From the Beginning of Space and Time: Modern Science and the Mystic Universe

FROM THE BEGINNING
OF SPACE AND TIME:
Modern Science and the Mystic Universe
Manjunath.R
manjunath5496@gmail.com

Copyright © 2019 Manjunath.R
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I dedicate this book to everyone who has contributed
significantly to our understanding of the universe as a
whole, why it is the way it is, and why it even exists.

"My goal is simple. It is a complete understanding of the
universe, why it is as it is and why it exists at all."
- STEPHEN HAWKING

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CONTENTS
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Epigraph
Introduction
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
LONG STANDING QUESTIONS
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Conclusion
Glossary
Acknowledgement
One final thought

There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All
that remains is more and more precise measurement.
– Lord Kelvin, 1900
VII

INTRODUCTION
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
We human beings − who are ourselves mere collections of
fundamental particles of nature and the product of quantum
fluctuations in the very early universe – unsure of the
existence of more than one universe, dark matter, or dark
energy, as well as other exotic conceptions − try to wonder,
seek answers and gazing at the immense heavens above, we
have always asked a multitude of questions: Which came
first, the galaxy or the stars? What is Dark Matter? What
is Dark Energy? What Came Before the Big Bang? What's
Inside a Black Hole? Are We Alone? How old is the Universe?
What is the currently most accepted model for the Universe?
What is the origin of the universe? How did it come into
existence, and what was the state of the universe in its earliest
moments? Does gravity travel at the speed of light? Does
the graviton have mass? Is the Big Bang a Black Hole? What
IX

is the structure of space-time just outside astrophysical black
holes? Do their space times have horizons? What happens in
a black hole? Where did the Big Bang happen? What is the
evidence for the Big Bang? How did life come to exist on
Earth? What conditions were necessary for the evolution of
life, and is life unique to our planet or common throughout the
universe? What is the nature of time and space? How does the
fabric of space-time behave, and what are the implications
of this for our understanding of the universe? How did the
structure of the universe form and evolve over time? What
role did dark matter and dark energy play in the formation of
galaxies and galaxy clusters? If the production of microscopic
black holes is feasible, can the LHC create a black hole that
will eventually eat the world? Many others! These questions
continue to trouble scientists despite the massive amounts of
data coming in from observatories around the globe and from
particle physics experiments like the Large Hadron Collider
in Switzerland, as well as despite the countless hours that
astronomers and physicists spend in front of a chalkboard or
running computational simulations.
Cosmology is the scientific study of the universe as a whole,
including its origin, evolution, and structure. It is an
interdisciplinary field that draws on knowledge from
X

astronomy, physics, and mathematics to understand the
cosmos on the largest scales. It is one of the oldest branches of
human inquiry and has its roots in ancient civilizations that
tried to understand the nature of the cosmos. The earliest
recorded cosmological ideas date back to ancient civilizations
such as the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks. These
civilizations believed that the universe was ordered and that
the gods controlled its workings. The Babylonians were the
first to develop a systematic study of the heavens, and they
recorded the movements of the planets and stars on clay
tablets. The Egyptians also had a deep understanding of the
cosmos and believed that the sun and stars were the
manifestations of gods. In ancient Greece, philosophers such
as Thales, Anaximander, and Pythagoras tried to explain the
nature of the universe using reason and observation. However,
it was the philosopher Aristotle who had the most significant
impact on Greek cosmology. He believed that the universe was
eternal, and the earth was at the center of the cosmos, with the
stars and planets moving around it in perfect circles. The
Greek astronomer Ptolemy developed a sophisticated
cosmological model that was widely accepted for over a
thousand years. According to this model, the earth was at the
center of the universe, and the sun, moon, planets, and stars
moved around it in a series of perfect circles. This model was
XI

