islands. [1] “Voyage au Pole Sud et dans L’Océanie,” (D’Urville). Géologie: part ii., p. 211. The smaller islands of volcanic formation group themselves into two classes: (1.) Those which, like Fauro and some of the Florida Islands, are composed partly of modern rocks, such as hornblende and augite- andesites with their tuffs and agglomerates, and partly of ancient and often highly crystalline rocks such as, as I am informed by Prof. Judd and Mr. T. Davies, quartz-diorites, quartz-porphyries, altered dacites and dolerites, serpentines, saussuritic felspar-rock, etc. (2.) Those that are composed entirely or in the main of recently erupted rocks, islands which preserve the volcanic profile, possess craters, and sometimes exhibit signs of latent activity. Eddystone Island, which I examined, is probably typical of the majority of the islands of this class, such as Savo, Murray Island, and many others. It is composed of andesitic lavas of the augite type, is pierced by many fumaroles, and has a crater in the solfatara stage. Savo, though quiescent in the present day, has been in eruption within the memory of living men, and was in a state of activity in 1567 when the Spaniards discovered the group. Fumaroles and sulphur-deposits occur in Vella-la-vella. It may, however, be generally stated that the
- 42. volcanic forces in these regions are in a quiescent condition at the present day, there being only one vent in active eruption, viz., Mount Bagana in the interior of Bougainville. Many small islands with volcanic profiles show no evidence of a latent activity. Amongst them I may mention those of Bougainville Strait, which are composed of andesitic lavas of the hornblende type. I now pass to those islands which are composed mainly or entirely of recent calcareous formations.[2] Excluding the innumerable islets that have been formed on the coral reefs at the present sea-level, we come first to those small islands and islets less than 100 feet in height, such as the Three Sisters and Stirling Island, which are composed entirely of coral limestone. In the next place there are islands of larger size and greater height, such as Ugi, which are composed in bulk of partially consolidated bedded deposits containing numerous foraminifera, and possessing the characters of the muds which were found by the “Challenger” Expedition to be at present forming around oceanic volcanic islands in depths probably of from 150 to 500 fathoms. Coral limestones encrust the lower slopes of these islands and do not attain a greater thickness than 150 feet. The next type is to be found in Treasury Island which has a similar structure to that of Ugi, but possesses in its centre an ancient volcanic peak that was once submerged and is now covered over by these recent deposits. Then, there are islands, such as the principal island of the Shortlands, in which the volcanic mass has become an eccentric nucleus, from which line after line of barrier-reef has been advanced based on the soft deposits. These soft deposits contain amongst other organic remains, the shells of pteropods and the tests of foraminifera in great abundance. In such islands I did not find that the coral limestone had a thickness of as much as 100 feet. In this island the upraised reefs are based upon hard foraminiferal limestones. Lastly, we have the upraised atoll of Santa Anna which within the small compass of a height of 470 feet displays the several stages of its growth; first, the originally submerged volcanic peak; then, the investing soft deposit resembling in character a deep-sea clay and considered to have been formed in considerable depths,
- 43. probably from 1500 to 2000 fathoms; and over all, the ring of coral limestone that cannot far exceed 150 feet in thickness. The islands formed mainly of the soft foraminiferous deposits have long level summits free from peaks. Judging from their profiles, the islands of Ulaua and Ronongo will be found to possess the structure of Ugi and Treasury. The western end of Choiseul has a very significant profile, and I have little doubt from my examination of the lower slopes that this extremity of the island is mainly composed of the recent soft deposits. [2] Vide my paper on this subject (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.: vol. xxxii., p. 545), and my work on the geology of this group. I now proceed to refer very shortly to the coral reefs[3] of these islands. The three principal classes are to be found in this region; but of these, the fringing and barrier-reefs are more commonly distributed, whilst the atolls are comparatively few in number and of small size. A line of barrier-reefs, probably not much under 60 miles in length and bearing innumerable islets on its surface, fronts the east coasts of the islands of New Georgia at a distance of from one to three miles from the shore. Extensive reefs of the same class, having a broad deep-water channel inside them, lie off the large island of Isabel and off the south-coast of Choiseul. Barrier-reefs, of smaller extent, also skirt the west end of Guadalcanar and the southern end of Bougainville. I have referred particularly to these reefs because at the time that Mr. Darwin wrote his work on “Coral Reefs,” fringing-reefs were alone believed to exist in these islands. [3] Vide my paper on this subject. (Proc. Roy. Soc., Edin., 1885-86.) The larger islands of the Solomon Group are often separated from each other by depths of several hundred fathoms. St. Christoval, for instance, is separated from the neighbouring islands of Guadalcanar and Malaita by straits in which casts of 200 fathoms fail to reach the bottom. On the other hand, the same 100 fathom line includes both Bougainville and Choiseul. Judging, however, from the soundings obtained by Lieut.-Commander Oldham between the islands lying off the north coast of St. Christoval, it would appear probable that
