FALLACIES OF LOGIC ARGUMENTATION CONSShapiro, Irving David..docx

FALLACIES OF LOGIC: ARGUMENTATION CONS
Shapiro, Irving David. et Cetera64.1 (Jan 2007): 75-86.
Abstract
The school's faculty concentrated on teaching young Greeks
how to win arguments and debates at any price, even if it
included faulty reasoning, deception, trickery, or whatever was
necessary as long as the opponent was not able to discern the
difference between sound and specious argumentation. For
example: A politician is convicted of taking a bribe, therefore,
all politicians are crooked; one malingering black person, and
all black people are malingerers; one cowardly Italian, and all
Italians are cowards; one drunken Irishman, and all Irishmen are
drunkards; one grasping Jew, and all Jews are grasping; one
welfare cheat, and everyone on welfare is a cheat; and so on.
The major difference between the two is that the former deals
with observations that lie in the past or present, and the "thin
entering wedge" con (also known as the "camel's nose in the
tent" fallacy or the "give him a finger and he'll take the whole
hand" fallacy) deals with projecting present or past observations
into the future.
Full text
Introduction
NOWHERE, perhaps, can you be more easily conned than
during an argument or discussion. You've taken a position on an
issue, which you've thoroughly thought through. You have
supporting data at your fingertips. You're a quick thinker and
articulate. You unfold your argument in logical steps. Yet
somehow you don't seem to be getting anywhere. The other guy
keeps coming back with statements and questions that seem to
be relevant, that seem to make sense. And yet somehow they're
neither relevant, nor do they make sense. You become confused,
frustrated, angry. What's wrong? The explanation may be simple

- you're being conned.
Using con tactics to win an argument was raised to a high level
of skill in Athens, in the Fifth Century, BC. It constituted the
core of study at a school of philosophers called the Sophists.
The school's faculty concentrated on teaching young Greeks
how to win arguments and debates at any price, even if it
included faulty reasoning, deception, trickery, or whatever was
necessary as long as the opponent was not able to discern the
difference between sound and specious argumentation.
What's happening is that your opponent is using what are
commonly known as fallacies of logic.
There are lots of these fallacies. Here are just a few of them.
The con of over-generalizing
This con is common, seductive, and dangerous. Its Latin name
is secundum quid, meaning "in some one respect only." It
involves assigning a characteristic to an entire group on the
basis of only one or two observations. For example: A politician
is convicted of taking a bribe, therefore, all politicians are
crooked; one malingering black person, and all black people are
malingerers; one cowardly Italian, and all Italians are cowards;
one drunken Irishman, and all Irishmen are drunkards; one
grasping Jew, and all Jews are grasping; one welfare cheat, and
everyone on welfare is a cheat; and so on.
To avoid being taken in by this con, always keep in mind that
"One swallow a summer does not make."
The "thin entering wedge" con
The next con is very similar to the previous one in that it also
reflects overgeneralizing. The major difference between the two
is that the former deals with observations that lie in the past or
present, and the "thin entering wedge" con (also known as the
"camel's nose in the tent" fallacy or the "give him a finger and
he'll take the whole hand" fallacy) deals with projecting present
or past observations into the future.
Here are some examples:
* If the Democrats regain control of the White House, they will
spend the nation into bankruptcy.

* If the Republicans maintain control of the White House, the
U.S. will know only bread lines all over the country.
* If we grant this request for a variance so that the developers
will be allowed to build a high rise apartment house, our city
will look like midManhattan in five years.
* If we ban the possession of hand guns, we'll end up like
Russia.
The con is illogical, because it completely ignores the vast
number of possible outcomes that could follow a specific event,
and focuses on only one with total certainty. But it is also
vicious, because it puts you in a very difficult position if a con
man uses it. All you can do in return is make the observation
that this enormous leap into the future will most probably not
take place.
If the argument or discussion is taking place before onlookers,
which of the two antagonists will prevail, if one uses this con,
will depend to a great degree upon how clearly and rationally
the audience is thinking at the time. If it is emotionally
detached, the intended victim will be favored. However, if the
listeners are passionate about the subject of the debate, it's just
about all over for the one at whom the attack is directed.
The "ignoring the issue and attacking the opponent personally"
con
The Latin name for this con is ad hominem meaning "to the
man." It indicates that the one making it is intellectually
bankrupt on the subject at issue.
An American on tour in China many years ago was distracted
from his sightseeing itinerary by loud, angry shouts which
seemed to be coming from a cluster of people on a side street in
downtown Peking. Close investigation revealed two peasant
laborers, face-to-face, angrily shouting invectives at each other,
surrounded by curious onlookers. After witnessing the
altercation for a moment or two, the American turned to one of
the older spectators and asked, "Why doesn't one of them punch
the other in the mouth?" The old man recoiled in horror at what
had just been asked him. "Oh no," he replied, "each man knows