refined over time, but it was unable to explain some of the
observed phenomena in the night sky. The Polish astronomer
Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the Ptolemaic model in the
16th century, proposing that the sun was at the center of the
universe, and the planets, including the earth, orbited around
it. This model, known as the heliocentric model, was later
confirmed by the observations of the Italian astronomer
Galileo Galilei, who used the newly invented telescope to
study the planets and stars. In the 17th century, the English
physicist Isaac Newton developed the laws of motion and
gravity, which revolutionized our understanding of the
cosmos. He proposed that the universe was governed by
universal laws of physics, and that the same physical laws
applied everywhere in the cosmos. This idea was later used to
explain the motion of the planets, comets, and other celestial
objects. The 20th century saw a major shift in cosmological
thinking, with the development of new theories and
technologies that enabled us to study the universe in new and
innovative ways. One of the most significant developments
was the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation
in 1965, which provided evidence for the Big Bang theory. This
theory proposed that the universe began as a singularity and
has been expanding ever since. In the latter part of the 20th
century, advances in technology enabled us to observe the
XII

cosmos in new ways, such as using radio telescopes and space-
based observatories. These observations led to the
development of new theories, such as the inflationary
universe theory, which proposed that the universe underwent
a period of rapid expansion in the first few moments after the
Big Bang. To sum up, the history of cosmology is a long and
fascinating one that has been shaped by the ideas and
observations of many cultures and individuals. While our
understanding of the universe has come a long way, there is
still much to learn, and cosmologists continue to work
towards unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos. One of the
major areas of inquiry in cosmology is the origin of the
universe, known as the Big Bang theory. This theory proposes
that the universe began as a singularity, an infinitely hot and
dense point in space-time, around 13.8 billion years ago. From
this initial state, the universe rapidly expanded and cooled,
eventually leading to the formation of atoms and the structure
we see today. Another area of study in cosmology is the nature
of dark matter and dark energy. Observations of galaxy
motion and the cosmic microwave background radiation
have provided strong evidence that the majority of the
universe is composed of these mysterious, invisible
substances. Despite extensive research, the true nature of dark
matter and dark energy remains unknown, and their study is
XIII

an active area of research in cosmology. The structure of the
universe is also a central focus of cosmology. The large scale
structure of the universe is thought to be comprised of galaxy
clusters and superclusters, which are connected by vast cosmic
voids. Cosmologists use computer simulations and
observational data to study the formation and evolution of
this structure. In recent years, cosmology has made
significant progress due to advances in technology and data
collection. The study of the cosmic microwave background
radiation has provided us with valuable information about the
universe's early history, and large scale surveys of galaxies
have given us a detailed look at the universe's current
structure. In essence, cosmology is a fascinating field of study
that seeks to answer some of the most fundamental questions
about the universe. From the origin of the universe to the
nature of dark matter and dark energy, cosmologists are
constantly working to expand our understanding of the
cosmos.
Why does anything exist as opposed to nothing? What kind
of thing is reality? Why are the natural laws so perfectly
balanced to make it possible for intelligent creatures like us
to exist? These questions serve as the framework for what is
now known as the "standard model" of the beginning of the
XIV

universe, which takes us on an amazing adventure starting
from the Planck Epoch, the very beginning of the universe's
history, and ending with the scientific breakthrough of the
Cosmic Microwave Background and Albert Einstein's Theory
of Relativity. And now, with advancement in cosmology,
quantum theory, relativity and string theory, many
researchers have been able to solve problems relating to almost
everything from the smallest quarks to the largest exploding
stars. Astrobiology (often referred to as xenobiology or
exobiology) upholds its perspective on life elsewhere in the
universe, holding that while the dimensions of the universe
allows for the possibility of millions of extraterrestrial
civilizations, there is no reliable evidence to support the claim
that any of these civilizations have ever been to Earth to meet
us. Only 4% of our universe is made up of the matter that
goes into making the smallest atomic particles, planets, stars,
galaxies, black holes, and wormholes, which has caused some
scientists in the community of theoretical physics to scramble
to find an explanation for it in recent years. The remaining
96% of the cosmos is a complete mystery. Until now. The
universe is full of mysteries. It might conceal dimensions
of space in addition to the well-known three that we are
familiar with. There may even be an undiscovered, invisible
neighboring universe to our own.
XV

