Instructor GuidanceGuidance Notes Week FourLet us address t.docx

Instructor Guidance
Guidance Notes Week Four
Let us address the major fallacies that you will come across in
this week’s reading. First you have the “argument from
outrage”. I like to call this the “fiery preacher” argument (I can
say this because I am a minister). Moore and Parker (2011) call
this the “Rush Limbaugh” fallacy. A lot of times we can use
anger that incites emotion rather than argument. This argument
is a subset of any argument that “appeals to emotion.” It can
work the other way as well like using images of starving
children that would stir up pity within us to give money to a
charity (“argument from pity”); when we do not know anything
about the legitimacy or operations of that charity. Someone can
also make an argument by stroking your ego with leading
compliments (“apple polishing”) or the placement of shame
upon you if you do not go with what they want (“guilt trip”).
Appeals to emotions such as anger are not always bad things.
We should never think that to be logical means that we have to
check our emotions at the door. The problem comes when we
substitute a real substantive claim with good premises for an
“additional” argument with no content or relation to the topic.
Connected to this “anger” tactic is another common fallacy
known as “scapegoating.” This is where a group finds someone
to take the blame for something when there is not an easy
answer to the “why” question. Groups like a fall person to take
the blame for group or systematic problems.
You may have noticed by now that these types of emotional
appeal arguments are related to another very common fallacy:
that of “scare tactics”. A good example of this argument is
when the USA was deciding whether or not to invade Iraq.
Granted, we were making this decision based upon faulty
intelligence of WMDs, but the argument for going to war was,
“we must attack them before they come over and attack us or

our allies.” Despite any legitimate content that such arguments
were based upon, the psychological tool used to get everyone on
board was that of a “scare tactic”. When someone uses the
threat of forcing as an argument (easily falling under the
category of scare tactic), this is called an “argument from
force”.
Other fallacies appeal both to emotion and group identities.
Moore and Parker (2011) place these under emotional fallacies,
but I also think they have their own separate category.
Remember when you were a teenager and told your parents you
wanted to do something because all of your friends were doing
it, and then your parents insightfully respond, “well if Johnny
jumped off a cliff would you jump off a cliff?” As cliché as this
example is, it rings true to so much our personal formation
within groups of our peers (the “peer pressure argument”). One
the gravest logical fallacy in our own time is that of
“nationalism”. We hear this in times of war when someone is
not patriotic unless they agree with the status quo (or wear a
little flag lapel pin). Nationalism falls under a broader category
of “group think”, where our loyalties and associations to groups
or communities inform our decisions. Essentially we often
check our critical reflections at the door when our psychological
attachments are challenged. Everyone is susceptible to this type
of fallacy, and you would be hard pressed to find someone who
has never succumbed to this type of persuasion.
“Well, I had pizza for dinner; so having a piece of chocolate
cake couldn’t hurt me anymore.” Oh boy did we fall prey to
“rationalization” in this comment. Trust me, I can always give
way to logic of Ben and Jerry’s! How many times do we do
things to satisfy our own selfish desires and wants? Now, we
may not always do things for a selfish end; some things make
work out to go along with our wants and desires despite our
input into the situation, but we can commit this fallacy so easily
because, well, it’s easy to give into. Recognizing whether or not
you are rationalizing away an argument will be based on the
amount of self deception that you put into your rationalization.

It may be good to have honest friends who will keep you
accountable to the logic of your arguments and not your
stomach.
What about arguments that everyone knows the answer? Well,
that is a good question. A lot of times the fact that “everyone
knows” (which is pretty confident to begin with don’t you
think?) does not really mean everyone does know. It could be
that pressure is being put upon you to accept the argument that
“everyone knows” in order not to be embarrassed that you do
not know. This type of argument can also take other forms like
the argument from “common practice” or “tradition.” Did your
parents every tell you the reason why you are supposed to fold
the bath towel the way they do is because your grandmother and
great grandmother folded the bath towel this way? Well, if not I
am sure that you can find some example in your upbringing
where the argument from tradition supplanted any form of
logical argument.
Another common logical fallacy that we encounter everyday
(especially if you watch a politician answer questions at a press
conference) is the “red herring/smokescreen” fallacy. The
reason why I place them side by side is because it is often hard
to tell which one is being performed and used. A red herring is
generally a method of distraction, where you pull attention
away from the topic at hand. A good example used in Moore
and Parker (2011) is that of Bill Clinton being accused of firing
missiles at Sudanise terrorists to deflect attention away from the
Monica Lewinsky scandal. A smoke-screen is where you pile up
so many reasons and premises that have nothing to do with the
argument in order to hide your real intentions. Another great
example of this is in Moore and Parker (2011), is where George
W. Bush was accused of using the WMD’s and Al-Qaida threats
in Iraq to cover over his real intention of wanting to secure oil
contracts. We run into these types of deflections and blurred
statements every day in the world.
There are several other fallacies that we need to address briefly.
An “Ad Hominem” fallacy is a fancy word for saying “attacking

the person instead of the argument.” For instance, in a debate
someone might talk about their opponents personal/moral flaws
or shortcomings instead of address the premises of their
argument. Another common fallacy is the genetic fallacy.
Perhaps you might remember from Sunday school about when
Jesus started going around preaching in Galilee and other parts
of Israel and the people in the crowds asking, “Isn’t this the
carpenter’s son? Can anything good come from Galilee?” The
people assumed that Jesus could not have such wisdom in
spiritual matters because of his lineage and hometown. A third
popular argument is a “straw-man” argument. This is a common
debate tactic where instead of addressing the argument of an
opponent, they will create a fictitious image of them that is
usually over exaggerated in order to easily push them over and
dismiss their point. A good example of this comes from the
recent presidential debates between Senator McCain and
Senator Obama. In response to Obama’s economic program,
McCain simplified Obama’s position as simply “spreading the
wealth around.” McCain was averring to the general anti-
socialist mentality of most Americans so that Obama’s argument
could be dismissed. You may hear this type of argumentation
when some says, “that’s just a characterization.”
Another common argument often found in domestic settings is
that of a “false dilemma.” This is where you posit two options
in a decision making situation as being the only choices; when
in fact there could be many choices. A lot of times this type of
argument is setup in such a way that there really is not a choice
being offered.
A final fallacy that I would like to bring your attention to is the
“slippery slope” fallacy. This is the classic scare tactic where is
you let X happen then Y must surely follow. The problem is that
most of these arguments do not demonstrate the real logical
progression from X to Y. For instance, if you were to say that,
“We should not allow gay marriage in America because next
people will be marrying their cats and dogs.” you would be
committing the slippery slope fallacy. It would be a slippery

slope because there is no reasonable reason why allowing gay
marriage would by necessity entail that people start marrying
animals. Another form of this fallacy is when you start falling
down the slope, then realize that you are making an error, and
then you rationalize that you have to finish falling down the
slope because you cannot stop what has been started. This kind
of thinking assumes that nothing can be done to alter the logical
path of a slippery slope, but it is mistaken since the logical
necessity of going from X to Y is usually not very sound to
being with.
Buying a car
Here is the link
https://bridgepoint.equella.ecollege.com/curriculum/file/38d80e
6c-2422-436e-b99b-
0d458a340dc3/1/BuyingaCarScenario.zip/story_html5.html
When you go through it some of the words are hard to read so I
screen shot different scenarios
If you click on new car then yes or no here is the next screen
If you click on used car then yes or no here is the next screen

deLaplante, K. [Kevin deLaplante]. (2013, January 27). What is
a fallacy? [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/EJp4bZhhYfw?list=PL48296651F7CF74CB
· This video explains how to distinguish fallacies from other
bad arguments. This video will assist students with the
discussion prompts this week.
deLaplante, K. [Kevin deLaplante]. (2013, January
29). Fallacies: Begging the question (narrow sense) [Video
file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/qSWCi_-qIME
· This video explains the narrow sense of begging the question
(which is equivalent to circular reasoning) and provides
examples. This video will assist students with the discussion
prompts this week.
29). Fallacies: Begging the question (broad sense) [Video file].
Retrieved from https://youtu.be/krYpiQ6evD4
· This video explains the broad sense of begging the question
(which involves premises that are no more plausible than the
conclusion is initially) and provides examples. This video will
assist students with the discussion prompts this week.
29). Fallacies: Appeal to authority[Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/3PDrnZoM3nA?list=PL48296651F7CF74CB
· This video explains the appeal to authority fallacy and
provides examples. This video will assist students with the
29). Fallacies: False dilemma [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/3-Xf0y13pQI
· This video explains the narrow sense of begging the question

(which is equivalent to circular reasoning) and provides
prompts this week.
deLaplante, K. [Kevin deLaplante]. (2009, November 15). The
“Red Herring” fallacy [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/exdK7Lirngg
· This video explains the red herring fallacy with examples.
This video will assist students with the discussion prompts this
week.
27). Fallacies: Appeal to popular belief [Video file]. Retrieved
from
https://youtu.be/NvBjMO8RAWs?list=PL48296651F7CF74CB
· This video explains the appeal to popular belief fallacy and
provides examples. This video will assist students with the
deLaplante, K. [Kevin deLaplante]. (2011, July 3). The ad
hominem fallacy [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/7GzXVqwYHVE?list=PL48296651F7CF74CB
· This video explains the ad hominem fallacy and provides
prompts this week.
eLaplante, K. [Kevin deLaplante]. (2010, January
13). Fallacies: Slippery slope [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/DtmAw9Ia7LA
· This video explains the slippery slope fallacy with examples.
This video will assist students with the discussion prompts this
week.
deLaplante, K. [Kevin deLaplante]. (2009, November 17). The
“Straw Man” fallacy [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/v5vzCmURh7o

· This video explains the straw man fallacy and provides
prompts this week.
deLaplante, K. [Kevin deLaplante]. (2011, February
3). Cognitive biases: What they are, why they’re
important [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/dTJLchCHsrc
· This video explains the role of cognitive biases in our
thinking. This video will assist students with the discussion
prompts this week.
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Fallacies of Support
With fallacious reasoning, the premises only appear to support
the conclusion. When you look closely at a fallacious argument,
you can see how the premises fail to offer support.
When reasoning, it is essential to reach conclusions based on
adequate evidence; otherwise, our views are unsubstantiated.
The better the evidence, the more credible our claims are, and
the more likely they are to be true. Fallacies can lead us to
accept conclusions that are not adequately supported and may
be false. Let us learn some of the most common ways this can
happen.
Begging the Question
One of the most common fallacies is called begging the
question, also known as petitio principii. This fallacy occurs

when someone gives reasoning that assumes a major point at
issue; it assumes a particular answer to the question with which
we are concerned. In other words, the premises of the argument
claim something that someone probably would not agree with if
he or she did not already accept the conclusion. Take a look at
the following argument:
Abortion is wrong because a fetus has a right to live.
There is nothing wrong with this argument as an expression of a
person’s belief. The question is whether it will persuade anyone
who does not already agree with the conclusion. The premise of
this argument assumes the major point at issue. If fetuses have a
right to live, then it would follow almost automatically that
abortion is wrong. However, those who do not accept the
conclusion probably do not accept this premise (perhaps they do
not feel that the developing embryo is developed enough to have
human rights yet). It is therefore unlikely that they will be
persuaded by the argument. To improve the argument, it would
be necessary to give good reasons why a fetus has a right to
life, reasons that would be persuasive to people on the other
side of the argument.
For more clarity about this problem, take a look at these similar
arguments:
Capital punishment is wrong because all humans have a right to
live.
Eating meat is wrong because animals have a right to live.
These arguments are nearly identical, yet they reach different
conclusions about what types of killing are wrong because of
different assumptions about who has the right to live. Each,
however, is just as unlikely to persuade people with a different
view. In order to be persuasive, it is best to give an argument
that does not rest on controversial views that are merely
assumed to be true. It is not always easy to create non-question-
begging arguments, but such is the challenge for those who
would like to have a strong chance of persuading those with
differing views.
Here are examples on both sides of a different question:

Joe: I know that God exists because it says so in the Bible.
Doug: God doesn’t exist because nothing supernatural is real.
Do you think that either argument will persuade someone on the
other side? Someone who does not believe in God probably does
not accept the Bible to be completely true, so this reasoning
will not make the person change his or her mind. The other
argument does the same thing by simply ruling out the
possibility that anything could exist other than physical matter.
Someone who believes in God will probably not accept this
premise.
Both arguments, on the other hand, will probably sound very
good to someone who shares the speaker’s point of view, but
they will not sound persuasive at all to those who do not.
Committing the fallacy of begging the question can be
compared to “preaching to the choir” because the only people
who will accept the premise are those who already agree with
the conclusion.
Circular Reasoning
An extreme form of begging the question is called circular
reasoning. In circular reasoning, a premise is identical, or
virtually identical, to the conclusion.
Here is an example:
Mike: Capital punishment is wrong.
Sally: Why is it wrong?
Mike: Because it is!
Mike’s reasoning here seems to be, “Capital punishment is
wrong. Therefore, capital punishment is wrong.” The premise
and conclusion are the same. The reasoning is technically
logically valid because there is no way for the premise to be
true and the conclusion false—since they are the same—but this
argument will never persuade anyone, because no one will
accept the premise without already agreeing with the
conclusion.
As mentioned, circular reasoning can be considered an extreme
form of begging the question. For another example, suppose the
conversation between Joe and Doug went a little further.

Suppose each questioned the other about how they knew that the
premise was true:
Joe: I know that the Bible is true because it says so right here in
the Bible, in 2 Timothy 3:16.
Doug: I know that there is nothing supernatural because
everything has a purely natural explanation.
Here both seem to reason in a circular manner: Joe says that the
Bible is true because it says so, which assumes that it is true.
On the other side, to say that everything has a purely natural
explanation is the same thing as to say that there is nothing
supernatural, so the premise is synonymous with the conclusion.
If either party hopes to persuade the other to accept his
position, then he should offer premises that the other is likely to
find persuasive, not simply another version of the conclusion.
Moral of the Story: Begging the Question and Circular
Reasoning
To demonstrate the truth of a conclusion, it is not enough to
simply assume that it is true; we should give evidence that has a
reasonable chance of being persuasive to people on the other
side of the argument. The way to avoid begging the question
and circular reasoning is to think for a minute about whether
someone with a different point of view is likely to accept the
premises you offer. If not, strive to modify your argument so
that it has premises that are more likely to be accepted by
parties on the other side of the debate.
Hasty Generalizations and Biased Samples
Some inductive arguments make generalizations about certain
groups, but in a hasty generalization, the sample size is
inadequate.
Chapter 5 demonstrated that we can reason from a premise
about a sample population to a conclusion about a larger
population that includes the sample. Here is a simple example:
Every crow I have ever seen has been black.
Therefore, all crows are black.
This is known as making an inductive generalization; you are
making a generalization about all crows based on the crows you

have seen. However, if you have seen only a small number of
crows, then this inductive argument is weak because the sample
of crows was not large enough. A hasty generalization is an
inductive generalization in which the sample size is too small.
The person has generalized too quickly, without adequate
support.
Notice that stereotypes are often based on hasty generalizations.
For example, sometimes people see a person of a different
demographic driving poorly and, based on only one example,
draw a conclusion about the whole demographic. As Chapter 8
will discuss, such generalizations can act as obstacles to critical
thinking and have led to many erroneous and hurtful views (see
also
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100810122210.ht
m for a discussion of the long-term effects of stereotyping).
Not all inductive generalizations are bad, however. A common
form of inductive generalization is a poll. When someone takes
a poll, he or she samples a group to draw a conclusion about a
larger group. Here would be an example:
The Acquisition of Biases
Social psychologist Mahzarin Banaji explains that prejudice is
something that is learned, rather than something with which we
are born. In other words, we are prone to making hasty
generalizations simply because we make observations about the
world around us. The good news, according to Banaji, is that we
can change our thinking.
Critical Thinking Questions
What are some ways that the human mind works that naturally
lead it to make false generalizations?
What are the positive and negative aspects of the manner in
which the human mind functions?
How does perception relate to prejudice? How can humans work
to overcome the natural functions of their minds?
We sampled 1,000 people, and 70% said they will vote for
candidate A.
Therefore, candidate A will win.