that the first one who resorts to violence will be deemed by the
onlookers as being the first one to have run out of ideas."
The classical example of this con takes place in a court of law.
As the attorney for the defense takes the floor, his associate
hands him a note which says, "We don't have a case, so you'd
better abuse the other attorney."
It's difficult to defend against the "ignoring the issue and
attacking the opponent personally" con. Often, all you can do is
make your opponent aware that you know he's doing it.
The "What do you know about it? You 're not an expert, " con
This con has a relation to the ad hominem con in that it fails to
address the issue that's been raised by the opponent, but
deplores, denies, or ridicules his qualifications instead.
During an edition of "Firing Line," William F. Buckley
mediated between two guests: the author of a book on the so-
called Hillside Strangler and a psychiatrist who had been
involved in examining one of the suspects. During the show, the
author raised many questions concerning the psychiatrist's
professional competence and behavior during the investigation.
The psychiatrist responded at times by holding that he wasn't
aware that writers are qualified in psychiatry as well as in
writing. At other times, he offered that he had written several
books on psychiatry, or that the methodology he had used
during the examination had mirrored that of "the world's
greatest authority on...." Not once did he address the question or
respond to the accusation.
Science comes by observation, not by authority... [and]...
whoever in discussion adduces authority uses not his intellect
but rather [his] memory.
-Leonardo da Vinci
The "Oh, yeah? Well, you 're one also," con
Another common con has the Latin name tu quoque meaning
"Thou also." The classical example of this con is supposed to
have taken place in a Moscow subway at the time the system
first opened. It seems that an American was invited to inspect
the facility accompanied by a Russian guide. During the tour, he

was shown a magnificent station with posh rest rooms, self-
registering turnstiles, etc. It was all very impressive. Then the
American noticed that he had been in the station for almost an
hour and had yet to see a train. When he mentioned that to the
guide, the latter responded with, "Oh, yeah? Well, what about
the lynchings in the South?"
The tu quoque response qualifies as a con because it leaves the
assertion unaddressed - there is neither an acceptance nor a
refutation of the opponent's position.
The "cause and effect" con
The Latin name for this is post hoc, ergo propter hoc. In
English, "after this, therefore on account of this." Just because
one event precedes another event, the first is deemed to be the
cause of the second; there need be no other data or rationale to
support that conclusion. Chanticleer, the rooster in Edmond
Rostand's play of the same name, victimizes himself with this
con when he says:
I fall back dazzled at beholding myself all rosy red,
At having, I myself, caused the sun to rise.
[He crowed every morning, after which the sun rose.]
This is a very common con because no thinking is necessary.
And it's an easy way to feed passion and emotion. For example,
circa 1980, several pregnant women living near the Love Canal
in New York State had difficulty in giving birth. In addition,
several of the babies in that group were born with defects.
Subsequently, it was revealed that the Hooker Chemical
Company had been dumping toxic waste into the Love Canal for
years. Obviously then, it was the toxic waste that had caused the
birth defects and a lot of other things as well. The news media
got hold of the story and ran wild with it. Later, a panel of
independent scientists went over all the studies that had been
done on the incident and found that every one of them was
significantly flawed. The dumping of toxic waste into the Love
Canal could have caused the birth defects, but the inference that
it did merely because the dumping had preceded the birth
defects in time was a con.