The question of why we exist is one of the oldest and most
profound philosophical questions, and it has been pondered
by thinkers for centuries. There is no one answer that can
fully explain the reasons for our existence, as it is a complex
and multifaceted question that can be approached from many
different perspectives. From a scientific perspective, we can
understand why we exist in terms of the laws of physics and
the way they have shaped the universe and the development
of life on Earth. For example, the laws of physics, such as
gravitation and the laws of thermodynamics, have created
the conditions that allowed for stars to form and eventually
give birth to planets like Earth. Over time, life on Earth
evolved through a process of natural selection, leading to
the development of species like humans. From a religious
perspective, the reasons for our existence may be understood
in terms of a higher power or deity creating the universe and
humanity for a specific purpose. Different religious traditions
have different beliefs about why we exist and the role we
play in the larger cosmic plan. Philosophically, the question
of why we exist can be seen as a question about the meaning
and purpose of life. Some philosophers argue that life has
no inherent meaning, while others believe that our existence
is imbued with purpose, either by a higher power or through
XVI

our own actions and choices. Ultimately, the reasons for our
existence are a subject of ongoing debate and discussion, and
each person may have their own unique perspective based
on their beliefs and experiences. There is no one answer
that can fully explain why we exist, and the question may
remain unanswered for some, but that does not diminish its
importance or the continued effort to understand it.
Theories are models or frameworks that attempt to explain
or predict a phenomenon. While theories are generally useful
in providing a way to understand and make sense of complex
phenomena, they are not infallible and can have limitations
and failures. Here are a few examples of failures of theories:
Incomplete or inaccurate assumptions: The assumptions underlying a
theory may not always be complete or accurate, leading to limitations or
errors in the predictions or explanations the theory provides.
Limited applicability: The scope of a theory may be limited to a specific
context or situation, and may not be applicable to other contexts or
situations.
Contradictory evidence: New evidence or observations may contradict
the predictions or explanations provided by a theory, calling into
question its validity or usefulness.
Unfalsifiability: Some theories may be inherently unfalsifiable,
meaning that it is impossible to prove or disprove them with empirical
evidence. This makes them difficult to test or verify, and may limit their
XVII

usefulness in explaining or predicting phenomena.
Inadequate testing: The testing of a theory may be inadequate or
flawed, leading to incorrect conclusions about its validity or usefulness.
It is important to note that failures of theories do not
necessarily mean that the theory is useless or without
value. Rather, it highlights the need for continued refinement
and improvement of theories through ongoing research and
testing.
Seeking an answer to the fundamental puzzle of why do
we exist at all? There are just a few of the many questions
that cosmologists seek to answer, and the field continues to
evolve as new data and technology become available. The
study of cosmology provides us with a deeper understanding
of the universe and our place within it and it continues to
be a source of wonder and discovery. This book provides a
glimpse into the living story of our universe and a clear,
readable and self-contained introduction to the story of how
our understanding of the cosmos has evolved significantly
over time. It fills the gap and addresses the issues that
are important to everyone, or at least to everyone reading
this book, and it inspires us to explore the black holes and
time machines, entire cosmos from creation to ultimate
destruction, with a wealth of secrets at every turn. It
XVIII