Here, the sample size is relatively large, so it may supply strong
evidence for the conclusion. Recall Chapter 5’s discussion of
assessing the strength of statistical arguments that use samples.
That chapter discussed how an inductive generalization could be
affected if a sample population is not truly random. For
example, what if all of the people polled were in the same
county? The results of the poll might then be skewed toward
one candidate or other based on who lives in that county. If, in
a generalization, the sample population is not truly
representative of the whole population, then the argument uses a
biased sample (recall the Chapter 5 discussion of Gallup’s
polling techniques and see this chapter’s A Closer Look: Biased
Samples in History for a historical example of how even well-
intentioned polling can go wrong).
Slanted polling questions represent just one method of creating
deliberately biased samples; another method is called cherry
picking. Cherry picking involves a deliberate selection of data
to support only one side of an issue. If there is evidence on both
sides of a controversial question and you focus only on
evidence supporting one side, then you are manipulating the
data by ignoring the evidence that does not support the
conclusion you desire.
For example, suppose an infomercial gives many examples of
people who used a certain product and had amazing results and
therefore suggests that you will probably get great results, too.
Even if those people are telling the truth, it is very possible that
many more people did not have good results. The advertisers
will, of course, only put the people in the commercial that had
the best results. This can be seen as cherry picking, because the
viewer of the commercial does not get to see all of the people
who felt that the product was a waste of money.
A Closer Look: Biased Samples in History
In 1936 the largest poll ever taken (10 million questionnaires)
showed that Alf Landon would soundly defeat Franklin D.
Roosevelt in the presidential election. The results were quite the
opposite, however. What went wrong? The answer, it turns out,

was that the names and addresses that were used to send out the
questionnaires were taken from lists of automobile owners,
phone subscribers, and country club memberships (DeTurk,
n.d.). Therefore, the polls tended to be sent to wealthier people,
who were more likely to vote for Landon.
Typically, finding a representative sample means selecting a
sample randomly from within the whole population. However,
as this example shows, it is sometimes difficult to make certain
that there is no source of bias within one’s sampling method. In
fact, it is really difficult to get inductive generalizations just
right. We must have a sufficiently large sample, and it must be
truly representative of the whole population. We should be
careful to look at a large sample of data that accurately
represents the population in general. There is a complex science
of polling and analyzing the data to predict things like election
results. A more in-depth discussion of this topic can be found in
Chapter 5.
Appeal to Ignorance and Shifting the Burden of Proof
Sometimes we lack adequate evidence that a claim is true or
false; in such situations it would seem wise to be cautious and
search for further evidence. Sometimes, however, people take
the lack of proof on one side to constitute a proof of the other
side. This type of reasoning is known as the appeal to
ignorance; it consists of arguing either that a claim is true
because it has not been proved to be false or that a claim is
false because it has not been proved to be true.
Here is a common example on both sides of another issue:
UFO investigator: “You can’t prove that space aliens haven’t
visited Earth, so they probably have.”
Skeptic: “We haven’t yet verified the existence of space aliens,
so they must not exist.”
Both the believer and the skeptic in these examples mistakenly
take a failure to prove one side to constitute a demonstration of
the truth of the other side. It is sometimes said that the absence
of evidence is not evidence of absence. However, there are some
exceptions in which such inferences are justified. Take a look at

the following example:
John: There are no elephants in this room.
Cindy: How do you know?
John: Because I do not see any.
In this case the argument may be legitimate. If there were an
elephant in the room, one would probably notice. Another
example might be in a medical test in which the presence of an
antibody would trigger a certain reaction in the lab. The absence
of that reaction is then taken to demonstrate that the antibody is
not present. For such reasoning to work, we need to have good
reason to believe that if the antibody were present, then the
reaction would be observed.
However, for that type of reasoning to work in the case of space
aliens, the believer would have to demonstrate that if there were
none, then we would be able to prove that. Likewise, the
skeptic’s argument would require that if there were space
aliens, then we would have been able to verify it. Such a
statement is likely to be true for the case of an elephant, but it
is not likely to be the case for space aliens, so the appeal to
ignorance in those examples is fallacious.
The appeal to ignorance fallacy is closely related to the fallacy
of shifting the burden of proof, in which those who have the
responsibility of demonstrating the truth of their claims (the so-
called burden of proof) simply point out the failure of the other
side to prove the opposing position. People who do this have
not met the burden of proof but have merely acted as though the
other side has the burden instead. Here are two examples of an
appeal to ignorance that seem to shift the burden of proof:
Power company: “This new style of nuclear power plant has not
been proved to be unsafe; therefore, its construction should be
approved.” (It would seem that, when it comes to high degrees
of risk, the burden of proof would be on the power plant’s side
to show that the proposed plants are safe.)
Prosecuting attorney: “The defense has failed to demonstrate
that their client was not at the scene of the crime. Therefore, we
must put this criminal in jail.” (This prosecutor seems to assume

that it is the duty of the defense to demonstrate the innocence of
its client, when it is actually the prosecution’s responsibility to
show that the accused is guilty beyond reasonable doubt.)
It is not always easy to determine who has the burden of proof.
However, here are some reasonable questions to ask when it
comes to making such a determination:
Which side is trying to change the status quo? One person
trying to get another person to change views will usually have
the burden of proof; otherwise, the other person will not be
persuaded to change.
Which side’s position involves greater risk? A company that
designs parachutes or power plants, for example, would be
expected to demonstrate the safety of the design.
Is there a rule that determines the burden of proof in this
context? For example, the American legal system requires that,
in criminal cases, the prosecution prove its case “beyond
reasonable doubt.” Debates often put the burden of proof on the
affirmative position.
Generally speaking, we should arrive at conclusions based on
good evidence for that conclusion, not based on an absence of
evidence to the contrary. An exception to this rule is the case of
negative tests: cases in which if the claim P is true, then result
Q would very likely be observed. In these cases, if the result Q
is not observed, then we may infer that P is unlikely to be true.
In general, when one side has the burden of proof, it should be
met; simply shifting the burden to the other side is a sneaky and
fallacious move.
Appeal to Inadequate Authority
An appeal to authority is the reasoning that a claim is true
because an authority figure said so. Some people are inclined to
think that all appeals to authority are fallacious; however, that
is not the case. Appeals to authority can be quite legitimate if
the person cited actually is an authority on the matter. However,
if the person cited is not in fact an authority on the subject at
hand, then it is an appeal to inadequate authority.

If the guitar player were stating his position on the best guitar
to purchase, we might be inclined to follow his advice, as he
would be a legitimate authority. However, in this case he is an
inadequate authority.
To see why appeals to authority in general are necessary, try to
imagine how you would do in college if you did not listen to
your teachers, textbooks, or any other sources of information. In
order to learn, it is essential that we listen to appropriate
authorities. However, many sources are unreliable, misleading,
or even downright deceptive. It is therefore necessary to learn
to distinguish reliable sources of authority from unreliable
sources. How do we know which is which? Here are some good
questions to ask when considering whether to trust a given
source or authority:
Is this the kind of topic that can be settled by an appeal to
authority?
Is there much agreement among authorities about this issue?
Is this person or source an actual authority on the subject matter
in question?
Can this authority be trusted to be honest in this context?
Am I understanding or interpreting this authority correctly?
If the answer to all of these is “yes,” then it may be a legitimate
appeal to authority; if the answer to any of them is “no,” then it
may be fallacious. Here are some examples of how appeals to
authority can fail at each of these questions:
Is this the kind of topic that can be settled by an appeal to
authority?
Student: “Capitalism is wrong; Karl Marx said so.” (The
morality of capitalism may not be an issue that authority alone
can resolve. We should look at reasons on both sides to
determine where the best arguments are.)
Is there much agreement among authorities about this issue?
Student: “Abortion is wrong. My philosophy teacher said so.”
(Philosophers do carefully consider arguments about abortion,
but there is no consensus among them about this topic; there are
good philosophers on both sides of the issue. Furthermore, this

might not be the type of question that can be settled by an
appeal to authority. One should listen to the best arguments on
each side of such issues rather than simply trying to appeal to
an authority.)
Is this person or source an actual authority on the subject matter
in question?
Voter: “Global warming is real. My congressperson said so.” (A
politician may not be an actual authority on the matter, since
politicians often choose positions based on likely voting
behavior and who donates to their campaigns. A climatologist is
more likely to be a more reliable and informed source in this
field.)
Can this authority be trusted to be honest in this context?
Juror: “I know that the accused is innocent because he said he
didn’t do it.” (A person or entity who has a stake in a matter is
called an interested party. A defendant is definitely an
interested party. It would be better to have a witness who is a
neutral party.)
Am I understanding or interpreting this authority correctly?
Christian: “War is always wrong because the Bible states, ‘Thou
shalt not kill.’” (This one is a matter of interpretation. What
does this scripture really mean? In this sort of case, the
interpretation of the source is the most important issue.)
Finally, here is an example of a legitimate appeal to authority:
“Martin Van Buren was a Democrat; it says so in the
encyclopedia.” (It is hard to think of why an encyclopedia—
other than possibly an openly editable resource such as
Wikipedia—would lie or be wrong about an easily verifiable
fact.)
It may still be hard to be certain about many issues even after
listening to authorities. In such cases the best approach is to
listen to and carefully evaluate the reasoning of many experts in
the field, to determine to what degree there is consensus, and to
listen to the best arguments for each position. If we do so, we
are less prone to being misled by our own biases and the biases
of interested parties.

False Dilemma
An argument presents a false dilemma, sometimes called a false
dichotomy, when it makes it sound as though there were only
two options when in fact there are more than just those two
options. People are often prone to thinking of things in black-
and-white terms, but this type of thinking can oversimplify
complex matters. Here are two simple examples:
Wife to husband: “Now that we’ve agreed to get a dog, should it
be a poodle or a Chihuahua?” (Perhaps the husband would
rather get a Great Dane.)
Online survey: “Are you a Republican or a Democrat?” (This
ignores many other options like Libertarian, Green,
Independent, and so on. If you are in one of those other parties,
how should you answer?)
Such examples actually appear to be manipulative, which is why
this can be such a problematic fallacy. Take a look at the
following examples:
Partygoer: “What is it going to be? Are you going to go drink
with us, or are you going to be a loser?” (This seems to imply
that there are no other options, like not drinking and still being
cool.)
Activist: “You can either come to our protest or you can
continue to support the abuse we are protesting.” (This assumes
that if you are not protesting, you do not support the cause and
in fact support the other side. Perhaps you believe there are
better ways to change the system.)
Though the fallacy is called a dilemma, implying two options,
the same thing can happen with more than two options—for
example, if someone implies that there are only five options
when there are in fact other options as well.
False Cause
Analyzing the Evidence
We must take care to avoid committing the false cause fallacy
when looking at evidence. Sometimes, there is an alternative
explanation or interpretation, and our inference may have no

causal basis.
What are some questions that we can ask to help us examine
evidence?
How can a critical thinker analyze evidence to determine its
truth or falsity?
The assumption that because two things are related, one of them
is the cause of the other is called the fallacy of false cause. It is
traditionally called post hoc ergo propter hoc (often simply post
hoc), which is Latin for “it came after it therefore it was caused
by it.” Clearly, not everything that happens after something else
was caused by it. Take this example:
John is playing the basketball shooting game of H-O-R-S-E and
tries a very difficult shot. Right before the shot someone
coughs, and the ball goes in. The next time John is going to
shoot, he asks that person to cough. (John seems to be assuming
that the cough played some causal role in the ball going in. That
seems unlikely.)
Here is a slightly more subtle example:
John is taller than Sally, and John won the election, so it must
have been because he was taller. (In this case, he was taller first
and then won the election, so the speaker assumes that is the
reason. It is conceivable that his height was a factor, but that
does not follow merely because he won; we would need more
evidence to infer that was the reason.)
Large-scale correlations might be more complex, but they can
commit the same fallacy. Suppose that two things, A and B,
correlate highly with each other, as in this example:
The number of police cars in a city correlates highly with the
amount of crime in a city. Therefore, police cars cause crime.
It does not necessarily follow that A, the number of police cars,
causes B, crime. Another possibility is that B causes A; the
amount of crime causes the higher number of police cars.
Another option is that a third thing is causing both A and B; in
this case the city’s population might be causing both. It is also

possible that in some cases the correlation has no causal basis.
7.2 Fallacies of Relevance
We have seen examples in which the premises are unfounded or
do not provide adequate support for the conclusion. In extreme
cases the premises are barely even relevant to the truth of the
conclusion, yet somehow people draw those inferences anyway.
This section will take a look at some examples of common
inferences based on premises that are barely relevant to the
truth of the conclusion.
Red Herring and Non Sequitur
A red herring fallacy is a deliberate attempt to distract the
listener from the question at hand. It has been suggested that the
phrase’s origins stem from the practice of testing hunting dogs’
skills by dragging a rotting fish across their path, thus
attempting to divert the dogs from the track of the animal they
are supposed to find. The best dogs could remain on the correct
path despite the temptation to follow the stronger scent of the
dead fish (deLaplante, 2009). When it comes to reasoning,
someone who uses a red herring is attempting to steer the
listener away from the path that leads to the truth of the
conclusion.
Here are two examples:
Political campaigner: “This candidate is far better than the
others. The flag tie he is wearing represents the greatest country
on Earth. Let me tell you about the great country he represents.
. . .” (The campaigner seems to be trying to get the voter to
associate love for America with that particular candidate, but
presumably all of the candidates love their country. In this case
patriotism is the red herring; the real issue we should be
addressing is which candidate’s policies would be better for the
country.)
Debater in an argument about animal rights: “How can you say
that animals have rights? There are humans suffering all around
the world. For example, there are human beings starving in
Africa; don’t you care about them?” (There may indeed be

terrible issues with human suffering, but the existence of human
suffering does not address the question of whether animals have
rights as well. This line of thinking appears to distract from the
question at hand).
An extreme case in which someone argues in an irrelevant
manner is called a non sequitur, meaning that the conclusion
does not follow from the premises.
Football player: “I didn’t come to practice because I was
worried about the game this week; that other team is too good!”
(Logically, the talent of the other team would seem to give the
player all the more reason to go to practice.)
One student to another: “I wouldn’t take that class. I took it and
had a terrible time. Don’t you remember: That semester, my dog
died, and I had a car accident. It was terrible.” (These events
are irrelevant to the quality of the class, so this inference is
unwarranted.)
Whereas a red herring seems to take the conversation to a new
topic in an effort to distract people from the real question, a non
sequitur may stay on topic but simply make a terrible
inference—one in which the conclusion is entirely unjustified
by the premises given.
Appeal to Emotion
The appeal to emotion is a fallacy in which someone argues for
a point based on emotion rather than on reason. As noted in
Chapter 1, people make decisions based on emotion all the time,
yet emotion is unreliable as a guide. Many philosophers
throughout history thought that emotion was a major distraction
from living a life guided by reason. The ancient Greek
philosopher Plato, for example, compared emotion and other
desires to a beast that tries to lead mankind in several different
directions at once (Plato, 360 BCE). The solution to this
problem, Plato reasons, is to allow reason, not emotion, to be in
charge of our thinking and decision making. Consider the
following examples of overreliance on emotion:
Impulsive husband: “Honey, let’s buy this luxury car. Think of
how awesome it would be to drive it around. Plus, it would