- 44. depths of 400 fathoms commonly occur between the islands of the Solomon Group. Although the soundings hitherto made in this portion of the Western Pacific go to show that this archipelago, together with New Ireland and New Britain, are included within the same 1,000 fathom line, which extends as a loop from the adjacent borders of New Guinea, we can scarcely urge this fact as evidence of a former land connection, seeing that one of the most interesting features in the geological history of this region is that of the enormous elevation which these islands have experienced in recent and probably sub-recent times. Independently of the character of the deposits discovered by me in the Solomon Islands, I arrived at the conclusion that there had been a recent upheaval of at least 1,500 feet. The characters of some of the deposits, as examined by Dr. Murray in the light of the “Challenger” soundings, however, afford indications of an upheaval of a far more extensive nature. I am informed, in fact, by Mr. H. B. Brady, that the foraminifera of some of the Treasury Island rocks indicate depths of probably from 1500 to 2000 fathoms. Geologists may look forward with the greatest interest to the results of the examination by Mr. Brady of the foraminiferous deposits of the Western Pacific. One of the most important results will be to establish the great elevation which has occurred in this region during Post-Tertiary times. We are therefore justified in regarding the island groups of the Western Pacific as having always retained their insular condition, situated, as they are, in a region of upheaval, and separated, as they are, from each other and from the Australian continent by depths of from 1,000 to 2,400 fathoms. I have already pointed out that the volcanic rocks of the large islands of the Solomon Group are geologically ancient. Their elevation and the great subaerial denudation which they have experienced afford indications of the insular condition having been preserved from remote ages. It is this prolonged isolation that explains the occurrence of the peculiar forms of the amphibia which I discovered in Bougainville Straits, and that accounts for many of the peculiarities of the fauna of this archipelago.
- 45. Having thus briefly considered the leading geological and hydrological features of this group, I pass on to consider these islands in the point of view of an intending settler. They are for the most part clothed with dense forest and rank undergrowth, and it is only here and there, as in the western portion of Guadalcanar and in limited localities in St. Christoval, that the forest gives place to long grass and ferns, a change often corresponding with the passage from a clayey and calcareous to a dry porous and volcanic soil. As a rule, the calcareous districts of a large island possess a rich red argillaceous soil, often 5 or 6 feet in thickness, and in such localities the streams are large and numerous. In the districts of volcanic formation the soil is dry, friable, and porous, whilst the streams are few in number and of no great size. In the principal island of the Shortlands the difference in the character of the soil between the volcanic north-west part and the remaining calcareous portion is well exhibited. In the smaller islands the soil varies in character according to the formation, those of volcanic origin being singularly destitute of streams. In chapter XVII. I have dwelt with some detail on the climate. The healthiest portion of the group would, as I think, be found in the eastern islands, and the healthiest part of each island would be that which is exposed to the blast of the south-east trade during a large portion of the year. The excessive annual rainfall, the humid atmosphere, together with the enervating season of the north-west monsoon, are amongst the chief evils of the climate. Malarious districts can be readily avoided by shunning the low-lying damp districts on the lee sides of islands. Dysentery is rare on account of the general purity of the water. But, if we believe native testimony, which I have found most reliable and which in this instance agrees with my own, the streams draining calcareous regions are least liable to suspicion. Should an intending settler ask me whether the climate is suitable for the European, I would reply that with proper precautions as to his habits and the selection of a site, the white- man can here preserve his health as well as in most other tropical islands in these latitudes.