Soon after the 1964 presidential election, a joke made the
rounds about a Republican pondering the notion that his
Democrat friends had been right during the campaign. They had
predicted at the time that if he voted for Barry Goldwater, the
United States would become involved in a war in Indochina. It
turned out to be true. He had voted for Goldwater, and America
did indeed become involved in a war in Indochina.
You can blunt the post hoc, ergo propter hoc con by insisting on
an inferentially plausible explanation of why A caused B, rather
than merely because A had preceded B.
The "false analogy" con
An analogy can be a useful way to communicate an idea,
thought, or concept, which is why analogies are commonly used
in argumentation. Because something was true in one instance,
your opponent in an argument will frequently take the position
that it is true in another, because, he says, the two instances are
analogous. But if one thing is to be truly analogous to
something else, there must be a marked similarity or a
fundamental resemblance between the two items. And herein
lies the basis of the false analogy type of con - the comparison
offered is not a true analogy.
Here is an example of a false analogy:
"Reagan's decision to send U.S. aid to El Salvador, including
military advisors, is sure to turn out to be another Vietnam for
the U.S."
Although the U.S. is referred to twice, and is ostensibly the
"same" subject in each reference, there are different points in
time involved and different contexts. Hence, the U.S. referred to
is the same subject in name only. The circumstances are quite
different - the U.S. vis-à-vis El Salvador in 1981 was hardly the
U.S. vis-à-vis Vietnam in the early 1960s.
So when somebody offers you an analogy to obtain your
concurrence on a point he is asserting, better check out the
analogy's rightness before nodding assent; it is likely to be
false.
The "appeal to authority" con

There is a tendency to believe that those who are regarded as
wise or famous cannot be wrong. Here we have the basis for
another common argumentation con - the "appeal to authority"
con.
This con involves quoting a respected person as support for a
position. Its Latin name is ad verecundiam, or "appeal to
revered authority." Today it often includes an appeal to a
celebrity.
Now there's nothing wrong per se in appealing to authority, but
only with two provisos:
* It must be understood that the authority appealed to could be
wrong; it is never certain that he is right.
* The subject matter involved must be one in which the
authority appealed to is deemed to be an expert.
A common example of the "appeal to authority" con is the stock
broker who is called upon by CBS (or NBC or ABC) to explain
on the air why the DowJones Average sharply rose (or fell).
The only sensible response I've ever heard or read to the often-
asked question, "What do you think will happen to stock prices
in the coming months?" was one given to a reporter by J.P.
Morgan on his return from a trip abroad, "I predict they will
continue to fluctuate."
More recently, when asked a similar question, John Kenneth
Galbraith responded to the effect that there are two kinds of
forecasters: those who don't know and those who don't know
that they don't know.
Another example of the "appeal to authority" con is the
endorsement type of ad featuring a noted sports figure extolling
the virtues of a specified product. For example, the winner in
the women's division at Wimbledon claiming that a certain skin
cream is just right for everyone; the lady may be an outstanding
tennis player, but what she knows about skin care in general is
likely to be limited.
The "appeal to authority" con is intended to intimidate. As a
defense, keep in mind that i) most major undertakings that
failed have been orchestrated by experts and authorities and ii)

all you may know about a celebrity is that he or she is held to
be a celebrity, nothing more.
The "figuresprove" con
This con is anchored in the arbitrary manipulation of statistics
to the point of absurdity. Here's how Mark Twain poked fun at
it in his book Life on the Mississippi:
In the space of 176 years the Lower Mississippi has shortened
itself 242 miles. This is an average of a trifle over one mile and
a third per year. Therefore, any calm person, who is not blind or
idiotic, can see that in the Old Silurian Period, just a million
years ago next November, the River was upward of 1,300,000
miles long, and stuck out over the Gulf of Mexico like a fishing
rod. And by the same token, any person can see that 742 years
from now the Lower Mississippi will be only a mile and three-
quarters long, and Cairo and New Orleans will have joined their
streets together.
Here Mark Twain playfully projected a curve way, way back
into the past and somewhat into the future, to the exclusion of
all other considerations, in order to demonstrate the absurdity of
the "figures prove" con.
Another kind of "figures prove" con is founded on the premise
that if a certain cause produces a certain effect, then twice that
cause would produce twice that effect. If one vitamin capsule a
day is good for you, five should be five times as good. If one
serving of carrots a day is good for you, five servings a day
should be five times as good for you. Ten a day, ten times, etc.
To protect yourself from the "figures prove" con learn to go
through the following steps, mentally, of course, every time
someone throws a "figures prove" kind of assertion at you:
* How does he know?
* Is there anything that should have been considered that
wasn't?
* Is the working of numbers internally consistent, that is, was a
scale or a base year changed, etc.?
* Does it make sense?
The "appealing to the crowd" con