really impress my ex-coworkers.” (This might feel like the fun
choice at the time, but what about when they cannot afford it in
a few years?)
Columnist: “Capital punishment should be legal. If someone
broke into your house and killed your family, wouldn’t you
want him dead?” (You perhaps would want him dead, but that
alone does not settle the issue. There are many other issues
worth considering, including the issue of innocent people
accidentally getting on death row, racism in the system, and so
on.)
This is not to say that emotion is never relevant to a decision.
The fun of driving a car is one factor (among many) in one’s
choice of a car, and the emotions of the victim’s family are one
consideration (out of many) in whether capital punishment
should be allowed. However, we must not allow that emotion to
override rational consideration of the best evidence for and
against a decision.
One specific type of appeal to emotion tries to get someone to
change his or her position only because of the sad state of an
individual affected. This is known as the appeal to pity.
Student: “Professor, you need to change my grade; otherwise, I
will lose my scholarship.” (The professor might feel bad, but to
base grades on that would be unjust to other students.)
Salesman: “You should buy this car from me because if I don’t
get this commission, I will lose my job!” (Whether or not this
car is a good purchase is not settled by which salesperson needs
the commission most. This salesman appears to play on the
buyer’s sense of guilt.)
A cartoon of a marketing meeting. The strategy displayed on a
chart is: “If you don’t buy our products we’ll surely become
very sad and probably start crying.” There is a quote at the
bottom of the cartoon that reads, “Hey! We’ve never tried a pity
strategy before.”
With an appeal to pity, it is important to recognize when the
appeal is fallacious versus genuine. Telling possible consumers
you will cry if they do not purchase your product is most likely

a fallacious appeal to pity.
As with other types of appeal to emotion, there are cases in
which a decision based on pity is not fallacious. For example, a
speaker may speak truthfully about terrible conditions of
children in the aftermath of a natural disaster or about the plight
of homeless animals. This may cause listeners to pity the
children or animals, but if this is pity for those who are actually
suffering, then it may provide a legitimate motive to help. The
fallacious use of the appeal to pity occurs when the pity is not
(or should not be) relevant to the decision at hand or is used
manipulatively.
Another specific type of appeal to emotion is the appeal to fear.
The appeal to fear is a fallacy that tries to get someone to agree
to something out of fear when it is contrary to a rational
assessment of the evidence.
Mom: “You shouldn’t swim in the ocean; there could be
sharks.” (The odds of being bitten by a shark are much smaller
than the odds of being struck by lightning [International
Wildlife Museum, n.d.]. However, the fear of sharks tends to
produce a strong aversion.)
Dad: “Don’t go to that country; there is a lot of crime there.”
(Here you should ask: How high is the crime rate? Where am I
going within that country? Is it much more dangerous than my
own country? How important is it to go there? Can I act so that
I am safe there?)
Political ad: “If we elect that candidate, then the economy will
collapse.” (Generally, all candidates claim that their policies
will be better for the economy. This statement seems to use fear
in order to change votes.)
This is not to say that fear cannot be rational. If, in fact, many
dangerous sharks have been seen recently in a given area, then
it might be wise to go somewhere else. However, a fallacy is
committed if the fears are exaggerated—as they often are—or if
one allows the emotion of fear to make the decision rather than
a careful assessment of the evidence.
The appeal to fear has been used throughout history. Many

wars, for example, have been promoted by playing on people’s
fears of an outside group or of the imagined consequences of
nonaction.
Politician: “We have to go to war with that country; otherwise
its influence will destroy our civilization.” (There may or may
not be good rational arguments for the war, but getting citizens
to support it out of exaggerated fears is to commit the appeal to
fear fallacy.)
Sometimes, a person using the appeal to fear personally
threatens the listener if she or he does not agree. This fallacy is
known as the appeal to force. The threat can be direct:
Boss: “If you don’t agree with me, then you are fired.”
Or the threat can be implied:
Mob boss: “I’d sure like to see you come around to our way of
seeing things. It was a real shame what happened to the last guy
who disagreed with us.”
Either way, the listener is being coerced into believing
something rather than rationally persuaded that it is true. A
statement of consequences, however, may not constitute an
appeal to force fallacy, as in the following example:
Boss: “If you don’t finish that report by Friday, then you will
be fired.” (This example may be harsh, but it might not be
fallacious because the boss is not asking you to accept
something as true just to avoid consequences, even if it is
contrary to evidence. This boss just gives you the information
that you need to get this thing done in time in order to keep
your job.)
It may be less clear if the consequences are imposed by a large
or nebulous group:
Campaign manager: “If you don’t come around to the party line
on this issue, then you will not make it through the primary.”
(This gives the candidate a strong incentive to accept his or her
party’s position on the issue; however, is the manager
threatening force or just stating the facts? It could that the
implied force comes from the voters themselves.)

It is sometimes hard to maintain integrity in life when there are
so many forces giving us all kinds of incentives to conform to
popular or lucrative positions. Understanding this fallacy can be
an important step in recognizing when those influences are
being applied.
When it comes to appeals to emotions in general, it is good to
be aware of our emotions, but we should not allow them to be in
charge of our decision making. We should carefully and
rationally consider the evidence in order to make the best
decisions. We should also not let those competing forces
distract us from trusting only the best and most rational
assessment of the evidence.
Appeal to Popular Opinion
The appeal to popular opinion fallacy, also known as the appeal
to popularity fallacy, bandwagon fallacy, or mob appeal fallacy,
occurs when one accepts a point of view because that is what
most people think. The reasoning pattern looks like this:
“Almost everyone thinks that X is true. Therefore, X must be
true.”
The appeal to popular opinion fallacy can be harmless, like
when you see a movie because all your friends said it was great,
but other times it can have negative consequences, such as
bullying or discriminating against others.
The error in this reasoning seems obvious: Just because many
people believe something does not make it true. After all, many
people used to believe that the sun moved around the earth, that
women should not vote, and that slavery was morally
acceptable. While these are all examples of past erroneous
beliefs, the appeal to popular opinion fallacy remains more
common than we often realize. People tend to default to the
dominant views of their respective cultures, and it takes guts to
voice a different opinion from what is normally accepted.
Because people with uncommon views are often scorned and
because people strongly want to fit in to their culture, our
beliefs tend not to be as autonomous as one might imagine.

The philosopher Immanuel Kant discussed the great struggle to
learn to think for ourselves. He defined enlightenment as the
ability to use one’s own understanding without oversight from
others (Kant, 1784). However, extricating ourselves from
bandwagon thinking is harder than one might think. Consider
these examples of popular opinions that might seem appealing:
Patriot: “America is the best country in the world; everyone
here knows it.” (To evaluate this claim objectively, we would
need a definition of best and relevant data about all of the
countries in the world.)
Animal eater: “It would be wrong to kill a dog to eat it, but
killing a pig for food is fine. Why? Because that’s what
everyone does.” (Can one logically justify this distinction? It
seems simply to be based on a majority opinion in one’s
culture.)
Business manager: “This business practice is the right way to do
it; it is what everyone is doing.” (This type of thinking can
stifle innovation or even justify violations of ethics.)
General formula: “Doing thing of type X is perfectly fine; it is
common and legal.” (You could fill in all kinds of things for X
that people ethically seem to take for granted without thinking
about it. Have you ever questioned the ethics of what is
“normal”?)
It is also interesting to note that the “truths” of one culture are
often different from the “truths” of another. This may not be
because truth is relative but because people in each culture are
committing the bandwagon fallacy rather than thinking
independently. Do you think that we hold many false beliefs
today just because a majority of people also believe them? It is
possible that much of the so-called common sense of today
could someday come to be seen as once popular myths.
It is often wise to listen to the wisdom of others, including
majority opinions. However, just because the majority of people
think and act a certain way does not mean that it is right or that
it is the only way to do things; we should learn to think

independently and rationally when deciding what things are
right and true and best.
Appeal to Tradition
Closely related to the appeal to popular opinion is the appeal to
tradition, which involves believing in something or doing
something simply because that is what people have always
believed and done. One can see that this reasoning is fallacious
because people have believed and done false and terrible things
for millennia. It is not always easy, however, to undo these
thought patterns. For example, people tried to justify slavery for
centuries based partly on the reasoning that it had always been
done and was therefore “right” and “natural.” Some traditions
may not be quite as harmful. Religious traditions, for example,
are often considered to be valuable to people’s identity and
collective sense of meaning. In seeking to avoid the fallacy,
therefore, it is not always easy to distinguish which things from
history are worth keeping. Here is an example:
“This country got where it is today because generations of stay-
at-home mothers taught their children the importance of love,
hard work, and respect for their elders. Women should stay at
home with their kids.” (Is this a tradition that is worth keeping
or is it a form of social discrimination?)
The fallacy would be to assume that something is acceptable
simply because it is a tradition. We should be open to rational
evaluation of whether a tradition is acceptable or whether it is
time to change. For example, in response to proposals of social
change, some will argue:
“If people start changing aspect X of society, then our nation
will be ruined.” (People have used such reasoning against
virtually every form of positive social change.)
You may be realizing that sometimes whether a piece of
reasoning is fallacious can be a controversial question.
Sometimes traditions are good; however, we should not assume
that something is right just because it is a tradition. There
would need to be more evidence that the change would be bad

than evidence that it would be good. As with appeals to
popularity, it is important to reason carefully and independently
about what is best, despite the biases of our culture.
Ad Hominem and Poisoning the Well
Ad hominem is Latin for “to the person.” One commits the ad
hominem fallacy when one rejects or dismisses a person’s
reasoning because of who is saying it. Here are some examples:
“Who cares what Natalie Portman says about science? She’s just
an actress.” (Despite being an actress, Natalie Portman has
relevant background.)
“Global warming is not real; climate change activists drive cars
and live in houses with big carbon footprints.” (Whether the
advocates are good personal exemplars is independent of
whether the problem is real or whether their arguments are
sound.)
“I refuse to listen to the arguments about the merits of home
birth from a man.” (A man may not personally know the ordeal
of childbirth, but that does not mean that a man cannot
effectively reason about the issue.)
It is not always a fallacy to point out who is making a claim. A
person’s credentials are often relevant to that person’s
credibility as an authority, as we discussed earlier with the
appeal to authority. However, a person’s personal traits do not
refute that person’s reasoning. The difference, then, is whether
one rejects or ignores that person’s views or reasoning due to
those traits. To simply assume that someone’s opinion has no
merit based on who said it is to commit the fallacy; to question
whether or not we should trust someone as an authority may not
be.
This next example commits the ad hominem fallacy:
“I wouldn’t listen to his views about crime in America; he is an
ex-convict.” (This statement is fallacious because it ignores the
person’s reasoning. Ex-convicts sometimes know a lot about
problems that lead to crime.)
This example, however, may not commit the fallacy:
“I wouldn’t trust his claims about lung cancer; he works for the

tobacco industry.” (This simply calls into question the
credibility of the person due to a source of bias.)
One specific type of ad hominem reasons that someone’s claim
is not to be listened to if he or she does not live up to the truth
of that claim. It is called the tu quoque (Latin for “you too”).
Here is an example:
“Don’t listen to his claims that smoking is bad; he smokes!”
(Even if the person is a hypocrite, that does not mean his claims
are false.)
Another type of fallacy commits the ad hominem in advance. It
is called poisoning the well: when someone attempts to discredit
a person’s credibility ahead of time, so that all those who are
listening will automatically reject whatever the person says.
“The next speaker is going to tell you all kinds of things about
giving money to his charity, but keep in mind that he is just out
to line his pockets with your money.” (This may unfairly color
everyone’s perceptions of what the speaker says.)
To ignore arguments because of their source is often lazy
reasoning. A logical thinker neither rejects nor blindly accepts
whatever someone says, but carefully evaluates the quality of
the reasoning used on both sides. We should evaluate the truth
or falsity of people’s claims on the merits of the claims
themselves and based on the quality of the reasoning for them.
7.3 Fallacies of Clarity
Another category of fallacies consists of arguments that depend
on an unclear use of words; they are called fallacies of clarity.
Problems with clarity often result from words in our language
that are vague (imprecise in meaning, with so-called gray areas)
or ambiguous (having more than one meaning). Fallacies of
clarity can also result from misunderstanding or misrepresenting
others’ arguments.
The Slippery Slope
The slippery slope fallacy occurs when someone reasons,
without adequate justification, that doing one thing will
inevitably lead to a whole chain of other things, ultimately

resulting in intolerable consequences; therefore, the person
reasons, we should not do that first thing.
It is perfectly appropriate to object to a policy that will truly
have bad consequences. A slippery slope fallacy, however,
merely assumes that a chain of events will follow, leading to a
terrible outcome, when such a chain is far from inevitable. Such
assumptions cause people to reject the policy out of fear rather
than out of actual rational justification.
Here is an example:
Student: “Why can’t I keep my hamster in my dorm room?”
Administrator: “Because if we let you keep your hamster, then
other students will want to bring their snakes, and others will
bring their dogs, and others will bring their horses, and it will
become a zoo around here!” (There may be good reasons not to
allow hamsters in dorm rooms—allergies, droppings, and so
on—but the idea that it will inevitably lead to allowing all kinds
of other large, uncaged animals seems to be unjustified.)
As with many fallacies, however, there are times when similar
reasoning may actually be good reasoning. For example, an
alcoholic may reason as follows:
“I can’t have a beer because if I do, then it will lead to more
beers, which will lead to whiskey, which will lead to me getting
in all kinds of trouble.”
For an alcoholic, this may be perfectly good reasoning. Based
on past experience, one may know that one action leads
inevitably to another. One way to test if an argument commits a
slippery slope fallacy, as opposed to merely raising legitimate
questions about the difficulty of drawing a line, is to ask
whether it would be possible to draw a line that would stop the
slippery slope from continuing. What do you think about the
following examples?
“We can’t legalize marijuana because if we do, then we will
have to legalize cocaine and then heroine and then crack, and
everyone will be a druggie before you know it!”
“If you try to ban pornography, then you will have to make the

distinction between pornography and art, and that will open the
door to all kinds of censorship.”
Some examples may present genuine questions as to where to
draw a line; others may represent slippery slope fallacies. The
question is whether those consequences are likely to follow
from the initial change.
As some examples show, the difficulty of drawing precise lines
is sometimes relevant to important political questions. For
example, in the abortion debate, there is a very important
question about at what point a developing embryo becomes a
human being with rights. Some say that it should be at
conception; some say at birth. The Supreme Court, in its famous
Roe v. Wade decision (1973), chose the point of viability—the
point at which a fetus could survive outside the womb; the
decision remains controversial today.
True, it is difficult to decide exactly where the line should be
drawn, but the failure to draw one at all can lead to slippery
slope problems. To reason that we should not make any
distinctions because it is hard to draw the line is like reasoning
that there should be no speed limit because it is difficult to
decide exactly when fast driving becomes unsafe. The trick is to
find good reasons why a line should be drawn in one place
rather than another.
Another example is in the same-sex marriage debate. Some feel
that if same-sex marriage were to be universally legalized, then
all kinds of other types of objectionable marriage will become
legal as well. Therefore, they argue, we must not legalize it.
This would appear to commit the slippery slope fallacy, because
there are ways that gay marriage laws could be written without
leading to other objectionable types of marriages becoming
legal.
Moral of the Story: The Slippery Slope
It can be difficult to draw sharp boundaries and create clear
definitions, but we must not allow this difficulty to prevent us
from making the best and most useful distinctions we can.

