![REALIZATION OF NOT GATE
USING TRANSISTOR
A ISHIGH:
o When +5v is applied to a, the
transistor will be fully on.
o So maximum collector
current will flow and vcc
=icr, making vc or voltage at
point b as zero. [Recall ce
loop kvl: vc=vcc-icr].
o A IS LOW:
When 0v is applied to a, the
transistor will be cut-off.
So ic=0ma and vc or voltage
at point b is equal to vcc.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/366009685-sampling-gates-240615172502-a8654faa/85/Engeneering-Model-Traffic-Lights-Circuit-24-320.jpg)
![Direct-coupled transistor
logic (DCTL)
• Direct-coupled transistor logic (DCTL) is similar to resistor–
transistor logic (RTL) but the input transistor bases are connected
directly to the collector outputs without any base resistors.
Consequently, DCTL gates have fewer components, are more
economical, and are simpler to fabricate onto integrated circuits
than RTL gates. Unfortunately, DCTL has much smaller signal
levels, has more susceptibility to ground noise, and requires
matched transistor characteristics. The transistors are also heavily
overdriven; that is a good feature in that it reduces the saturation
voltage of the output transistors, but it also slows the circuit down
due to a high stored charge in the base.[1] Gate fan-out is limited
due to "current hogging": if the transistor base-emitter voltages
(VBE) are not well matched, then the base-emitter junction of one
transistor may conduct most of the input drive current at such a
low base-emitter voltage that other input transistors fail to turn on](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/366009685-sampling-gates-240615172502-a8654faa/85/Engeneering-Model-Traffic-Lights-Circuit-33-320.jpg)
Engeneering Model Traffic Lights Circuit
- 1. UNIT -6 SAMPLING GATES AND LOGIC FAMILIES
- 2. Sampling Gates • Sampling Gates are also called as Transmission gates,linear gates and selection circuits,in which the output is exact reproduction of the input during a selected time intervaland zero otherwise. • It has two inputs – gating signal, rectangular wave • Twotypes • Unidirectional • Bidirectional Gating Input Sampling Gate Output
- 3. Principle of operation of a linear gate: • Principle of operation of a linear gate: Lineargates can use (a) a series switch or (b) a shunt switchfig
- 4. Unidirectional Gate • unidirectional sampling gates are those which transmit signals of only one polarity(i.e,. either positive ornegative) • The gating signal is also known as control pulse, selector pulse or an enabling pulse. It is a negative signal, the magnitude of which changes abruptly between –V2 and –V1.
- 5. Unidirectional gate • Consider the instant at which the gate signal is –V1 which is a reasonably large negative voltage. Even if an input pulse is present at this time instant, the diode remains OFF as the input pulse amplitude may not be sufficiently large so as to forward bias it. Hence there is no output. Now consider the duration when the gate signal has a value –V2 and when the input is also present (coincidence occurs).
- 6. Output waveform • When the control signal shifted toupward
- 7. pedestal • When the control signal is shifted to positive value ,so it willbe superimposed on input and control signals .so the pedestal occurs
- 8. Unidirectional diode coincidence gate • When any of the control voltages is at –V1, point X is at a large negative voltage, even if the input pulse Vs is present., D0 is reverse biased. Hence there is no signal atthe output. • When all the control voltages, on the other hand, are at –V2 , if an input signal Vs ispresent, D0 is forward biased and the output is a pulse of 5V .Hence this circuit is a coincidence circuit or ANDcircuit.
- 9. Bidirectional Sampling gate • Bidirectional sampling gates are those which transmit signals of both the polarities.
- 10. Bidirectional Sampling gate using Transistor • Bidirectional sampling gates are those which transmit signals of both thepolarities.
- 11. Circuit that minimizes the pedestal • Circuit that minimizes the pedestal
- 12. Contd … • The control signal applied to the base of Q2 is of opposite polarity to that applied to the base of Q1. When the gating signal connected to Q1 is negative, Q1 is OFF and at the same time the gating signal connected to Q2 drives Q2 ON and draws current IC. As a result there is a dc voltage Vdc at the collector. But when the gate voltage at the base of Q1 drives Q1 ON, Q2 goes OFF. But during this gate period if the input signal is present, it is amplified and is available at the output, with phase inversion. But the dc reference level practically is Vdc. As such the pedestal is either eliminated or minimized.
- 13. Two Diode Sampling gate • When the control signals are at V1, D1 and D2 are OFF,no input signal is transmitted to the output. But when control signals are at V2, diode D1 conducts if the input is positive pulses and diode D2 conducts if the input is negative pulses. Hence these bidirectional inputs are transmitted to the output. This arrangement eliminates pedestal, because of the circuit symmetry.