In Latin, argumentum adpopulum. This con is an attempt to win
an argument by appealing to the masses, a mob, or a crowd,
rather than by appealing to reason. It generally takes the form
of "Everybody knows that ...." as in "Everybody knows that
Americans are imperialists (materialists, stupid, whatever)."
If "everybody knows " such-and-such, then it ain 't so, by at
least ten thousand to one.
- Robert Heinlein, Notebooks of Lazarus Long
It may also take the form "They say that...." as in "They say that
jogging is good for you." or "They say that so-and-so (usually
someone in the public eye) is a boozer." Don't bother asking
who "they" are; it won't do you any good. The information came
from some radio item or some newspaper report or it was in an
article someplace or some such thing; there's always a vague
"something" or "someone" involved.
The purpose of the "appealing to the crowd con" is to
overwhelm you with the "sixty million Frenchmen can't be
wrong" nonsense so that you won't take the time or make the
effort to do your own thinking. The defense is the knowledge
that there isn't anything that everyone knows.
The "arguing in circles" con
The circulus inprobando con involves what is supposed to be
proof turning out to be nothing more than the premise restated;
hence, arguing in circles, also known as begging the question.
For example,
True believers never die.
Charlie Smith died.
Charlie Smith was not a true believer.
How do you know?
Because he died,
or
Classical music is the best music.
What's your support for that contention?
All the best music critics say so.
Who are the best music critics?
The ones who think classical music is the best.

A fine example of begging the question appeared in the January
14, 1988 edition of the Wall Street Journal. Dr. Meyer Friedman
and a Ray H. Rosenman had in the mid-'60s interviewed a group
of men, classifying them into Type A and Type B. (Which right
away is suspect, because classifying people as Type A or Type
B is highly subjective.) They then tracked the men in the study
and eventually concluded that Type A men were "... as much as
4.5 times more likely to develop coronary disease than those
who [are] easygoing." Years later a different set of researchers
took a look at the data, and concluded that among those who
eventually developed heart disease, the Type A subjects were
more likely to survive the disease and live longer than the Type
Bs. Therefore, they said, the new findings "cast a long shadow
indeed on the evidence supporting Type A behavior as a risk
factor for heart problems." At this point, Dr. Friedman re-
entered the fray. Not so, said he. My colleague and I were
inexperienced in classifying men into Type A and Type B when
we did that study, and we misdiagnosed a large number of the
men as Type B when they were really Type A. How does he
know they were Type A? Easy, "You can't get a heart attack
before age 60 if you're a Type B. Here at the hospital I offer a
bottle of expensive wine to any doctor who can bring me a Type
B patient who's had a coronary, and so far no one has."
I wouldn't want to ever make a bet like that with the good
doctor, because he can't lose. No matter who I bring to him with
a coronary, Dr. Friedman would most likely insist that that
patient is Type A. How would he know? Well, the man had a
coronary before 60, didn't he? And everyone knows that "You
can't get a heart attack before 60 if you're a Type B."
To avoid being taken in by this con, separate the assertion from
the conclusion by dropping out all the stuff in between and see
if they really are independent propositions.
The "self-evident truth" con
Every statement is an argument of some kind in the sense that it
is designed to convince or persuade someone of something. It
may, occasionally, be composed of one or more premises,

presumably true, and a conclusion, presumably valid. An
assertion presented to us in that form can be relatively easy to
deal with - are the premises true or not and is the conclusion
valid or not?
However, most arguments that are put forward are done so
without stated premises; only conclusions are presented. In
many cases, there's little harm done. "I think it's going to rain"
or "This ice cream is delicious" or "Bill is a nice guy" are all
conclusions without any stated premises upon which the
conclusions are based. In a sense, we accept them as self-
evident truths; we don't demand support for the assertions made.
In the case of the first statement, we see that it's overcast, that
the barometric pressure is falling, that the sea gulls are
hovering over land, and so on. The statement that it's going to
rain appears to be a reasonable one. As to the ice cream
statement, it's a matter of opinion or taste. And as far as Bill
being a nice guy is concerned, perhaps, but really not worth
fighting about in most circumstances.
It appears, then, that we accept many statements as self-evident
truths when there is no such thing as a self-evident truth; every
statement is subject to dispute, because every one of us sees
things differently. But unless we are disputatious, we tend to go
along with many assertions that are made to us without support
of any kind being offered.
But there are times that outrageous assertions are made to us in
the form of self-evident truths. If presented in isolation, with
nothing before or after, they are generally easy to recognize and
we can defend accordingly. For example, "Women are terrible
drivers" or "No one works unless he has to" or "You get what
you pay for." Among most people, a statement such as any of
the foregoing would start a dispute going merrily. But there is a
neat little trick that some people use to discourage a ready
challenge to a supposed self-evident truth; they start the
statement with something like "Now everybody knows ...." or
"As every school boy knows ...." or "Unquestionably ...." or
"All intelligent people agree that...." or some such statement.