Policy decisions, for example, should be judged with careful
reasoning, making the best distinctions we can, not by the mere
application of slippery slope reasoning.
Equivocations
Equivocation is a fallacy based on ambiguity. An ambiguous
term is a word that means two different things. For example,
fast can mean “going without food,” or it can mean “rapid.”
Some ambiguities are used for humor, like in the joke, “How
many therapists does it take to change a lightbulb? Just one, but
the lightbulb has to really want to change!” This, of course, is a
pun on two meanings of change. However, when ambiguity is
used in reasoning, it often creates an equivocation, in which an
ambiguous word is used with one meaning at one point in an
argument and another meaning in another place in the argument
in a misleading way. Take the following argument:
Mark plays tennis.
Mark is poor.
Therefore, Mark is a poor tennis player.
If the conclusion meant that Mark is poor and a tennis player
then this would be a logically valid argument. However, the
conclusion actually seems to mean that he is bad at playing
tennis, which does not follow from the fact that he is poor. This
argument seems to switch the meaning of the word poor in
between the premises and the conclusion. As another example,
consider the following exchange:
Person A: “I broke my leg; I need a doctor!”
Person B: “I am a doctor.”
Person A: “Can you help me with my leg?”
Person B: “I have a PhD in sociology; what do I know about
medicine?”
Can you identify the equivocation? Person B seemed to reason
as follows:
I have a PhD in sociology.
Therefore, I am a doctor.
Although this reasoning is right in some sense, it does not

follow that person B is the type of doctor that person A needs.
The word doctor is being used ambiguously.
Here is another example:
Officer: Have you been drinking at all tonight?
Driver: Yes.
Officer: Then you are under arrest.
Driver: But I only had a soda!
Clearly, the officer came to a false conclusion because he and
the driver meant different things by drinking. See A Closer
Look: Philosophical Equivocations for more examples.
It is very important when reasoning (or critiquing reasoning)
that we are consistent and clear about our meanings when we
use words. A subtle switch in meanings within an argument can
be highly misleading and can mean that arguments that initially
appear to be valid may actually be invalid once we correctly
understand the terms involved.
A Closer Look: Philosophical Equivocations
In real life, equivocations are not always so obvious. The
philosopher John Stuart Mill, for example, attempted to
demonstrate his moral theory, known as utilitarianism, by
arguing that, if the only thing that people desire is pleasure,
then pleasure is the only thing that is desirable (Mill, 1879).
Many philosophers think that Mill is equivocating between two
different meanings of desirable. One interpretation means “able
to be desired,” which he uses in the premise. The other
interpretation is “thing that is good or should be desired,”
which he uses in the conclusion. His argument would therefore
be invalid, based on a subtle shift in meaning.
Another historical example is one of the most famous
philosophical arguments of all time. The philosopher Saint
Anselm long ago presented an argument for the existence of
God based on the idea that the word God means the greatest
conceivable thing and that a thing must exist to be greatest
(Anselm, n.d.). His argument may be simplified as follows:
God means the greatest conceivable thing.

A thing that exists is greater than one that does not.
We can conceive of God existing.
Therefore, God must exist.
Though this is still an influential argument for the existence of
God, some think it commits a subtle equivocation in its
application of the word great. The question is whether it is
talking about the greatness of the concept or the greatness of the
thing. The first premise seems to take it be about the greatness
of the concept. The second premise, however, seems to depend
on talking about the thing itself (actual existence does not
change the greatness of the concept). If this analysis is right,
then the word greatest has different meanings in the first two
premises, and the argument may commit an equivocation. In
that case the argument that appears to be valid may in fact be
subtly invalid.
The Straw Man
Have you ever heard your views misrepresented? Most of us
have. Whether it is our religion, our political views, or our
recreational preferences, we have probably heard someone make
our opinions sound worse than they are. If so, then you know
that can be a very frustrating experience.
A cartoon showing two men. One man says, “I don’t want to
gar to a bar tonight.” The other man responds, “You don’t
believe in having fun do you?”
Concept by Christopher Foster | Illustration by Steve Zmina
Misrepresenting the views of the other side through a straw man
fallacy can be frustrating and will fail to advance the issue.
The straw man fallacy is an attack on a person’s position based
on a (deliberate or otherwise) misrepresentation of his or her
actual views. The straw man fallacy is so named because it is
like beating up a scarecrow (a straw man) rather than defeating
a real person (or the real argument). The straw man fallacy can
be pernicious; it is hard for any debate to progress if the
differing sides are not even fairly represented. We can hope to

refute or improve on a view only once we have understood and
represented it correctly.
If you have listened to people arguing about politics, there is a
good chance that you have heard statements like the following:
Democrat: “Republicans don’t care about poor people.”
Republican: “Democrats want the government to control
everything.”
These characterizations do not accurately represent the aims of
either side. One way to tell whether this is a fair representation
is to determine whether someone with that view would agree
with the characterization of their view. People may sometimes
think that if they make the other side sound dumb, their own
views will sound smart and convincing by comparison.
However, this approach is likely to backfire. If our audience is
wise enough to know that the other party’s position is more
sophisticated than was expressed, then it actually sounds unfair,
or even dishonest, to misrepresent their views.
It is much harder to refute a statement that reflects the
complexity of someone’s actual views. Can you imagine if
politically partisan people spoke in a fairer manner?
Democrat: “Republicans believe that an unrestrained free
market incentivizes innovation and efficiency, thereby
improving the economy.
Republican: “Democrats believe that in a country with as much
wealth as ours, it would be immoral to allow the poorest among
us to go without life’s basic needs, including food, shelter, and
health care.”
That would be a much more honest world; it would also be more
intellectually responsible, but it would not be as easy to make
other people sound dumb. Here are more—possibly familiar—
examples of straw man fallacies, used by those on opposing
sides of a given issue:
Environmentalist: “Corporations and politicians want to destroy
the earth. Therefore, we should pass this law to stop them.”
(Perhaps the corporations and politicians believe that corporate
practices are not as destructive as some imply or that the

progress of industry is necessary for the country’s growth.)
Developer: “Environmentalists don’t believe in growth and want
to destroy the economy. Therefore, you should not oppose this
power plant.” (Perhaps environmentalists believe that the
economy can thrive while shifting to more eco-friendly
sources.)
Young Earth creationist: “Evolutionists think that monkeys
turned into people! Monkeys don’t turn into people, so their
theory should be rejected.” (Proponents of evolution would state
that there was a common ancestor millions of years ago. Genetic
changes occurred very gradually between thousands and
thousands of generations, leading to eventual species
differences.)
Atheist: “Christians don’t believe in science. They think that
Adam and Eve rode around on dinosaurs! Therefore, you should
not take their views seriously.” (Many Christians find their
religion to be compatible with science or have nonliteral
interpretations of biblical creation.)
Closely related to the straw man fallacy is the appeal to
ridicule, in which one simply seeks to make fun of another
person’s view rather than actually refute it. Here is an example:
“Vegans are idiots who live only on salad. Hooray for bacon!”
(Actually, vegans are frequently intelligent people who object
to the confinement of animals for food.)
“People with those political opinions are Nazis!” (Comparisons
to Nazis in politics are generally clichéd, exaggerated, and
disrespectful to the actual victims of the Holocaust. See Chapter
8 for a discussion of the fallacy reductio ad Hitlerum.)
In an academic or any other context, it is essential that we learn
not to commit the straw man fallacy. If you are arguing against
a point of view, it is necessary first to demonstrate that you
have accurately understood it. Only then have you demonstrated
that you are qualified to discuss its truthfulness. Furthermore,
the attempt to ridicule other’s views is rationally
counterproductive; it does not advance the discussion and seeks
only to mock other people. (See Everyday Logic: Love and

Logic for how you can avoid the straw man fallacy and the
appeal to ridicule.)
When we seek to defend our own views, the intellectually
responsible thing to do is to understand opposing viewpoints as
fully as possible and to represent them fairly before we give the
reasons for our own disagreement. The same applies in
philosophy and other academic topics. If someone want to
pontificate about a topic without having understood what has
already been done in that field, then that person simply sounds
naive. To be intellectually responsible, we have to make sure to
correctly understand what has been done in the field before we
begin to formulate our own contribution to the field.
Everyday Logic: Love and Logic
When it comes to real-life disagreements, people can become
very upset—even aggressive. This is an understandable
reaction, particularly if the disagreement concerns positions we
think are wrong or perspectives that challenge our worldview.
However, this kind of emotional reaction can lead to judgments
about what the other side may believe—judgments that are not
based on a full and sophisticated understanding of what is
actually believed and why. This pattern can be the genesis of
much of the hostility we see surrounding controversial topics. It
can also lead to common fallacies such as the straw man and
appeal to ridicule, which are two of the most pernicious and
hurtful fallacies of them all.
Logic can help provide a remedy to these types of problems.
Logic in its fullest sense is not just about creating arguments to
prove our positions right—and certainly not just about proving
others wrong. It is about learning to discover truth while
avoiding error, which is a goal all participants can share.
Therefore, there need not be any losers in this quest.
If we stop short of a full appreciation of others’ perspectives,
then we are blocked from a full understanding of the topic at
hand. One of the most important marks of a sophisticated
thinker is the appreciation of the best reasoning on all sides of
each issue.

We must therefore resist the common temptation to think of
people with opposing positions as “stupid” or “evil.” Those
kinds of judgments are generally unfair and unkind. Instead we
should seek to expand our own points of view and remove any
animosity. Here are some places to begin:
We can read what smart people have written to represent their
own views about the topic, including reading top scholarly
articles explaining different points of view.
We can really listen with intelligence, openness, and empathy to
people who feel certain ways about the topic without seeking to
refute or minimize them.
We can seek to put ourselves “in their shoes” with sensitivity
and compassion.
We can speak in ways that reflect civility and mutual
understanding.
It will take time and openness, but eventually it is possible to
appreciate more fully a much wider variety of perspectives on
life’s questions.
Furthermore, once we learn to fairly represent opposing points
of view, we may not find those views to be as crazy as we once
thought. Even the groups that we initially think of as the
strangest actually have good reasons for their beliefs. We may
or may not come to agree, but only in learning to appreciate
why these groups have such beliefs can we truly say that we
understand their views. The process and effort to do so can
make us more civil, more mature, more sophisticated, more
intelligent, and more kind.
Fallacy of Accident
The fallacy of accident consists of applying a general rule to
cases in which it is not properly applied. Often, a general rule is
true in most cases, but people who commit this fallacy talk as
though it were always true and apply it to cases that could
easily be considered to be exceptions.
Some may find the name of this fallacy confusing. It is called
the fallacy of accident because someone committing this fallacy

confuses the “essential” meaning of a statement with its
nonessential, or “accidental,” meaning. It is sometimes
alternately called dicto simpliciter, meaning “unqualified
generalization” (Fallacy Files, n.d.). Here are some examples:
“Of course ostriches must be able to fly. They are birds, and
birds fly.” (There clearly are exceptions to that general rule,
and ostriches are among them.)
“If you skip class, then you should get detention. Therefore,
because you skipped class in order to save someone from a
burning building, you should get detention.” (This may be an
extreme case, but it shows how a misapplication of a general
rule can go astray.)
“Jean Valjean should go to prison because he broke the law.”
(This example, from the novel Les Miserables, involves a man
serving many years in prison for stealing bread to feed his
starving family. In this case the law against stealing perhaps
should not be applied as harshly when there are such
extenuating circumstances.)
The last example raises the issue of sentencing. One area in
which the fallacy of accident can occur in real life is with
extreme sentencing for some crimes. In such cases, though an
action may meet the technical definition of a type of crime
under the law, it may be far from the type of case that
legislators had in mind when the sentencing guidelines were
created. This is one reason that some argue for the elimination
of mandatory minimum sentencing.
Another example in which the fallacy of accident can occur is in
the debate surrounding euthanasia, the practice of intentionally
ending a person’s life to relieve her or him of long-term
suffering from a terminal illness. Here is an argument against it:
It is wrong to intentionally kill an innocent human being.
Committing euthanasia is intentionally killing an innocent
human being.
Therefore, euthanasia is wrong.
The moral premise here is generally true; however, when we

think of the rule “It is wrong to intentionally kill an innocent
human being,” what one may have in mind is a person willfully
killing a person without justification. In the case of euthanasia,
we have a person willingly terminating his or her own life with
a strong type of justification. Whatever one’s feelings about
euthanasia, the issue is not settled by simply applying the
general rule that it is wrong to kill a human being. To use that
rule seems to oversimplify the issue in a way that misses the
subtleties of this specific case. An argument that properly
addresses the issue will appeal to a moral principle that makes
sense when applied to the specific issues that pertain to the case
of euthanasia itself.
It is difficult to make general rules that do not have exceptions.
Therefore, when specific troubling cases come up, we should
not simply assume the rule is perfect but rather consider the
merits of each case in light of the overall purpose for which we
have the rule.
Fallacies of Composition and Division
Two closely related fallacies come from confusing the whole
with its parts. The fallacy of composition occurs when one
reasons that a whole group must have a certain property because
its parts do. Here is an example:
Because the citizens of that country are rich; it follows that the
country is rich. (This may not be the case at all; what if the
government has outspent its revenue?)
You should be able to see why this one reaches an incorrect
conclusion:
“If I stand up at a baseball game then I will be able to see
better. Therefore, if everyone stands up at the baseball game,
then everyone will be able to see better.”
This statement seems to make the same mistake as the baseball
example:
If the government would just give everyone more money, then
everyone would be wealthier. (Actually, giving away money to
all would probably reduce the value of the nation’s currency.)