discusses the mind-bending nature of time and space, God's
involvement in creation, the past and future of the universe,
and more.
The purpose of the universe is a philosophical and scientific
question that has been debated by scholars and thinkers for
centuries. While there is no definitive answer, here are some
perspectives on the purpose of the universe:
From a scientific perspective, the universe can be seen as the result of
natural processes that have unfolded over billions of years. The purpose
of the universe, in this view, is simply to exist and to continue to evolve
according to the laws of physics.
From a religious perspective, the purpose of the universe may be tied to
the beliefs of a particular faith. For example, some religious traditions
hold that the universe was created by a deity or deities, and that its
purpose is to serve as a manifestation of the divine.
From a human perspective, the purpose of the universe may be to
provide a home for life, including human life, and to offer opportunities
for growth, exploration, and understanding. In this view, the universe
can be seen as a vast and complex environment that offers endless
possibilities for discovery and learning.
Ultimately, the purpose of the universe is a deeply personal
and subjective question that may depend on one's worldview,
beliefs, and values.
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Gravity was first described by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th
century, and is explained by his law of universal gravitation,
which states that every object in the universe attracts every
other object with a force that is proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. Gravity is the force that keeps us
anchored to the Earth, and without it, we would float off into
space. Despite its importance, the nature of gravity remains
a mystery in many ways, and it is one of the most active
areas of research in physics today. Dark matter is a type of
matter that is thought to make up about 85% of the matter
in the universe, but it does not interact with light or other
forms of electromagnetic radiation. The nature of dark matter
is still unknown, and scientists are working to develop new
ways to detect it and understand its properties. Dark energy
is a mysterious force that is thought to be responsible for
the accelerating expansion of the universe. Its nature and
origin are still unknown, and scientists are exploring different
theories to explain it. According to general relativity, space
and time are intimately linked and can be warped by matter
and energy. However, the principles of general relativity and
quantum mechanics seem to be incompatible, and scientists
are searching for a theory of quantum gravity that can unify
XX

these two branches of physics. The Big Bang theory is the most
widely accepted explanation for the origin of the universe,
but it still leaves many unanswered questions, such as what
caused the Big Bang, and what happened in the moments
immediately after. While there is no conclusive evidence of
extraterrestrial life, the vast size and age of the universe
suggest that life may exist elsewhere. Scientists are exploring
different techniques for detecting signs of life on other planets
and moons, and searching for habitable environments beyond
our solar system. The mysteries of the universe continue to
captivate and challenge scientists. As technology and scientific
knowledge advance, we may be able to unlock more of these
secrets and gain a deeper understanding of the universe and
our place within it.
Have we reached the end of physics? As far as our current
understanding of the universe goes, there is no reason to
believe that physics will ever come to an end. Physics is the
study of the fundamental laws of nature, and these laws have
been observed to be consistent and unchanging throughout
the history of the universe. Of course, our understanding of
physics is constantly evolving as new discoveries are made
and new theories are developed. However, even if we were to
XXI

discover a completely new set of physical laws that completely
upended our current understanding of the universe, it is
likely that the study of these new laws would simply become
a new branch of physics. Furthermore, physics is intimately
connected to the other natural sciences, such as chemistry,
biology, and geology. As our understanding of these fields
grows, it is likely that our understanding of physics will
continue to grow as well. So, in short, there is no reason
to believe that physics will ever come to an end. As long as
there is a universe to observe and study, there will be a need
to understand its fundamental laws. Why something? Why
not nothing? Why is There Universe rather Than Nothing?
Science scrambles, Nature mystifies. This book concentrates
on presenting the subject from the understanding perspective
of cosmology and brings the reader right up to date with
curious aspects of cosmology established over the last few
centuries. This book assumes cosmology a journey not a
destination and the advance of knowledge is an infinite
progression towards a goal that forever recedes. This book will
be of interest to students, teachers and general science readers
interested in fundamental ideas of cosmology from the Big
Bang to the present day and on into the future. It encourages
us to think about the universe and our place in it in unique and
fascinating ways while focusing our attention on the ongoing
XXII

quest for the enticing secrets at the centre of time and space.
Just as the mind is a womb of wordless thoughts, the universe
is a fountain where everything is conceived.
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
XXIII

Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer Discussing Theory of
Matter with Albert Einstein at the Institute for Advanced
Study in Princeton, New Jersey, 1947.