Thus, the "self-evident truth" con usually resembles an
argumentum ad populum. It can also have a bit ofadhominem
thrown in, depending upon the way it is phrased.
Another form of the "self-evident truth" con to watch for is the
one which depends for acceptance upon the words "by
definition." For example, "Europeans, by definition, are more
cultured than Americans." Now how can anyone quarrel with
that contention? If, by definition, Europeans are people who are
more cultured than Americans, then it must follow that
Europeans are more cultured than Americans. Right? The big
question, then, is, "By whose definition?" If two or more people
agree to that definition, the statement must be, by definition, a
self-evident truth, but only to those people; it may not be to
others.
The "guilt by association " con
This argumentation con holds that two unlike persons, plants,
animals, or things can be equated because of a single common
trait or characteristic or attribute or belief, depending upon
what's involved.
It has several subdivisions. There's guilt by physical
association. You're seen in the company of some unsavory
characters and, therefore, you've been contaminated, and are
now unsavory yourself. Then there's guilt by kinship
association. Your brother or wife or whoever is an alleged
subversive. Consequently, you are suspect as well. The most
common form of guilt by association and the most heinous,
because it is frequently used to silence opposition, is guilt by
verbal or philosophical association. So if you believe in
government-owned housing and government-owned housing is
characteristic of socialism, then clearly you are a socialist. Or if
you write a book and it is favorably reviewed in a conservative
publication, then clearly you are a conservative.
Summary
Following is a summary of the argumentation cons just
discussed.
* The con of over-generalizing involves assigning a

characteristic to an entire group on the basis of only one or two
observations.
* The con of the thin, entering wedge involves directly
projecting past or present observations into the future without
considering factors that could alter the direction or the
magnitude of the projection.
* The con of ad hominem involves ignoring the issue and
attacking the opponent personally.
* The you're-not-qualified con involves failing to address the
issue that's been raised by an opponent and deploring, denying,
or ridiculing his qualifications instead.
* The Oh, yeah? Well, you're one also con involves leaving an
assertion unaddressed by either reversing its direction, or by
focusing attention on a related but completely different issue.
* The cause-and-effect con involves assuming that just because
event A preceded event B, event A must necessarily be the
cause of event B.
* The con of the false analogy involves offering an item (or an
event) as analogous to another item (or event) despite the
absence of a marked similarity or resemblance between the two
items (or the two events).
* The con of appealing to authority involves believing that
those held to be wise or those who are famous cannot be wrong.
* The figures prove con involves a totally arbitrary
manipulation of statistics to the point of absurdity.
* The con of appealing to the crowd involves the attempt to win
an argument by appealing to the masses, the audience, a mob, or
a crowd instead of appealing to reason.
* The con of arguing in circles involves offering a conclusion,
which turns out to be the premise, just restated.
* The con of the self-evident truth involves stating a conclusion
without first offering the necessary premises for that
conclusion.
* The con of guilt by association involves holding that two
unalike persons, plants, animals, or things can be equated, one
with the other, because of a single common trait or

characteristic or attribute or belief, depending upon what's
involved.
The foregoing has entailed a look at only the more common
cons of argumentation; there are many more. Become familiar
with them. Learn to spot them. And also be aware that
argumentation cons usually come in very complex packages. So
it's highly unlikely that you'll be subjected to only one con at a
time. It's much more likely that you'll be the target of several,
nested within one another. That's the bad news. The good news
is that with time and practice, you can develop a discerning ear
for them.
Author Affiliation: Irving David Shapiro*
Author Affiliation
* A former adjunct professor, Ford Foundation Fellow, and a
Harriman Scholar, Dr. Shapiro co-founded a California Bank,
worked as a radio talk show host, and practiced architecture for
13 years. He holds four design awards. Adapted from Chapter 7
of You Must Not Let Them Con You! There's Too Much at
Stake, published in 1993 by Mens Sana Foundation. Copyright
© 1993 by Mens Sana Foundation. This article originally
appeared in ETC in the fall of 1996.
Copyright International Society for General Semantics Jan 2007
Cite
Title: FALLACIES OF LOGIC: ARGUMENTATION CONS
Author: Shapiro, Irving David
Volume: 64
Issue: 1
Pages: 75-86
Publication date: Jan 2007
Year: 2007
Publisher: International Society for General Semantics
Place of publication: Concord
Country of publication: United States
Source type: Scholarly Journals
250 words per question No plag, no copying/pasting