A similar fallacy, known as the fallacy of division, does the
opposite. Namely, it makes conclusions about members of a
population because of characteristics of the whole. Examples
might include the following:
That country is wealthy; therefore, its citizens must be wealthy.
(This one may not follow at all; the citizens could be much
poorer than the country as a whole.)
That team is the best; the players on the team must be the best
in the league. (Although the ability of the team has a lot to do
with the skills of the players, there are also reasons, including
coaching and teamwork, why a team might outperform the
average talent of its roster.)
These types of fallacies can lead to stereotyping as well, in
which people arrive at erroneous conclusions about a group
because of (often fallacious) generalizations about its members.
Conversely, people often make assumptions about individuals
because of (often fallacious) views about the whole group. We
should be careful when reasoning about populations, lest we
commit such harmful fallacies.
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Obstacles to Critical Thinking: The Self
In order to improve our ability to think critically and logically,
we must first be aware that we ourselves are already highly
prone to thinking uncritically and irrationally. Some of the
reasons for this come from outside of us. Part of thinking well
is the ability to focus on the actual claim being made and the
reasons being put forth to support that claim. However, this is
often difficult because so many other things might be going on,
such as watching a TV commercial, listening to a political
candidate, or talking with a friend, coworker, or boss. However,
sometimes our tendency to be uncritical comes from our own
beliefs—which we often accept without question—as well as
inherent biases, or prejudices. For example, we might be
affected by the status or other features of the person advancing

the argument: Perhaps a claim made by your boss will be
regarded as true, whereas the same claim made by a coworker
might be subject to more critical scrutiny. Our positive biases
lure us into favoring the views of certain people, whereas our
negative biases often cause us to reject the views of others.
Unfortunately, these responses are often automatic and
unconscious but nevertheless leave us vulnerable to
manipulation and deceit. Some people have been known to win
arguments simply because they speak more loudly or assert their
position with more force than their opponents. It is thus
important to learn to recognize any such biases. This section
will examine what are known as stereotypes and cognitive
biases.
Stereotypes
Some stereotypes, like doctors having poor penmanship, are
relatively harmless and frequently joked about. Think of the
stereotypes like this one that you encounter each day.
A stereotype is a judgment about a person or thing based solely
on the person or thing being a member of a group or of a certain
type. Everybody stereotypes at times. Think about a time when
you may have been judged—or in which you may have judged
someone else—based only on gender, race, class, religion,
language (including accent), clothes, height, weight, hair color,
or some other attribute. Generalizations based on a person’s
attributes often become the basis of stereotypes. Examples
include the stereotypes that men are more violent than women,
blonds are not smart, tall people are more popular, or fat people
are lazy. (See A Closer Look: A Common Stereotype for
another example.) Note that stereotypes can be positive or
negative, harmless or harmful. Some stereotypes form the basis
for jokes; others are used to justify oppression, abuse, or
mistreatment. Even if a stereotype is not used explicitly to harm
others, it is better to avoid drawing conclusions in this way,
particularly if the evidence that supports such characterizations
is partial, incomplete, or in some other way inadequate.
If you are thinking to yourself that you are already sensitive to

the negative effects of stereotyping and thus guard your speech
and actions carefully, you may want to think again. The fact is
that we all accept certain stereotypes without even noticing. Our
culture, upbringing, past experiences, and a myriad of other
influences shape certain biases in our belief systems; these
become so entrenched that we do not stop to question them. It is
quite shocking to realize that we can be prone to prejudice.
After all, most of us do not use stereotypes consciously—for
example, we do not always think such things as “that person is
of ethnicity X, so she must really like Y.” This is why
stereotyping is both common and difficult to guard against. One
of the advantages of logical reasoning is that it helps us develop
the habits of thinking before acting and of questioning beliefs
before accepting them. Is the conclusion I am drawing about
this person justified? Is there good evidence? How specific is
my characterization of this person? Is that characterization fair?
Would I approve of someone drawing conclusions about me on
the same amount of evidence? These are questions we should
ask ourselves whenever we make a judgment about someone.
How Preexisting Beliefs Distort Logical Reasoning
As an experiment described in this video demonstrates,
preexisting beliefs can distort logical reasoning. People are
much more skeptical about information they do not want to
believe than information they do. A challenge, however logical,
only entrenches people in their own position.
It can be even more difficult to avoid using stereotypes when
some of these generalizations turn out to be accurate or have
some support. For instance, it is rare to find an overweight
marathon runner, a tall jockey, or a short basketball player.
Thus, one might hear that a person is a professional jockey and
reasonably conclude that this person is very short; after all, the
conditions of the job tend to rule out tall individuals. But, of
course, it is not impossible that there may well be a jockey who
is 5’10” (Richard Hughes), or a 430-pound marathon runner
(Kelly Gneiting), or a 5’3” NBA player (Muggsy Bogues).
Stereotypes allow us to make quick judgments on little

evidence, which can be important when our safety is involved
and we have no way of getting information quickly. Although
there may well be situations in which we have to make some
generalizations, we need to be prepared to abandon such
generalizations if good evidence to the contrary emerges.
Regardless, although stereotypes may be useful in some
circumstances, in most cases they lead to hasty generalizations
or harmful and misguided judgments. The reason for this is that
stereotypes are founded on limited information. Accordingly,
stereotypes are frequently based on extremely weak inductive
arguments or on fallacies such as hasty generalization.
A Closer Look: A Common Stereotype
One damaging yet common stereotype is that women are not
good (or not as good as men, at least) at mathematics. This
stereotype can become a self-fulfilling prophecy: If young girls
hear this stereotype often enough, they may begin to think that
it is true and, in response, take fewer and less difficult math
classes. This results in fewer women in math-related careers,
which in turn fuels the stereotype further. Similarly, if a teacher
is convinced that such a stereotype is true, he or she may be less
likely to encourage female students to take more math courses,
again leading to underrepresentation in the field. This
stereotype may have prevented many women from being as
successful at mathematics as they might have been otherwise.
This trend is not exclusive to mathematics. Numerous studies
show that women are underrepresented in science and
engineering as well, with fewer women receiving doctorates in
those fields. Furthermore, there are disparities in the science
and engineering fields between men and women in their pay,
applying for grants, the size of the grants applied for, success in
receiving funding, and being named in patents. The consistency
of these results in both the United States and Europe and the
number of studies that have come to the same conclusions
suggest that there may be systematic bias at play, leading to
fewer women being attracted to science and engineering careers
and lower rewards for those who do enter those careers. For

more details on these results, see
http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/institutions
/disparities.html.
Cognitive Biases
Errors in critical thinking can also stem from certain
misperceptions of reality—what psychologists, economists, and
others call cognitive biases, thus distinguishing them from the
more harmful kind of prejudicial and bigoted judgments to
which stereotypes can lead. A cognitive bias is a psychological
tendency to filter information through our own subjective
beliefs, preferences, or aversions, a tendency that may lead us
to accept poor reasoning. Biases are related to the fallacies we
discussed in Chapter 7. But whereas a fallacy is an error in an
argument, a bias is a general tendency that people have. Biases
may lead us to commit fallacies, but they also color our
perception of evidence in broader ways. By understanding our
tendencies to accept poor reasoning, we can try to compensate
for our biases.
Let us begin by considering a simple example that shows one
kind of cognitive bias that can prevent us from drawing a
correct conclusion. Imagine you have flipped a fair coin 10
times, and each time it has come up heads. The odds of 10
consecutive heads occurring are 1 in 1,024—not very good.
What do you think the odds are of the 11th coin flip in this
sequence being heads again? Does it seem to you that after 10
heads in a row, the odds are much better that the 11th coin toss
will turn up tails?
Reasoning that past random events (the first 10 coin tosses, in
our example) will affect a future random event (the 11th coin
toss) is known as the gambler’s fallacy. We are prone to
accepting the gambler’s fallacy because we have a cognitive
bias. We expect the odds to work out over the long run, so we
think that events that lead to them working out are more likely
than events that do not. We expect that over time the number of
heads and tails will be approximately equal. This expectation is
the bias that frequently leads to the gambler’s fallacy. So, many

people reason that since 10 tosses have come up heads, the odds
of it happening an 11th time are very small. But, of course, the
odds of any individual coin toss coming up heads are 1 in 2.
Many people have lost quite a lot of money by committing the
gambler’s fallacy—by overlooking this cognitive bias in their
reasoning—and many people have, naturally, profited from
others making this mistake. Often the mistake is to think that an
unusually long string of unlikely outcomes is more likely to be
followed by similar outcomes—that lucky outcomes come in
groups or “lucky streaks.” If you are gambling, whether with
dice, coins, or a roulette wheel, the odds are the same for any
individual play. To convince yourself that a roulette wheel is
“hot” or that someone is on a “streak” is to succumb to this
cognitive bias and can lead not just to mistakes in reasoning but
also the loss of a lot of money.
Biased thinking leads to some of the same errors as
stereotypical thinking—including arriving at the wrong
conclusion by misinterpreting the assumptions that lead to the
support for that conclusion. Unlike stereotypical thinking,
however, biased thinking often involves common, broad
tendencies that are difficult to avoid, even when we are aware
of them. (See A Closer Look: Economic Choice: Rational
Expectations Versus Cognitive Bias for an example.)
Researchers have identified many cognitive biases, and more
are identified every year. It would be impossible to compile a
comprehensive list of all the ways in which our perceptions and
judgments may be biased. From the standpoint of critical
thinking, it is more important to be aware that we always face
bias; hence, we should have a healthy dose of skepticism when
considering even our own points of view. By examining a
handful of biases—confirmation bias, probability neglect,
selection bias, status quo bias, and the bandwagon effect—we
can be more aware of the biases we all are prone to and begin to
work on compensating for them in our thinking.
A Closer Look: Economic Choice: Rational Expectations Versus

Cognitive Bias
Psychologist and Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman has
dedicated his research to examining how people arrive at
decisions under conditions of uncertainty. Mainstream
economists generally believe that people can set aside their
biases and correctly estimate the probabilities of various
outcomes. This is known as rational expectations theory: People
are able to use reason to make correct predictions.
Kahneman, however, discovered that this is not true. His classic
article “Judgments of and by Representativeness,” written with
his longtime research partner Amos Tversky and republished in
the 1982 book Judgments Under Uncertainty, describes a
number of cognitive biases that show a systematic departure
from rational behavior. The findings by Kahneman and Tversky
are supported by data gathered from surveys that contained
questions such as the following:
Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She
majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned
with issues of discrimination and social justice and participated
in antinuclear demonstrations. Which two of the following five
alternatives are more probable?
Linda is a bank teller.
Linda wears glasses.
Linda enjoys skiing.
Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement.
Linda runs a local bookstore.
How would you answer this question? How do you think most
survey respondents answered this question? Rank these five
claims in order of probability and then turn to the end of the
chapter for the answer to the problem.
Kahneman found that most respondents ranked these
incorrectly. If people are not able to make correct predictions
about probability, then one of the assumptions of rational
expectations theory is wrong. This in turn can lead to an
inaccurate economic predictions. For example, the price we are
willing to pay for a product is partially based on how long we

think the product is likely to last. We are willing to pay more
for a product that we think will last longer than for one we
think will not last as long. If we cannot accurately estimate
probabilities, then our purchasing decisions may be less rational
than economic theory supposes they are.
Probability Neglect
Although the probability of one’s home being destroyed by a
natural disaster is relatively low, many people choose to ignore
the statistical probability and pay monthly insurance premiums
to protect themselves.
Probability neglect is, in a certain way, the reverse of gambler’s
fallacy. With probability neglect, people simply ignore the
actual statistical probabilities of an event and treat each event
as equally likely. Thus, someone might argue that wearing a
seat belt is not a good idea, because someone was once trapped
in a burning car by a seat belt. Such a person might go on to say
that since a seat belt can save your life or result in your death,
there is no reason to wear one. This person is ignoring the fact
that the probability of a seat belt saving one’s life is much
higher than the probability of the seat belt causing one’s death.
In the seat belt case, the probability of an unlikely event is
overemphasized. But in many cases it is also possible to
underestimate the odds of an unlikely event occurring. We may
think such an event is miraculous, when in fact a simpler
explanation is available. When there are many opportunities for
an unlikely event to occur, the odds can actually be in favor of
it occurring sometimes. The lottery provides a good illustration
here. The odds of winning a lottery are extremely small, about 1
in 175 million for Powerball (Missouri Lottery, 2014).
Accordingly, we often advise our loved ones to avoid being
lured by the potential of a big win in light of such odds. Yet it
is precisely this extremely small chance, combined with the
huge number of tickets sold, that there is a decent chance that
somebody will win. So it is no miracle when someone wins.
Or suppose that you happen to be thinking about a friend and

feel a sudden concern for her welfare. Later you learn that just
as you were worrying about your friend, she was going through
a terrible time. Does this demonstrate a psychic connection
between you and your friend? What are the chances that your
worry was not connected to your friend’s distress? If we
consider how many times people worry about friends and how
many times people go through difficulties, then we can more
easily see that the chances are high that we will think about
friends while they are having difficulties. In other words, we
overlook the high probability that our thinking about our loved
ones will coincide with their experiencing problems. It would
actually be more surprising if it never happened. No psychic
connection is needed to explain this.
Moral of the Story: Gambler’s Fallacy and Probability Neglect
When your reasoning depends on how likely something is, be
extra careful. It is very easy to hugely overestimate or
underestimate how likely something is.
Confirmation Bias
People tend to look for information that confirms what they
already believe—or alternatively, dismiss or discount
information that conflicts with what they already believe. As
noted in Chapter 5, this is called confirmation bias. For
example, consider the case of a journalist who personally
opposes the death penalty and, in writing an article about the
effectiveness of the death penalty, interviews more people who
oppose it than who favor it. Another example, which is also
discussed in Chapter 5, is our own tendency to turn to friends—
people likely to share our worldview—to validate our values
and opinions.
The easy access to information on the Internet has made
confirmation bias both worse and yet easier to overcome. On the
downside, it has become increasingly easy to find news sources
with which we agree. No matter where you stand on an issue, it
is easy to find a news outlet that agrees with you or a forum of
like-minded people. Since we all tend to feel more comfortable
around like-minded people, we tend to overemphasize the

importance and quality of information we get from such places.
On the upside, it has also become easier to find information
sources that disagree with our views. Overcoming confirmation
bias requires looking at both sides of an issue fairly and
equally. That does not mean looking at the different sides as
having equal justification. Rather, it means making sure that
you know the arguments on both sides of an issue and that you
apply the same level of logical analysis to each. If we take the
time and energy to explore sources that disagree with our
position, we will better understand what issues are at stake and
what the limitations of our own position may be. Even if we do
not change our mind, we will at least know where to strengthen
our argument and be equipped to anticipate contrary arguments.
In this way our viewpoint becomes the result of solid reasoning
rather than just something we believe because we do not know
the arguments against it. The philosopher John Stuart Mill
(1869/2011) had this to say:
He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of
that. His reasons may be good, and no one may have been able
to refute them. But if he is equally unable to refute the reasons
on the opposite side; if he does not so much as know what they
are, he has no ground for preferring either opinion. (p. 67)
Overcoming confirmation bias may require actually being a
little harsher—or so it might seem—on your own side of an
issue than on the opposing side. Since we all have a natural
tendency to accept arguments with whose conclusion we agree
and reject those with whose conclusions we disagree, a truly
fair analysis may seem like we are being harder on our own side
than the other. Conversely, we need to be extra careful not to
misrepresent the arguments with which we disagree. (This
would be committing the straw man fallacy discussed in Chapter
7.) As you learn more about logic and critical thinking and
practice the techniques and principles you are learning, you will
be in a better position to be sure that you are treating both sides
equally.
Moral of the Story: Confirmation Bias

Always remember that you are more likely to accept arguments
with conclusions you already believe and that you are likely to
overestimate just how common your own beliefs are. Take time
to study both sides of an issue before coming to a conclusion,
and try to be a little extra critical of arguments on your own
side.
Selection Bias
Selection bias is introduced by not having a representative
sampling of the group being studied. If the group is not chosen
correctly, the results may be skewed by the sample being
biased. For instance, if one surveyed women’s attitudes toward
work and questioned only women in well-paid managerial jobs,
many other women—who might not be as satisfied with their
salaries or work conditions—would not be represented.
Earlier in the section, we discussed how confirmation bias is
evident when we justify our views by relying only on people or
sources with similar views. This is also an example of selection
bias. As noted in Chapter 5, it is unlikely that your circle of
friends is reflective of the broader population; their opinions
would not represent the opinions of all, or even most. If many
people around you accept your opinions, you may even think
that your opinions do not need much support and that they are
more widespread than they actually are. Just as with
confirmation bias, overcoming selection bias would mean
ensuring you considered the opinions of a range of people,
including those who disagree with you.
Although confirmation bias can be seen as a form of selection
bias, selection bias is broader. For example, Londa Schiebinger
(2003) discusses the fact that women have been
underrepresented in medical research and considers some
possible ways of improving the situation. Because this
underrepresentation affects the representativeness of samples
we see and is not simply a preference for samples with which
we agree, it is a case of selection bias rather than confirmation
bias. We all prefer to do things in the easiest way possible. In
general it is easier to reason from whatever samples are

handiest rather than go to the extra effort to ensure that our
samples are representative or that our evidence comes from the
broadest scope of sources possible. When we simply gather our
sample from whatever is convenient, we are falling prey to
selection bias.
Status Quo Bias
Status quo bias is the tendency to prefer that things remain as
they are or have been recently rather than changing them. It
may be exhibited when an individual argues that something is
fine just as it is, based on the observation that it has always
been a certain way without observable problems. For example,
some have argued that saying the Pledge of Allegiance should
remain a school tradition, since reciting it has not caused
problems in the past. Although the Pledge of Allegiance remains
a controversial and undecided issue in some circles, one can see
how status quo bias can be problematic when it is used to
rationalize the oppression of others. For example, in 1900, a
(male) voter in the United States might have said, “Women
never voted before, and we did just fine”—would it follow,
then, that women should not be allowed to vote?
As you may have guessed, the status quo bias is closely
connected the appeal to tradition fallacy. Someone who commits
that fallacy may do so because of a bias toward the status quo.
But this bias also affects how we view the world more broadly.
We have a strong tendency to simply accept the way things are
without questioning them, simply because that way is familiar
to us. Our days are filled with routine and ordinary practices
that we continue not because we have compared them to other
ways of doing things, but simply because that is how we have
been doing them. One need not make an argument in order to
exhibit a status quo bias. A status quo bias is often increased by
selection and confirmation biases. We think that a policy has
not created problems in the past because we have not heard of
any problems. Even if we do hear of a problem, our tendency
will often be to dismiss it as unimportant. Biases often work
together to create a greater effect than they would individually.

