Fallacies and its types
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The document discusses the concept of fallacies, which are errors in reasoning that weaken arguments and can lead to false beliefs. It categorizes fallacies into formal and informal types, with formal fallacies being identified through reasoning structure and informal ones through supporting evidence. Various subtypes are detailed, including fallacies of presumption, ambiguity, and relevance, each accompanied by examples to illustrate their nature.
Fallacies and its types
- 1. FALLACIES AND ITS TYPES Siva Prasath T R UGC Junior Research Fellow Department of Social Work Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com Ph:9500436023 Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 1 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 2. FALLACIES • Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments • Kind of error in reasoning. • Any false belief or cause of a false belief • Mistaken beliefs based on unsound arguments Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 2 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 3. Types of fallacies Fallacies Formal Appeal to Probability Bad Reasons Masked Man Non Sequiter Informal Presumption Defective Induction Ambiguity Relevance Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 3 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 4. Formal Fallacies • Formal (or deductive) fallacies occur when the conclusion doesn't follow the premise. • These are often referred to as non-sequiturs, or conclusions that have nothing to do with initial claims. • In formal fallacies, the pattern of reasoning seems logical but is always wrong. (1) All dogs are white. (2) Tiny is a dog. Therefore: (3) Tiny is white Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 4 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 5. • Appeal to Probability This is a statement that takes something for granted because it is probable or possible. Eg: I see a dark cloud on the horizon. Dark clouds mean rain. It's going to rain here today. • Bad Reasons Fallacy Conclusion is assumed to be bad because the arguments are bad. Eg: Ostrich cannot fly, therefore they are not birds • Masked man Fallacy Also known as the Intentional Fallacy it involves a substitution of parties. If the two things that are interchanged are identical, then the argument is assumed to be valid. Eg: Premise 1: Bruce Wayne is Batman. Premise 2: Batman saved Gotham. Conclusion: Bruce Wayne saved Gotham. Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 5 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 6. • Non Sequitur A fallacy wherein someone asserts a conclusion that does not follow from the propositions. Eg: Wooden furniture comes from trees. If trees are cut down, there will be no new furniture. Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 6 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 7. Informal Fallacies • While formal fallacies are identified through an examination of the statement or claim, informal fallacies are identified through supporting evidence. • Informal fallacies are difficult to spot because there are so many ways to have insufficient, irrelevant, or ambiguous evidence which fails to warrant the conclusion Hospitals are full of sick people. Therefore hospitals make people sick. Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 7 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 8. • Fallacies of Presumption Presumption of truth without evidence. The fallacies of presumption also fail to provide adequate reason for believing the truth of their conclusions 1.Complex Question Fallacy A fallacy in which the answer to a given question presupposes a prior answer to a prior question Eg: Are you going to admit that you're wrong? 2. Slippery Slope Fallacy This falsely assumes the consequences of actions. It occurs when someone makes a claim about a series of events that would lead to one major event, usually a bad event. Eg: Legalizing prostitution is undesirable because it would cause more marriages to break up, which would in turn cause the breakdown of the family, which would finally result in the destruction of civilization. 3.Fallacy of accident An error in reasoning caused by sweeping generalizations. It occurs when you assume that a rule-of- thumb applies to everyone or every situation Eg: I believe one should never deliberately hurt another person, that's why I can never be a surgeon. Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 8 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 9. • Fallacies of Ambiguity A fallacy can also be caused by a lack of clarity or by a misunderstanding of the words 1. Accent Fallacies These are based on the stress or emphasis of a word or word parts being unclear Eg: I didn't take the test yesterday 2. Equivocation Fallacies These occur when words are used multiple times with different meanings. Eg: You have faith in your son, and I have faith in God. 3. Straw Man Fallacies These include misrepresentations to make an argument look weak.This falsely assumes the consequences of actions. It occurs when someone makes a claim about a series of events that would lead to one major event, usually a bad event. First MP: The nation is in debt and we should not add to the defense budget. Second MP: I cannot believe you want to leave the nation defenselessSiva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 9 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 10. • Fallacies of Relevance These fallacies attempt to persuade people with irrelevant information, appealing to emotions rather than logic 1. Appeal to Authority Rather than focusing on the merits of an argument, the arguer will try to attach their argument to a person of authority in order to give credence to their argument. Eg: Abdul kalam sir accepted that, Do you think you know more than him? 2. Appeal to Popular Opinion This type of appeal is when someone claims that an idea or belief is true simply because it is what most people believe Eg: Lots of people watch this movie, so it must be good. 3. Weak Analogy These fallacies employ analogies between things that are not really alike. Eg:Cars kill people just like guns, but if you're not going to ban the sale of cars you can't ban the sale of guns. Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 10 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R
- 11. • Defective Induction Premises of the argument are so weak and ineffective that reliance upon them is wrong 1.Appeal to Ignorance These fallacies abound in everyday conversation, advertising, politics, and history. This fallacy argues that a proposition is true because it has not yet been proven false. Eg: She hasn't said she doesn't like you, right? So she's probably interested. Call her up 2. Hasty Generalization Fallacy This is based upon only one abnormal situation. It is the reverse of a sweeping generalization fallacy. Eg: Hitler was a vegetarian. Therefore, I don't trust any vegetarians. 3. False Dilemma Bifurcation-this type of fallacy occurs when someone presents their argument in such a way that there are only two possible options. Eg: If you are not my friend then you must be my enemy. Siva Prasath T R (UGC Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work , Pondicherry Central University sivaprasathtr@gmail.com , 9500436023 Page 11 of 11 SIVA PRASATH T R