- 14. Four Diode Sampling gate • When the control signals are at V1, D1 and D2 are OFF,no input signal is transmitted to the output. But when control signals areat V2, diode D1 conducts if the input is positive pulses and diode D2 conducts if the input is negative pulses. Hence these bidirectional inputs are transmitted to the output. This arrangement eliminates pedestal, because of the circuitsymmetry.
- 15. Applications • ChopperAmplifier • Multiplexers • ADC • Sampling Scope • Sample and hold circuits
- 16. Chopper Amplifier • Sometimes it becomes necessary to amplify a signal v that has very small dv/dt and that the amplitude of the signal itself is very small, typically of the order of millivolts. Neither, ac amplifiers using large coupling condensers nor dc amplifiers with the associated drift would be useful for such an application. A chopper stabilized amplifier employing sampling gates canbe a useful choice in such a applications
- 17. REALIZATION OF LOGIC GATES USING DIODES AND TRANSISTORS • OR GATE • OR GATEPERFORMS LOGICALADDITION. • THE OR OPERATOR IS INDICATED BYAPLUS (+) SIGN.
- 18. OR GATE USING DIODES OPERATION: ASSUME THE INPUTVOLTAGES ARE EITHER 0V (LOW) OR 5V (HIGH). BOTHAAND BARE LOW: THE DIODES ARE OFF AND WE CAN REPLACE THE
- 19. Contd. AIS LOWAND B ISHIGH: • WHENAIS LOWTHE CORRESPONDING DIODE WILLBE OFFAND, B IS HIGH SO THE DIODE CORRESPONDS TO THE INPUT B WILL BE ON. • NOW WE CAN REPLACE THE ON DIODE BY THE SHORTCIRCUIT EQUIVALENTAND THE OUTPUTC=5V. • B IS LOWANDAIS HIGH: • WHEN B IS LOW THE CORRESPONDING DIODE WILL BE OFFAND, A IS HIGH SO THE DIODE CORRESPONDS TO THE INPUT A WILL BE ON. • NOW WE CAN REPLACE THE ON DIODE BY THE SHORTCIRCUIT EQUIVALENTAND THE OUTPUTC=5V. • BOTHAAND BARE HIGH: • WHEN BOTH THE INPUTSARE HIGH BOTH THE DIODES WILLBE ON AND THE OUTPUTC=5V.
- 20. AND Gate • THE AND GATEPERFORMSLOGICAL MULTIPLICATION. • THE AND OPERATOR IS INDICATED BY USINGADOT (.) SIGN OR BY NOT SHOWING ANY OPERATOR SYMBOLATALL.
- 21. AND GATE USING DIODES • ASSUME THE INPUT VOLTAGESARE EITHER 0V (LOW) OR5V (HIGH). BOTH AAND BARE LOW: o WHEN BOTHAAND BARE LOW BOTH THE DIODESARE ON AND WE CAN REPLACE THE DIODES BY SHORT CIRCUIT EQUIVALENT. o HENCE POINT X IS CONNECTED TO GROUND AND OUTPUT C = 0V. o A IS LOWAND B IS HIGH: o WHEN A IS LOW THE CORRESPONDING DIODE WILL BE ON AND, B IS HIGH SO THE DIODE CORRESPONDS TO THE INPUT B WILL BEOFF. o NOW WE CAN REPLACE THE ON DIODE BY THE SHORT CIRCUIT EQUIVALENT; HENCE POINT X IS CONNECTED TO GROUND AND THE OUTPUTC=0V.
- 22. Contd. B IS LOWANDAIS HIGH: o WHEN B IS LOW THE CORRESPONDING DIODE WILL BE ON AND, A IS HIGH SO THE DIODE CORRESPONDS TO THE INPUT AWILL BEOFF. o NOW WE CAN REPLACE THE ON DIODE BY THE SHORT CIRCUIT EQUIVALENT; HENCE POINT X IS CONNECTED TO GROUND AND THE OUTPUT C=0V. BOTHAAND BARE HIGH: o BOTH THE DIODES WILLBE OFFAND THE OUTPUTC=5V.
- 23. NOT GATE(INVERTER) • THE OUTPUT OFANOT GATEIS THECOMPLEMENT OF THE INPUT. • THE BUBBLE REPRESENTS INVERSION OR COMPLEMENT.
- 24. REALIZATION OF NOT GATE USING TRANSISTOR A ISHIGH: o When +5v is applied to a, the transistor will be fully on. o So maximum collector current will flow and vcc =icr, making vc or voltage at point b as zero. [Recall ce loop kvl: vc=vcc-icr]. o A IS LOW: When 0v is applied to a, the transistor will be cut-off. So ic=0ma and vc or voltage at point b is equal to vcc.