The Bandwagon Effect
The bandwagon effect (also referred to as “herd mentality” or
“groupthink”) is our tendency to go along with what we see
others doing and believing. This is commonly seen with
investment trends and real estate “bubbles”—often with
disastrous results. A video on YouTube may become widely
seen just because a lot of people have seen it; others reason that
it must be good if it has been seen by so many people. This is
not a logical argument, any more than a book’s status alone as a
best seller signifies anything about its quality; it simply has
sold a lot of copies. Yet when a belief is widely held, we have a
strong tendency to think that it must have something going for
it. However, when we stop to think about it, we can see that this
is not always the case. Few of us would think that the fact that
many people were in favor of slavery is any indication at all
that slavery is a good thing. Nonetheless, we often take beliefs
to be obvious simply because they are widespread.
At the same time, it is important to point out that the
bandwagon effect is not always problematic. For example, if
people flock to restaurant A while restaurant B remains largely
empty, then it is reasonable to think that restaurant B is not
attractive to most people. We can then choose to find out why
for ourselves or choose to try the most favored restaurant first.
Likewise, we often rely on Internet reviews of vendors,
products, physicians, hairstylists, and even churches in order to
get an idea of people’s opinions. This does not mean that what
most people like will be the same as what we will like, but it
gives us a starting point of information. If we receive bad news
from a physician, then it is reasonable to seek more opinions. If
two out of three doctors recommend a particular treatment, then
it would be foolish to completely ignore the majority opinion,
although we would likely need to take additional factors into
account in deciding the course of treatment. Problems arise
when we give too much importance to popular or majority
opinion rather than researching the issue ourselves.

An interesting recent case that illustrates both the prevalence
and significant effects of biases is the change in public opinion
regarding same-sex marriage. From 1996 to 2014 public opinion
shifted from only 27% of people approving of same sex
marriage to 55% approval (Gallup, 2014). This is a large and
rapid shift in opinion on a topic that touches on a central part of
many people’s lives. The shift is especially notable because it
does not seem to be the result of newly discovered evidence. A
more likely explanation is that biases played a significant role
in the shift. Perhaps people in 1996 suffered heavily from a
status quo bias, which would have led them to reject marriages
that were not like what they were used to. Perhaps many people
in 2014 suffered from the bandwagon effect, accepting same-sex
marriages largely because they perceived people around them as
being more accepting of them. Perhaps selection biases led
people in 1996 to undervalue how the inability to marry
affected same-sex couples and their children. As same-sex
couples became more vocal and visible in society, this
information would be more readily available to people, thus
leading to a change in opinion. We do not know just why there
has been such a shift in public opinion on this issue, but it
seems likely that biases played a significant role. (See Everyday
Logic: Cognitive Biases in Our Own Lives for some thoughts on
how to address pervasive cognitive biases.)
Everyday Logic: Cognitive Biases in Our Own Lives
If you were raised in the United States, it is likely that you
believe it is one of the greatest countries on earth, perhaps even
the greatest country. It is also likely that you are opposed to
communism and think that it is evil and oppressive. Yet not all
people who hold these beliefs have done the research necessary
to support them. Think about the kind of arguments and
research it would take to convince you of the opposite of what
you now believe in these cases. If your belief is not based on
that same kind and amount of evidence, then it is likely due, at
least in part, to some form of bias.

We cannot eliminate every source of bias in every one of our
beliefs. Neither can we take the time and energy necessary to
fully and dispassionately justify every one of our beliefs.
Whether it is worth doing so in a particular case depends on
what is at stake. Believing that your country is the greatest has
some positive benefits: It makes your life more pleasant, builds
community spirit, and gives you optimism for the future. In this
sense it is not really a bad thing to believe, even if you cannot
fully support it. The problem arises when such a belief becomes
the basis for arguments about other issues. Suppose someone
suggests a policy change and uses data from other countries to
support it. If your response is that your country, the greatest
country on earth, does not do things that way—and if that belief
is based largely on bias, rather than evidence—then that bias
may have a real and negative effect.
As mentioned, there are many more of these cognitive biases
that have been the focus of a great deal of research by
psychologists, political scientists, economists, and others who
study the phenomenon of decision making. Here again, logic
can play an important role in eliminating or at least decreasing
the effects of cognitive biases by helping us to examine the
claims, the arguments, and whether the support for the claims is
provided in a solid, objective way. Logic is an extremely
helpful tool to help us step back, take a deep breath, and see if
the claims we have made—and the reasoning we have provided
to support those claims—are justifiable or are instead subject to
the kinds of mistakes introduced by stereotypes and cognitive
bias.
8.2 Obstacles to Critical Thinking: Rhetorical Devices
Today we are bombarded by information, but 100 years ago, unl
ess one lived in a big city,
information was available from just a few sources: books and m
agazines and a local
newspaper or two. With the development of cable TV, satellite r
adio, and of course, the
Internet, there is very little difficulty finding information on vir

tually any topic; indeed,
some might say that there is so much information that we have t
rouble finding the information we need and knowing that the inf
ormation we do find is credible. Much of this
information is accompanied by advertising; one may sign in to
a social media website one
day, click on an advertisement for a product, and discover that e
verywhere one goes on the Internet there are ads for similar pro
ducts, as well as messages about such products
showing up in one’s e-
mail. All of these communications are designed to persuade us o
f something. A research
article attempts to persuade us to accept its conclusion. An adv
ertisement attempts to
persuade us to buy a product. In both cases we are being asked
to accept certain claims and to base our beliefs and behavior on
those claims. We should exercise caution in deciding
whether to do so.
The fundamental point to keep in mind here is that when we enc
ounter a claim and wish to evaluate it, it is important to focus o
n the evidence, the reasons, and the argument that
support this claim. As this section will discuss, however, there a
re a variety of ways to state the claim that may make it seem eit
her more or less reasonable than it may be. These are
all techniques that seek to prevent us from focusing on what we
should be emphasizing—
whether there are good reasons to accept or reject a claim. Inste
ad, they encourage us to
react emotionally or irrationally, often based on pleasant (or un
pleasant) memories and
associations, rather than evaluate the claim on its own merits. If
someone can convince you to buy laundry soap simply because
of the way it is described, then there is no need to
worry about the actual quality of the laundry soap. In the same
way, if someone wants to
convince you to vote a certain way or adopt a particular viewpo

int simply because of the
way the candidate or viewpoint is described, there is no need to
focus on the actual merits of the case. Hence, we need to be con
scious of these methods, especially since they do not
occur just in commercial and political contexts. When we have a
conversation—and particularly a disagreement—
with someone, how that other person employs language may als
o appeal to things that
prevent us from focusing on reasons, evidence, and the actual ar
gument. We also need to be aware of our own tendency to emplo
y these techniques so that our own attempts at
persuasion can remain focused on the merits of the case rather t
han on getting someone to accept our position on irrelevant gro
unds.
As discussed in Chapter 1, rhetoric is the study and art of effect
ive persuasion. Although
rhetoric typically includes some focus on logic as a persuasive
technique, many effective
persuasive techniques have little to do with logic and critical thi
nking. Rhetoric employs
techniques known as rhetorical devices, and this section lists so
me of the best known and most popular. It is important to note t
hat rhetorical devices are not necessarily contrary to logic—
rhetoric is the art of persuasion, not of irrationality or duplicity
—
but many of these techniques are used to get us to focus on som
ething other than the
quality of the reasons and arguments offered. There are many ot
hers, and new ones are always
being developed; in marketing, for example, once discerning co
nsumers become aware of
one such technique, it may become ineffective. As long as we ar
e aware that how language
is used can have an enormous impact on how effective a messag
e is, we will be better
prepared when that language is used in an illegitimate way, pers

uading us to do or believe something when we should not be per
suaded.
Weasel Words
Weasel words, or weaselers, are terms used to qualify a claim to
make it easier to accept
and more difficult to reject by introducing some degree of proba
bility or “watering down”
the claim without really changing its significance. If someone
were to say, “All philosophers are brilliant,” that would be fairl
y easy to disprove; you need only find a single philosopher who
is not brilliant to do so. But if someone were to say, “Most phil
osophers are brilliant,” or “A lot of philosophers are brilliant,”
or “Philosophers generally seem to be brilliant,” the claim is no
t as easy to disprove.
Weasel words such as probably, most, seems, in a sense, up to,
and many others have this same effect—
they make a claim sound better than it may actually be and mak
e it more difficult to show
that the claim is false. If a particular over-the-
counter pain reliever promises to relieve pain for “up to 12 hour
s,” that claim is actually
true even if it only works for 20 minutes; “up to 12 hours” incl
udes that 20 minutes. But
the force of the claim tends to suggest that the relief will be for
all 12 hours, until one looks more closely at what precisely is b
eing claimed. It should not be surprising that such terms are fre
quently encountered in advertising. After all, would you be mor
e likely to buy a
toothpaste that “may prevent cavities” or one that “may or may
not prevent cavities,” even
though the two claims are really the same? Weasel words, used
effectively, can make a
person (or a company) sound as if an important claim is being p
ut forth. However, on closer inspection, we may find that the cl
aim is weak because of the use of a weaseler.
On the other hand, you should not dismiss a claim simply becau

se it contains words that
could be used as weaselers. There are legitimate uses of such ter
ms. Chapter 9 will discuss
the use of qualifiers (sometimes known as guarding terms) that
are legitimately used to
make claims more accurate. Qualifiers like sometimes, usually,
and possibly weaken claims
so that they are more likely to be true. We generally call such t
erms “weasel words” only
when they are being used in ways that are sneaky or deceptive.
Scientific studies often employ what may appear as weasel word
s when describing their
results, yet they frequently use them in a legitimate way. For ex
ample, a medical report
may note that a certain substance may cause cancer in some pop
ulations. However, such a
report is likely just being cautious (though accurate). When dete
rmining whether a claim
uses weaselers in a manipulative sense, it is important to exami
ne the claim and its
justification to determine whether the guarding terms are being
used in a way that is legitimate or deceptive.
Euphemisms and Dysphemisms
Euphemisms and dysphemisms are both common ways of provid
ing “spin” to information—
that is, presenting the information in either a positive or negativ
e light, respectively.
A euphemism is a term that makes something sound more positi
ve than it might be otherwise. We are all familiar with some of t
hese, and many are standard expressions. We might say that a p
erson has passed on, passed away, or gone to a better place, rath
er than just say the person died. The actual facts in the situation
do not change, of course, but it may be
easier to hear of a loved one’s death if a euphemism is used.
For someone getting bad news, euphemisms make perfect sense
in order to deliver that

news in as painless a way as possible. In other settings, however
, a euphemism may be
used not to be sensitive but to avoid describing a harsh reality.
Politicians are particularly
adept at employing euphemisms. Would a potential voter prefer
to hear about higher taxes or about “revenue enhancement”? Eit
her one may cost the taxpayer $500 over the next
year, but politicians are well aware of the fact that voters do not
like to hear about taxes
going up. A euphemism can help take the sting out of that mess
age. If you want someone to accept what you are saying, euphe
misms can be very helpful by putting your message in a more po
sitive context. It is also worth noting that some terms that might
have once been
considered euphemisms were eventually adopted as both more s
ensitive and more
accurate terms. For example, terms such as differently abled and
disabled may have started out as euphemisms but are now consi
dered simply appropriate descriptions of those with physical or
mental disabilities.
Dysphemisms are the opposite of euphemisms; these are descrip
tions used to put
something in a more negative light. Often such words are used t
o shock, offend, drive home a point, or get someone’s attention.
We can see how the use of a dysphemism might be used to help
support a certain agenda. Imagine a politician discussing two gr
oups of insurgents
in different foreign countries. Both groups use violence, kidnap
ping, bank robbery, and
other similar means to make their political points. But one grou
p is friendly to the
politician’s own views, so the politician refers to the group’s m
embers as “freedom fighters.” The members of the other group,
whom the politician abhors, are described as “terrorists.” These
two groups are doing the same kinds of things, but the use of a e
uphemism