- 46. I will conclude this introduction with some remarks on the vexed question of making annexations and forming protectorates in the Western Pacific. From the eagerness of our Australian colonies to control them and of France and Germany to possess them, the presumption arises that the islands in this region are worth holding. Yet, how surprising have been the changes within the last four years! When in 1882 I was in the Solomon Islands, British influence was recognised as paramount in New Guinea and throughout the Western Pacific. At the present time the British flag has been almost squeezed out of the Western Pacific. In April of this year (1886), the British and German Governments came to an arrangement by which the northern side of New Guinea together with New Britain, New Ireland, and the adjacent western half of the Solomon Group passed under the protection, or in other words into the practical possession, of Germany; whilst Great Britain by this arrangement was to consider the remaining islands of the Western Pacific and the south coast of New Guinea as her sphere of action. It is only in New Guinea that Great Britain has exercised her right. Amongst the remaining islands of the Western Pacific she has little scope either for acquiring territory or for establishing a protectorate. France possesses New Caledonia and in a geographical sense she can claim not only the Loyalty Islands but the New Hebrides Group. There only remains then for Great Britain the Santa Cruz Islands and the adjacent eastern half of the Solomon Group, in which, if she chooses, she can exercise her rights without dispute. England’s wisest policy in the Western Pacific is to recognise the existing condition of things, and to deal with France as generously as she has dealt with Germany. Stifling my own patriotic regrets, I cannot but think that the presence of Germany in these regions will be fraught with great advantage to the world of science. When we recall our spasmodic efforts to explore New Guinea and the comparatively small results obtained, when we remember to how great an extent such attempts have been supported by private enterprise and how little they have been due to government or even to semi-official aid, we have reason to be glad that the exploration of
- 47. these regions will be conducted with that thoroughness which can only be obtained when, as in the case of Germany, geographical enterprises become the business of the State.
- 49. pp. 1-12 pp. 13-40 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. A Traveller’s Difficulties—Islands of which Science has no ken—Bush-Walking a Tedious Process—Ascent of Stream-Courses—Heavy Annual Rainfall—Native Companions—Mysterious Influence of the Fragrant Weed—Odd-looking Party of Geologists—A Night on the Summit of Treasury Island—Experiences in a Rob Roy Canoe—Narrow Escape from Drowning—Nature of the Work performed by the Officers of Survey—An Apparent Injustice CHAPTER II. GOVERNMENT—HEAD-HUNTING—SLAVERY—CANNIBALISM. Hereditary Chieftainship—St. Christoval—Coast Tribes and Bush Tribes—Their unceasing Hostility—Head-Hunting and Head-Money—Greater Power of the Chiefs of Bougainville Straits—Gorai, the Shortland Chief—How the Treasury Islanders became our Friends—Fauro and its Chief—Choiseul Bay—In the calmest Seas there are occasional Storms—A Tragedy, in several Acts—Hostilities between Alu and Treasury—Væ Feminis!—Tambu Ban—Slavery, an easy Servitude if it were not for one grave Contingency—A Purveyor of Human Flesh—Cannibalism—A Béa— Fattening for the Market CHAPTER III. THE FEMALE SEX—POLYGAMY—MODES OF BURIAL, &c. Position of the Female Sex—Infanticide—The Women are the Cultivators—A Plea for Polygamy—Marital Establishments—Kaika, the principal Wife of the Shortland
- 50. pp. 41-56 pp. 57-80 pp. 81-97 pp. 98-129 pp. 130-145 Chief—Her Death—The Obsequies—Modes of Burial—Superstitious Beliefs— Sorcerers—Method of Recording Time—The Pleiades CHAPTER IV. DWELLINGS—TAMBU-HOUSES—WEAPONS—TOOLS. Villages—Houses—Pile-Dwellings—Mat-Making—Domestic Utensils—Pottery Manufacture—Modes of Producing Fire—Torches—Tambu-Houses—Deification of the Shark—Weapons—Polished Stone Implements—Ancient Worked Flints— Whence did they come?—Who were the Artificers? CHAPTER V. CULTIVATION—FOOD, &C. Cultivation—Sago Palm—Diet essentially Vegetarian—Common Vegetables and Fruits—Modes of Cooking—Articles of Animal Food—Modes of Cooking—Tobacco Smoking—Betel Chewing CHAPTER VI. THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERS AND RACE-AFFINITIES OF THESE ISLANDERS. Race Affinities—Migrations of the Pacific Islanders—Evidence derived from the Native Names of Littoral Trees—A Typical Solomon Islander—Variations in the Type —Physical Measurements—Height—Weight—Limbs—Skull—Features—Hair—Colour of Skin—Powers of Vision—Colour-sense—Gestures and Expressions of the Emotions—Disposition—The Estimation of Dumont D’Urville—My Own CHAPTER VII. DRESS—TATTOOING—SONGS, &C. Dress—Personal Ornaments—Fondness for Decorating Themselves with Flowers— Tattooing—Head Coverings—Ornamentation—Songs—Musical Instruments— Dances—Boys’ Games
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