- 25. Logic Families Vocabulary TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) Integrated-circuit technology thatuses the bipolar transistor as the principal circuitelement. CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) Integrated-circuit technology that uses the field-effect transistor as the principal circuit element. ECL (Emitter Coupled Logic) Integrated-circuit technology that uses the bipolar transistors configured as a differential amplifier. This eliminates saturation and improves speed but uses more power than other families.
- 26. OTHER DIGITAL IC SPECIFICATIONS • Drive Capabilities- sometimes referred to as fan-in or fan-out. • Fan out- number of inputs of a logic family that can be driven by a single output. The drive capability of outputs. • Fan in- the load an input places on an output. • Propagation delay- has to do with the “speed” of the logic element. Lower propagation delays mean higher speed which is a desirable characteristic. • Power Dissipation- generally, as propagation delays decrease, power consumption and heat generation increase. CMOS is noted for low power consumption.
- 27. Fanout: the maximum number of logic inputs (of thesame logic family) that an output can drivereliably Logic families: fanout I DC fanout = min( OH , ) IIH IIL IOL 147
- 28. Logic families: propagation delay TPD,HL TPD,LH TPD,HL – input-to-output propagation delay from HI to LO output TPD,LH – input-to-output propagation delay from LO to HIoutput Speed-power product: TPD Pavg 148
- 29. Logic families: noise margin VNH VNL HI state noise margin: VNH = VOH(min) –VIH(min) LO state noise margin: VNL = VIL(max) – VOL(max) Noise margin: VN = min(VNH,VNL) 149
- 30. TOTEM POLE NAND GATE • First introduced by in 1964 (Texas Instruments) • TTL has shaped digital technology in many ways • Standard TTLfamily (e.g. 7400) is obsolete • Newer TTLfamilies still used (e.g. 74ALS00)
- 31. Open collector gate • An open collector is a common type of output found on many integrated circuits(IC). • Instead of outputting a signal of a specific voltage or current, the output signal is applied to the base of an internal NPN transistor whose collector is externalized (open) on a pin of the IC. The emitter of the transistor is connected internally to the ground pin. If the output device is a MOSFET the output is called open drain and it functions in a similar way.
- 32. Tristate TTL • Tristate means a state of logic other than „1‟and „0‟ in which there is a high impedance state and there is no isource or isink at the output stage transistor (or MOSFET). A gate capable of being in „1‟,„0‟and tristate is known as tristategate
- 33. Direct-coupled transistor logic (DCTL) • Direct-coupled transistor logic (DCTL) is similar to resistor– transistor logic (RTL) but the input transistor bases are connected directly to the collector outputs without any base resistors. Consequently, DCTL gates have fewer components, are more economical, and are simpler to fabricate onto integrated circuits than RTL gates. Unfortunately, DCTL has much smaller signal levels, has more susceptibility to ground noise, and requires matched transistor characteristics. The transistors are also heavily overdriven; that is a good feature in that it reduces the saturation voltage of the output transistors, but it also slows the circuit down due to a high stored charge in the base.[1] Gate fan-out is limited due to "current hogging": if the transistor base-emitter voltages (VBE) are not well matched, then the base-emitter junction of one transistor may conduct most of the input drive current at such a low base-emitter voltage that other input transistors fail to turn on
- 34. ECL Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) •PROS: Fastest logic family available(~1ns) • CONS: low noise margin and high power dissipation •Operated in emitter coupled geometry (recall differential amplifier or emitter-follower), transistors are biased and operate near their Q-point (nevernear saturation!) • Logic levels. “0”: –1.7V. “1”: –0.8V • Such strange logic levels require extra effort when interfacing to TTL/CMOS logicfamilies. • Open LTspice example: ECLinverter… 154
- 36. LOGIC FAMILIESAND INTRODUCTION • WE HVE SEEN THATDIFFERENT DEVICES USE DIFFERENT VOLTAGES RANGES FOR THEIR LOGIC LEVELS. • THEY ALSO DIFFER IN OTHER CHARACTERISTICE • IN ORDER TOASSURE CORRECT OPERATIONWHEN GATESARE INTERCONNECTED THEY ARE NORMALLYPRODUCED IN LOGIC FAMILIES • THE MOSTLYWIDELYUSED FAMILIESARE – COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE(CMOS) – TRANSISTOR- TRANSISTOR LOGIC (TTL) – EMITTER COUPLED LOGIG (ECL)
- 37. COPARISON OF LOGIC FAMILIES