(“freedom fighter”) makes one group look much different than t
he use of a dysphemism
(“terrorist”). One might also consider some of the dysphemisms
that are used to refer to
lawyers. Who would you trust more, an “attorney at law” or an
“ambulance chaser”?
Table 8.1 provides more examples of euphemisms and dysphemi
sms.
Table 8.1: Euphemisms versus dysphemisms
Euphemism
Neutral word
Dysphemism
Lady of the night
Prostitute
Hooker
Voluptuous
Overweight
Fat
Pre-owned car
Used car
Clunker
Estate tax
Inheritance tax
Death tax
Collectible
Old
Junk
Salvage depot
Wrecked and loose parts merchant
Junkyard
Moral of the Story: Euphemisms and Dysphemisms
Pay attention to how things are worded. A careful choice of wor
ding can lead you to accept or reject a position when there reall
y is not enough evidence to justify doing so.
Proof Surrogates
A proof surrogate is used to provide some degree of authority to

a claim without actually offering any genuine support. Frequent
ly, one will hear “studies show” that something is
the case, even in everyday conversation. Without the actual stud
ies, we are not really told
any additional information, but the claim sounds stronger. Thus
, if someone says, “People
in Slovakia live longer because they eat a lot of yogurt,” you ma
y or may not accept that
claim at face value. You may, after all, not really know the life
expectancy of those in
Slovakia or their rate of yogurt consumption. But if, instead, so
meone were to say, “Studies show that people in Slovakia live l
onger because they eat a lot of yogurt,” somehow that
claim sounds more authoritative. Of course, without providing t
he actual studies, the
second claim is no different from the first, but this is a surprisi
ngly powerful and effective
technique. Even if it is true that there are studies backing the cl
aim, without access to the
studies, we really are in no position to assess the level of suppo
rt they provide. We do not
know whether the studies were well done, whether they are und
uly biased, or whether
their conclusions have been interpreted properly.
The trick in this case is not so much what is being claimed; rath
er, it is in not believing a
claim simply because it is preceded by “experts agree,” “studie
s show,” or “most people say.” To challenge this kind of statem
ent is straightforward. If one is suspicious, one can alway ask, “
What studies?” or “Which experts?” A person who asserts somet
hing based on such a proof surrogate and who cannot actually pr
ovide any support beyond an empty rhetorical
reference to “experts” and “studies” will generally be quickly e
xposed as not having much
information to back up his or her claim. When you hear a claim
that sounds odd or unlikely to be true based on what you alread

y know, you should be careful to follow up on any
potential proof surrogates. Many hoaxes use proof surrogates to
lend an air of credibility to their claims. As hoaxes become mor
e sophisticated, it is always a good idea to check on
claims that seem unlikely, outrageous, or otherwise suspicious.
Moral of the Story: Proof Surrogates
Be prepared to provide sources whenever you advance an appeal
to experts, studies, or
popular opinion. If a claim seems odd or unlikely, check the sou
rces; do not assume that
what has been claimed is actually true or that the proof surrogat
es correspond to actual sources.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is really just another term for exaggeration. Consider
these typical uses of hyperbole: A student e-
mails her teacher to say she is “deathly ill” when she may actual
ly just have a bad cold. A
teenager accuses his parents of being dictators when he is asked
to clean his room. A
grandfather tells stories of his youth that involve walking 15 mi
les to school every morning in 3 feet of snow. A teacher says, “I
f I have to grade one more paper, it’s going to kill me.”
Such hyperboles often do not do any harm. After all, if someon
e tells you that Bill Gates has “more money than God,” it is unli
kely that you take that to mean much more than Bill Gates havin
g a great deal of money.
But in some contexts, particularly political contexts, hyperbole
can be used to make a point sound more plausible than it might
be otherwise, and to immediately accept such a claim
can be risky. As always, one should look at the reasons, evidenc
e, and argument in
evaluating such a claim. For instance, someone arguing against
gun control might insist that those who favor it “want to take a
way all of our guns.” This would be using hyperbole if
those who advocate gun control do not want to do so. Similarly,
someone claiming that

those who advocate using coal for electricity “don’t care if chil
dren can breathe” is using
hyperbole. Most advocates of coal-
fired electricity do, in fact, care if children can breathe. Even if
you are not fooled into
actually believing such claims, the use of hyperbole indeed fuel
s our feelings of outrage (see A Closer Look: Hyperbole and Go
dwin’s Law for a classic example). Since political speech is
aimed at getting us to do something (for example, vote), this out
rage may be enough to
achieve those aims, even if we realize there is some hyperbole g
oing on. As you may have
guessed, hyperbole is often used in the straw man fallacy (see C
hapter 7).
Hyperbole can sometimes be difficult to identify. After all, if on
e claims that Pablo Picasso is the greatest painter of the 20th ce
ntury or that Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball
player of all time, are those examples of hyperbole or defensible
claims? In any case one
cannot simply assert such propositions without being prepared t
o defend them with evidence and argument.
A Closer Look: Hyperbole and Godwin’s Law
In 1990 Michael Godwin, after observing many conversations o
n the Internet devolve into name-
calling, looked a bit more closely at the specifics of how this oc
curred. He came up with the idea that “as an online discussion g
rows longer, the probability of a comparison involving
Nazis or Hitler approaches one” (Godwin, 1994, para. 8). In oth
er words, the longer a
debate continues, the more likely a comparison will be made bet
ween one’s opponent and Hitler or the Nazis. This became know
n as “Godwin’s Law” and is a good example of
hyperbole. Internet disagreements are certainly common enoug
h, but it is unjustified to
compare an opponent to Hitler merely because you disagree.
When one compares someone to Hitler, it is often a case of the i

nformal fallacy reductio ad Hitlerum, in which the mere fact tha
t someone is in some way comparable to Hitler is used as a reas
on for thinking he is wrong or his claim is mistaken. In some cir
cles it is taken as a rule that the first person to compare an oppo
nent to Hitler (or the Nazis) loses the Internet debate (or in othe
r versions
that the debate is effectively over). It is rare to see a compariso
n to Hitler that furthers a
discussion; getting to that stage indicates that one really has not
hing productive to add.
Note that many of these conversations can quickly devolve into
the use of fallacious slippery slope claims, since characterizing
people, actions, or measures in such an exaggerated
manner can easily result in more illogical comparisons.
Innuendo and Paralipsis
Often a point can be made—
particularly about one’s opponent in a debate or confrontation—
without directly stating it. It can be implied by what is actually
said, which is generally
known as innuendo. Or it can be emphasized by noting how som
ething is not said, which is a common-
enough strategy but referred to with an uncommon word, paralip
sis.
In films, books, TV shows, and elsewhere, there are often salaci
ous or off-
color jokes made using innuendo. In Alfred Hitchcock’s film To
Catch a Thief, the lead
couple goes on a picnic, and the woman (played by Grace Kelly)
reaches into the picnic
basket and asks the man (played by Cary Grant), “Do you want
a leg or a breast?” This was
relatively shocking in 1955, but since then it has become an acc
eptable sexual innuendo in popular culture.
Innuendos can also be used to make points that are less risqué.

For instance, if a teacher
tells a student that her paper is extremely well typed, that might
be an innuendo suggesting that the paper is not particularly goo
d. After all, if the best compliment a teacher can offer
is about the appearance of the paper, that might imply that the
content of the paper is
mediocre. One roommate might observe about another that he s
eems to be “extremely up-to-
date” on TV shows; that might, again, be an innuendo suggestin
g that he is watching too
much TV and could be spending his time more productively. For
that matter, a simple
gesture, such as looking at your watch (or looking at your wrist
even if there is no watch
there) can suggest, without saying anything, that time is being
wasted or that a person is
late. These are all pretty familiar. We simply need to be aware o
f situations in which a claim is implied by innuendo. If such a cl
aim is being suggested and we wish to challenge it, then we nee
d to look beyond the implications and instead at what explicit su
pport exists.
Paralipsis is a technique that one can use to emphasize somethin
g by indicating that it will not be mentioned. This is frequently
seen in political campaigns, in which a candidate might say, “I
would never discuss my opponent’s frequent indiscretions and s
candals.” By saying this, of course, the audience hears about bot
h the indiscretions and the scandals, but the
politician can respond that he or she never mentioned them. Fre
quently, this technique is
introduced by such phrases as, “It goes without saying,” “I need
not mention,” or “I need not remind you,” after which what goe
s without saying is said, what does not need mentioning is menti
oned, and one is immediately reminded of precisely that of whic
h one does not
need to be reminded. In this way some characteristic or feature
of one’s opponent—often negative—

is introduced without having to state it directly.
One of the most famous uses of innuendo and paralipsis in litera
ture is Mark Antony’s
speech in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, in which Antony eulogi
zes his assassinated friend
and ruler. Antony is allowed to make his speech after promising
Marcus Brutus, one of the
conspirators against Caesar, that he will not speak ill of the con
spirators in his speech.
Antony’s speech thus begins by appearing to justify the actions
of Brutus and the other
conspirators. In the course of his speech, however, Antony uses
various rhetorical
techniques to paint Caesar in such a positive light that he succe
eds in convincing his
Roman audience to feel rage against the conspirators and to sup
port him, rather than Brutus, as Caesar’s successor.
While reading this speech, see if you can find some of the rheto
rical techniques we have
examined here; in particular, Antony’s use of innuendo and para
lipsis. Why do you think
these techniques might be effective on Antony’s audience?
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones;
So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus
Hath told you Caesar was ambitious:
If it were so, it was a grievous fault,
And grievously hath Caesar answer’d it.
Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest—
For Brutus is an honourable man;
So are they all, all honourable men—
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me:
But Brutus says he was ambitious;

And Brutus is an honourable man.
He hath brought many captives home to Rome
Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill:
Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?
When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept:
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff:
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man.
You all did see that on the Lupercal
I thrice presented him a kingly crown,
Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition?
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And, sure, he is an honourable man.
I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke,
But here I am to speak what I do know.
You all did love him once, not without cause:
What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him?
O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts,
And men have lost their reason. Bear with me;
My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,
And I must pause till it come back to me. (Shakespeare, 1599, 3
.2.1617–1651)
Moral of the Story: Innuendo and Paralipsis
Implying something rather than stating it clearly can soften the
presentation of a claim.
However, it can also be used to make a claim seem more plausib
le than it really is. Try to
set out the claims clearly before accepting them.
8.3 The Media and Mediated Information
As should be evident by now, rhetorical devices and other
persuasive techniques can be found almost anywhere. However,
it is perhaps easiest to see persuasion in action in what is known
broadly and collectively as “the media”—the sources of mass
communication that include television, newspapers, radio, and
the Internet.
If we consider how the media functions, we can see the origins

of the word media itself (the singular is medium). There is, of
course, ourselves: the viewers, the readers, or the listeners.
There is also the world that we want to understand. To a certain
extent, a person can learn a great deal by observation—looking,
listening, and so forth—to discover how that world is and how
it functions. But a great deal of information is not available to
us this way; we rely on the media to provide it. Thus, the media
are intermediaries between ourselves and our world; the media
mediate between us and the world we seek to understand.
With that role comes the risk that the information provided is
distorted. Any media source has to make decisions about how to
present information. After all, if we want to hear about what
took place in a 3-hour meeting, we probably do not want to
watch, read, or listen to 3 hours of content. Rather, we want the
relevant information summarized accurately, in perhaps just a
few sentences or a short video. Thus, media sources have to
make numerous decisions about what to emphasize, what to
omit, how to frame the information, what the relevant
background is, how others might interpret it, and so on. These
decisions can be difficult to make, and good writers and editors
recognize that with each decision, one risks distorting the
information. While there may not be a perfectly unbiased media
source, some work extremely hard to present an objective
perspective. Others, on the other hand, seem intent on using
bias and spin to increase their viewership. As should be clear
from our earlier discussion, this phenomenon is not limited to
the media alone: Any source, whether it be a politician or your
next-door neighbor, is mediating the information you receive.
The last section focused primarily on how language can be used
to persuade a listener or an opponent of some claim—not based
on the actual evidence or in terms of an argument, but on how
that claim is stated. However, it is not just language that can be
used and misused in this fashion. Images, or the combination of
images and words, can also be manipulated to send a message,
and we should be just as aware of this possibility as we are of
rhetorical techniques.

Manipulating Images
Even before computer software made altering photos relatively
easy, dictators were known to try to alter the historical record
by changing photographs. One classic example involved the so-
called Gang of Four in the People’s Republic of China in 1976.
These four influential Chinese Communist Party officials,
having fallen out of favor with the political leadership in China,
were simply removed from a widely circulated picture of the
1976 memorial service for party founder Mao Zedong. (To see a
copy of this photo, visit Scientific American’s slideshow on
photo tampering:
http://www.scientificamerican.com/slideshow/photo-tampering -
throughout-history/#2.)
This sort of photo manipulation might seem quite bold and
blatant, but photo manipulation can also be more subtle. With
the development of technology, it can be difficult to discern that
there have been changes to an image and to determine what
those changes may be. Most of us are familiar with the
controversy surrounding airbrushed models and messages about
body image they convey. But these same techniques can be used
to color our perceptions of other things as well. During O. J.
Simpson’s controversial murder trial in 1995, Simpson’s picture
was presented on the cover of Time magazine and the cover of
Newsweek magazine. The two magazines ran the same picture,
but the darker cast of the Time cover seemed, in the view of
many critics, to make Simpson look scarier and more menacing.
(See the two covers side by side and read about what happened
when that Time cover hit the newsstands at
http://blogcritics.org/ojs-last-run-a-tale-of.)
Although it can be difficult to be aware of these kinds of
alterations, the point is a general one: When information—
whether words or images—looks suspicious, or an image might
be considered to be just a bit too “convenient” to support a
claim, one should investigate further. Are there other sources
for the same picture? Are there ways of discovering that the

image has been altered or even faked? As usual, the best we can
do is be aware of the possibility, and when in doubt, see if we
can critically examine the image (or information) to determine
if it is genuine or not.
Moral of the Story: Manipulating Images
A picture may be worth a thousand words, but those words can
still be lies. When in doubt, verify that the picture has not been
altered or faked.
Advertising
Thinking About Advertising
Various photographers, as well as a museum curator and an
advertising creative director, offer thoughts on and criticisms of
advertising techniques.
What are some techniques that advertisers use to promote their
products?
What techniques did the artists interviewed in this clip use to
get the audience thinking about the effects of advertising?
Think of some of today's most influential advertisements or
brands. Is there any way to prevent oneself from being
influenced by advertising? Is it important to insulate oneself
from advertising?
Most of us are not surprised that advertising presents
information in a way that tries to persuade the consumer to
purchase a good, or a service; that is, after all, the purpose of
advertising. However, being aware of advertisers’ goals helps
us maintain a critical perspective. Indeed, there are slogans to
remind us to regard advertising with a bit of skepticism: caveat
emptor (“let the buyer beware”), “if it is too good to be true, it
probably is,” and “always read the fine print.”
We have already seen some of the techniques that advertisers
use to convince viewers to buy a product, such as proof
surrogates and weaselers: Recall the commercial about
toothpaste that “may prevent cavities.” The Chapter 7
discussion about fallacies outlines many of the other ways

others try to convince us (illegitimately) of something. In this
section, we will look at a few more specific examples how
marketers pair images with rhetorical devices and fallacies to
override our critical thinking skills.
One advertising technique is to pair positive images with the
product, which can cause viewers to associate the product with
positive feelings. Generally, most of us are not conscious of
this—which is what marketing professions desire (see A Closer
Look: Does Advertising Work?). If you have a positive response
to a product because of what you associate with it, presumably
you are more likely to buy it. For example, perhaps a certain
beer is consumed by the world’s most interesting man; should
we be drinking this beer too if we want to be more interesting
ourselves? Of course, most marketing campaigns are
considerably more subtle. Indeed, as viewers become more
aware of advertising techniques, advertisers develop better
techniques.
A Closer Look: Does Advertising Work?
Many people claim that advertising does not affect them. The
obvious question is why marketers spend $70 billion dollars a
year on television ads alone if they are so ineffective. Perhaps
the marketers know something that those who deny the
influence of advertising do not.
As market research analyst Nigel Hollis (2011) has observed:
Contrary to many people’s beliefs, advertising does influence
them. But advertising’s influence is subtle. Strident calls to
action are easily discounted and rejected because they are
obvious. But engaging and memorable ads slip ideas past our
defenses and seed memories that influence our behavior. You
may not think advertising influences you. But marketers do.
(para. 13)
In Simons and Chabris’s experiment, subjects were asked to
watch a video of people in black T-shirts and white T-shirts
passing a basketball. They were asked to count the number of

passes between team members, and afterward were asked if
anything out of the ordinary took place. While most participants
were able to accurately count the passes made, most failed to
notice that a person in a gorilla suit walked through the video—
they were too busy counting passes.
Likewise, most of us are not devoting our full attention to
advertising when we are watching TV or flipping through a
magazine. We are thus more likely to remain unconscious of the
persuasive techniques being used to influence our opinions and
buying habits. As University of Calgary psychology professor
Julie Sedivy (2011) wrote:
In the scientific work on persuasion, there’s a well-known result
that, while not quite as funny as the Simons and Chabris study,
is very similar to the invisible gorilla effect: it’s the finding
that people are often apt to ignore the difference between strong
and weak arguments in forming attitudes or choosing how to
behave. (para. 7)
Many commercials attempt to present weak arguments by means
of images intended to offer the support that premises would
otherwise provide.
Suppose that you saw a Coke commercial with the polar bears.
Maybe you liked the polar bears, and these images remained in
your memory. You suddenly realize that you are thirsty. And
then you find yourself leaving the store with a six-pack of
Coke. Indeed, some commercials do not offer any clear claims
at all.
Consider the Got Milk? advertising campaign, often mentioned
as one of the most effective campaigns in recent history
(Bowman, 2012). Is there a claim in the pictured ad? If so, is
the claim persuasive? Why or why not? If there is not a claim
here, is this ad still effective? What message do you think the
ad seeks to convey? How does professional basketball player
Chris Bosh help convey that message? Does the ad make you
less likely or more likely to buy milk?
If a marketer can leave you with an unconscious association