1. Evaluate the value of assigning appropriate brand identities
to represent health care goods, services, and institutions.
Provide support for your rationale.
2. Assess the value of Calder and Reagan’s Brand Design Model
as a device for systematically guiding health care marketers
through the process of formulating brands. Explain one (1)
reason why a SWOT analysis is needed to help health care
organizations understand competitor brands. Provide two (2)
examples from a health care organization with which you are
familiar that support the value of Calder and Reagan’s Brand
Design Model
3. Based on your review of the Learnscape scenario titled
“Learnscape 3: Recover and Retention”, explain the
fundamental reasons why brands do not exist in isolation but do
exist in larger environments that include other brands. Provide
two (2) specific recommendations or solutions that help the
health care facility in this scenario improve patient satisfaction.
4. Assess the value of Lederer and Hill’s Brand Portfolio
Molecule when used to understand brand relationships.
Provide at least two (2) specific examples of strategic or
tactical initiatives within a health care organization.
2nd Assignment Product Development
Health services continue to affect the gross domestic product,
and this dramatic transformation has great demands on each
dollar spent to deliver patient-centered products. Health care
marketing must be repeatedly applied and practiced strategically
to include environmental dimensions, such as technology,
socioeconomics, competition, and regulatory.
That being said, in today’s global economy, investors and
potential entrepreneurs must tap into the so-called “unexplored”
market. In this aspect, health care establishments must utilize
marketing, advertising, as well as sales strategies when
pursuing new customers (e.g., suppose a health care investor
wanted to build a small hospital in a rural community); this
would entail exploration and logistical experimentation to
determine who will patronize the facility. In an impoverished

neighborhood, the feasibility of having lucrative profits may see
diminishing returns, and so the venture may be not worth the
effort. Also, suppose that the potential investor wants to sell
mosquito deterrents (e.g., bedside netting in malaria-infested
regions of Asia or Africa); then it would be wise to investigate
the number of beds that are actually in the village, and who
would be willing to purchase them. These activities take into
account the investor portfolio, as well as the feasibility of
marketing and selling the product. Such exploration also
examines competitors, cultural differences, and—most
important—identification of the customer.
Identify a local health care establishment (e.g., hospital,
rehabilitation center, emergency medical center) and determine
its product development practices. Utilize concepts from
previous weeks to substantiate information, as needed. You may
develop the discussion based on the ideas presented here, but
feel free to inject any salient marketing strategy that you
believe might support your presentation.
Write a three to four (3-4) page paper in which you:
1. Justify the purpose of the selected health care establishments’
product(s) / service (s) and their associated life cycle(s).
2.Suggest one (1) strategy to improve the marketing mix of the
selected health care establishment. Support your strategy by
highlighting one (1) benefit of (1) portfolio analysis and
providing two (2) examples that display differential advantages.
3.Assess the importance of technology in providing patients
with clear and accessible information about health care
organizations and the product(s) / service(s) that they provide.
4.Outline a survey to capture patients’ expectations regarding
the delivery and / or accessibility of product(s) / service(s)
identified.
5.Use at least three (3) quality academic resources. Note:
Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic
resources.

Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
•Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size
12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references
must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your
professor for any additional instructions.
•Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the
student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the
date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in
the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this
assignment are:
•Analyze how products evolve through the four stages of the
product life cycle.
•Determine the appropriate product succession planning efforts
of health care services.
•Examine the marketing research process and market
segmentation strategies in the health care industry.
•Evaluate marketing research tools involved in the marketing
process.
•Use technology and information resources to research issues in
health services strategic marketing.
•Write clearly and concisely about health services strategic
marketing using proper writing mechanics.

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