between something pleasant and a particular product, you may
be more likely to buy that product, regardless of whether there
is a claim or a suggested argument involved.
These associations are not meant to be taken literally or
examined critically. Marketers do not expect viewers to drop
everything and run to the store to buy their touted brand of
cigarettes, much less interview doctors or demand access to a
cited survey or study. Associations are meant to be stored in
one’s brain in an unconscious way, so that those who have these
associations will have a more positive view of the product.
Maybe, just maybe, someone who sees a cigarette ad—
especially one who sees it repeatedly but not in a conscious,
critical way—will buy that brand of cigarettes in the future.
Other Types of Mediated Information
What other kind of information should we consider with at least
a slightly critical perspective? As mentioned earlier, all
information that is provided to us through the media is, as the
name indicates, mediated. Almost all this information will be
condensed and packaged in a way that it can be consumed, and
thus, we have to be on guard that the information has not been
distorted to the extent that it can be misleading or even false.
So, it is not just toothpaste and beer commercials that we must
thoughtfully evaluate, but also political speeches, reports on
sporting events, and celebrity news—any information that is
transmitted to us through others. Of course, if the local hockey
game is reported with simply the score, that may not be terribly
controversial, and we are unlikely to cast much doubt on that
report. But, what about a politician’s speech or reports on an
environmental disaster or economic data? How that material is
presented can help determine what we think about it.
For instance, consider a standard sort of economic report, the
federal government’s monthly report on jobs. The government
reports that 200,000 new jobs were created and that the
unemployment rate dropped to 7.5%. That seems to be relatively
uncontroversial; we have a number reported, and that’s that. But

it might be presented in different ways that can affect how this
report is interpreted. Compare these two reports providing the
same data:
The government announced today that only 200,000 new jobs
were created in the last month, barely keeping up with the
numbers of those entering the workforce; the unemployment
rate dropped only slightly, to 7.5%. Analysts indicate that this
is more evidence of a sluggish economy.
The government announced today that at least 200,000 new jobs
were created in the last month, a dramatic increase over recent
months and outpacing the number of those entering the
workforce. The unemployment rate continues to drop and
reached 7.5%. Analysts indicate that this shows the economy is
picking up steam.
Both reports state the same basic facts. But the way these facts
are presented changes whether the numbers indicate a positive
or negative result: “only” versus “at least,” the analysts selected
to comment, “barely keeping up” versus “a dramatic increase.”
This example indicates the way language can help frame even a
specific, “objective” number in two different ways, with
different interpretations or “spin.” If this can be done with such
a specific number, it becomes clear how more complex or
nuanced information can be presented, with similar results. A
senator who puts forth a bill, a president who announces a new
military strategy, or a governor who proposes a tax plan are all
presenting information that has to be interpreted. The more
complex that information, the greater the possibility that
distortions will be introduced by how that information is
presented.
We can thus see that critical evaluation of the information we
are given is an activity and takes some energy. If we simply
passively take in that information without evaluating it, we may
end up understanding it incorrectly or inadequately or even be
asked to believe two contradictory things. (If one report states
that undocumented immigration is increasing, while another
report at the same time claims that undocumented immigration

is decreasing, these cannot both be true.) We may not want to
work quite that hard when we hear a meteorologist tell us what
tomorrow’s weather is going to be like; we may already have
certain suspicions about how accurate such forecasts are
anyway. But if you hear of public policy or a political platform
that affects you directly, or indirectly, you may want to spend
that extra energy listening (or reading) carefully, critically, and
with at least a bit of skepticism. The following are some
suggestions of questions to ask when critically evaluating
information:
What is being stated? That is, what facts are involved?
Is the information accurately stated, with the relevant context
provided?
Does the language used slant or bias the way the information is
presented?
What is omitted?
Are any implications that are stated reasonable implications to
draw from the information provided?
8.4 Evaluating the Source: Who to Believe
It is not only important to evaluate how information is
presented, but who is presenting it. This points to an important
implication behind all of our discussions about arguments and
persuasive techniques: that many people or organizations have
an agenda or some purpose when they are sending a message. Of
course, a person’s intent might be fairly innocuous, but it also
might not be. Knowing some background information about a
source, particularly any biases the source may have, will
influence how believable you should think the source is.
Evaluating the source is always an important part of evaluating
information, but it becomes an even more critical task when you
want to use this source to support one of your own arguments.
This section highlights three factors that you might consider:
the source’s reputation and authorship, accuracy and currency,
and purpose and potential bias.
Reputation and Authorship

Think about something surprising you read on the Internet.
Should you believe it? Should you pass on the information?
You’re probably aware that not everything you read is true or
should be taken seriously. Considering a source’s reputation and
authorship can help you assess its reliability.
A source’s reliability comes from having procedures in place
that ensure that the information it produces is accurate. Over
time, this leads to its having a strong history of accuracy.
Sources that have a strong reputation for being reliable are more
likely to carry weight with the intended audience for your
argument. On the other hand, citing sources that are known for
being inaccurate or heavily biased will weaken your argument.
Longevity also plays a role in a source’s reputation. Sources
that have a long history will have developed a reputation as
either reliable or unreliable. Of course things can change, but a
source that has a long history of providing relatively accurate
information should be seen as more trustworthy than a source
with a very short history, or one with a long history of
providing inaccurate information. If a source often provides
poor information, that will become known over time. This does
not mean that the source will go out of business; some sources
make their money precisely because they are sensationalist. You
have probably seen some of these sources with incredible
headlines as you went through the checkout line at a grocery
store. Nonetheless, sources that have been around a long time,
and which depend on being credible in order to survive, are
generally likely to have reliable information. For example,
mainstream newspapers that have been around for 50 or 100
years are likely to be relatively reliable in reporting
information. If they were not generally reliable, they probably
would not still be in business.
Another point to consider is whether a source has methods in
place to ensure the accuracy of the information it presents. For
example, most academic journals employ a process of peer
review. Before a paper is published, it is reviewed by other
experts in the field to ensure that the information presented is

credible. The review is generally anonymous, so the reviewers
do not know who wrote what they are reviewing, and the author
does not know who the reviewers are. This anonymity
encourages reviewers to be honest and objective in their
reviews. Peer review is one of the strongest methods for
ensuring that information is of high quality. The use of peer
review allows even new academic journals to be credible.
However, peer review is very time consuming, so it is not
widely used outside of academic journals. Instead, editorial
review may be used when a publication seeks to be not only
accurate but timely. In editorial review, one or more editors
review information before it is published. The editor makes sure
that the information is believable and may ask the author for
clarification or further research if needed. Editorial review can
be quicker than peer review, but it does have limitations. First,
editors are expensive, and better editors are more expensive.
Small organizations are unlikely to have adequate editorial staff
to fully ensure the accuracy of what they publish. Second,
editorial review is subject to the biases of the editor doing the
review. Finally, reviewing for information quality is only one of
the jobs of an editor. Just because a source has an editor does
not mean that the editor is solely focused on information quality
rather than other issues.
The best sources have solid review methods and longevity in
their favor. For example Cambridge University Press was begun
in 1534 and employs careful editing and review processes. It is
unlikely that a manuscript would be published by a long-
standing university or commercial press that contained either an
enormous number of factual errors or promoted an especially
bizarre viewpoint. Of course, this does not mean that such
sources are infallible: Mistakes can still be made, and
misleading or inaccurate information published. However, these
sources are unwilling to risk their reputations and thus will
subject themselves and their materials to fact-checking, peer
review, and other methods of scrutiny. Any mistakes that are
made are much more likely to receive a great deal of attention

in the media, which, in turn, helps to alert us to the mistake.
Indeed, credibility may be the most valuable commodity a
publisher possesses: It may be the most difficult to obtain and
the easiest to damage or lose.
When we talk about a source’s authorship, we are discussing
who produced the information in question. This is particularly
important in the age of the Internet (see A Closer Look: Using
Wikipedia). A media source presents information that is
originally produced by individuals or another organization. For
example, a newspaper may present a story that is written by a
specific reporter or one that is carried by a wire service such as
Associated Press or United Press International. Knowing who
authored the story can help us assess how credible it is. If the
source is authored by an organization, then we should consider
the reputation of the organization. If the author is an individual
or group of individuals, then we should consider whether they
are trustworthy on the subject they are writing about. Being
trustworthy on a subject amounts to knowing about the subject
and being likely to be relatively unbiased about the subject. The
next section will deal with bias. For now, let us consider the
issue of the author’s knowledge.
What reason is there to think that an author knows the subject
they write or talk about? If the author has credentials and
experience in the subject matter, this is a good sign. Someone
with a PhD in biology and years of experience working in the
field is generally a good source for information about biology.
However, this same person may not be credible on the issue of
tax policy. As another example, let us say you find a book or
article about the history of the American Civil War, and the
author is an air conditioner repair man. The author’s profession
alone does not necessarily mean that you cannot trust the
information, but it does suggest that you should look further to
find reasons to do so. It is possible for someone to have
extensive expertise in an area which is primarily a hobby for
them. But if he or she is an expert, then you should be able to
find evidence of that expertise. For example, if an author is

widely cited by people who do have credentials, this may
indicate that he or she is considered an expert. This is another
good time to look at the reputation of the publisher. If the work
is published by a reputable publisher, this is far better than if it
is simply posted on the author’s own blog. It can be difficult to
assess an author’s level of expertise, but it is essential to do so
before simply accepting what he or she has to say.
Authorship does not necessarily have to refer to a person:
Publications and websites can also have credentials. For
example, many journals are associated with universities. A
journal that is not so associated is not necessarily unreliable,
but those that are need to uphold not only their own reputation
but also the reputation of the affiliated university. That the
university allows the affiliation can be seen as an endorsement,
and the journal benefits somewhat from the university’s own
credibility. When it comes to websites, you should be aware of
what domain hosts the web page. Internet sources will have a
suffix indicating the top-level domain; for instance, .edu
indicates an academic source, whereas .gov indicates a
governmental source. These domains will tend to be more
reliable than other domains, though there is still the potential
for an individual publishing unverified information on a
personal page within the domain. Websites in .com, .net, and
.org will require you to look closely at the credibility of the
source, since anyone can purchase a website within these
domains.
A Closer Look: Using Wikipedia
Questions about authorship become all the more important when
we consider that many of us begin our research on the Internet.
Anyone can publish whatever he or she pleases on the Internet.
The online encyclopedia Wikipedia is a case in point: Most
articles in Wikipedia can be edited by anyone, whether that
person is an expert or not. Because the content is largely
uncontrolled, many schools and professionals regard it as a
wholly unreliable source. Others recommend using it but with

caution, while still others do not object to its use in order to
begin one’s research, but would strongly object to using it as an
authoritative source itself. Typically, universities do not
consider Wikipedia an acceptable source because university
papers must indicate the original sources and Wikipedia is not
an original source. If you do use Wikipedia or a similar website
in your research on a topic, it is up to you to follow up on the
referenced sources and verify that they exist and agree with the
article. Knowing the source of a claim is not enough to
guarantee that the claim is true or false, but it is a good first
step.
Accuracy and Currency
One of the advantages of the Internet is the free flow of
information. However, with no controls in place, the most
absurd rumors can be circulated, and before some may even
realize they have been misled, a particular rumor may have been
accepted by many as the truth. A popular saying states that a lie
gets halfway around the world before the truth has a chance to
get its pants on. Though this is true both online and off, it has
never been truer than in the age of the Internet. Thus, it is
critical that you examine whether the source is accurate and up-
to-date, or current, before you accept it as truth or a worthwhile
argument.
The value of accuracy is fairly self-explanatory. However,
determining whether information is accurate can be trickier.
Here are some tips: First, consider whether or not the
information provided can be verified in print sources. If a
substantial claim is put forth, one should be able to find various
sources that confirm that claim. Second, investigate whether the
source provides further references or a bibliography. Are these
sources themselves credible? If a source cannot back up claims
with references, this can be a warning that some of the material
is conjectural, or even made up. Third, read carefully for
misspellings, obvious errors, or embarrassing production values.
Numerous minor errors often indicate that the source has not

been vetted by others.
Though accuracy is paramount in evaluating a source, the
currency of even accurate information can determine whether a
source should be used. Information that is out-of-date is simply
less useful and may lead to inaccuracy. Information that was the
best available 30 years ago may have been discredited or
substantially changed with the discovery of new information.
Check the publication date of any source that has one. Look to
see that the source references recent research and events. For
instance, if an article about the American Civil Rights
Movement does not include any information after 1966, this is
an indication that its information is at least out-of-date; if it is a
recent article, it may be an indication that the author has not
stayed current on the issues involved. Note that what is
considered out-of-date in one discipline may be considered
current in another discipline. An algebra book from the 1950s is
much more likely to be adequately up-to-date than a global
communications book from the same era.
Interested Parties
The goal of advertisements is to get you to purchase their
product. That's their motive. Does this make them biased? Do
you believe there can be unbiased advertisements?
We return to a point made at the start of this section: that many
people and organizations have a purpose when sending a
message. Thus, we must evaluate sources for any potential bias.
An interested party is one that has a stake in the outcome of
certain decisions, such as those made by legislatures and courts,
and include anyone who has anything to gain from our believing
something to be true. Often an interested party has an economic
stake in how an issue is perceived in the media and thus,
indirectly, by the public. Interested parties can be large, such as
political entities and organizations. Interested parties can also
be individual players, such as a sales associate who is paid on
commission and thus is unlikely to be objective about the

product he is selling. Or consider a political leader who
supports a bill that will bring money to her home state and who
knows that such a bill is likely to gain her votes when she
comes up for reelection. She is an interested party because she
stands to gain if the bill passes.
Nonetheless, having a personal interest in an outcome is not
necessarily a problem. The important thing to keep in mind is
the legitimacy of the argument presented by interested parties.
When evaluating an argument, you must find out whether the
source is an interested party. If so, does the individual or the
group represented have a particular stake in the issue? You
might hesitate to take “The Association of Cotton Growers” as
an objective, disinterested source on whether the government
should provide tax subsidies to cotton farmers. Or, if you are
reading about climate change, you might consider whether the
information is provided by a petroleum company or a solar
energy company. If a source quotes an expert on whether a
particular weapon should be developed by the military, it might
make a difference if the expert works, has worked, or will work
for the company that makes the weapon or a competitor of that
company.
It is often difficult to determine whether a source is undermined
by being an interested party. But if economic, political, or any
other power-related connections can be established, or are
suspected, then this demands heightened scrutiny when
critically examining the arguments and information provided by
such a source.
No source is perfectly reliable; all sources, thus, deserve some
degree of critical scrutiny. Naturally, those sources that have,
over many years, developed a reputation for journalistic
integrity may need much less scrutiny than a website that
appears to have been constructed in the last few weeks. As in all
evaluation of information, one should always try to identify the
facts involved and determine if the claims being made are
plausible and if the reasoning that supports those claims is
persuasive.

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