For his work on the theory of relativity, Albert Einstein was never awarded
a Nobel Prize. For his explanation of the photoelectric phenomenon, he
was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in physics.

The History Of The Universe
In 1000 Words Or Less
The effort to understand the universe is one of the very
few things that lifts human life a little above the level of
farce, and gives it some of the grace of tragedy.
− Steven Weinberg
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
Cosmic Event in which our universe was born.
Cosmic Inflation in which the Grand Unified Force
was separated into the Four Forces of Nature (gravity,
CHAPTER 1
XXV

electromagnetic, the weak force and the strong force) as We
Now Know Them, and the space expanded by a factor of the
order of 1026
over a time of the order of 10−36
to 10−32
seconds
to Many Times Its Original Size in a Very Short Period of Time
– Rapid expansion in which the universe super cooled, though
not Quite as Quickly from about 1027
down to 1022
Kelvins.
There were 2 types of fundamental particles: quarks and leptons.
Quarks felt the strong interaction, leptons did not. Both quarks and
leptons felt the other three interactions.
PARTICLE-ANTIPARTICLE ANNIHILATION in which All the
Antiparticles in the Universe Annihilated Almost All the
Particles, Creating a Universe Made Up of Matter and Photons
(which did not possessed electrical charge nor did they had
any rest mass) and no antimatter. This process satisfied a
number of conservation laws including:
Conservation of electric charge: The net charge before and after was zero.
Conservation of momentum and energy: The net momentum and energy
before and after was zero.
If the positron and the electron were moving very slowly, then they went
into orbit round each other producing a quasi-stable bound atom-like
object called positronium. Positronium was very unstable: the positron
and the electron invariably destroyed each other to produce high
energetic gamma photons.
DEUTERIUM AND HELIUM PRODUCTION in which Many
XXVI

of the positively charged Protons and electrically neural
Neutrons in the Early Universe Combined to Form Heavy
Hydrogen and Helium. The proton was composed of two up
quarks and one down quark and the neutron was composed of
two down quarks and one up quark.
Charge on the up quark was + 2/3 × 1.6 × 10−19
coulombs
Charge on the down quark was −1/3 × 1.6 × 10−19
coulombs
The charge on the proton was approximately + 1.6 × 10−19
coulombs and
that on the electron was −1.6 × 10−19
coulombs.
Intrinsic energy of a proton or a neutron
was = Kinetic Energy of quarks + Potential
Energy of quarks + intrinsic energy of quarks
RECOMBINATION in which Electrons Combined with
Hydrogen and Helium Nuclei, Producing Neutral Atoms. A
neutrino was passed through matter then it reacted with a
proton to produce a positively charged particle with the same
mass as the electron — this particle was the positron. The
properties of the strong force were such that the quarks did
not all stick together in one large mass (otherwise the newly
born universe would have been a huge lump of fundamental
constituent of matter). The strong force ensured that quarks
and antiquarks could only stick together in groups of three:
2 up quarks + 1 down quark → Proton
XXVII

or
2 up antiquarks + 1 down antiquark → Antiproton
or as a quark and an antiquark pair (up quark + up antiquark).
GALAXY FORMATION in which the Milky Way Galaxy
(consisted of ≈1011
stars) was Formed – TURBULENT
FRAGMENTATION in which a Giant Cloud of Gas Fragments
broke into Smaller Clouds, which later Became Protostars –
MASSIVE STAR FORMATION in which a Massive Star was
Formed. The star's gravity tried to squeeze the star into the
smallest ball possible. But the nuclear fusion reaction in the
star's core created strong outward radiation pressure. This
outward radiation pressure resisted the inward squeeze of a
force called gravity.
STELLAR EVOLUTION in which Stars Evolved and Eventually
Died – IRON PRODUCTION in which Iron was Produced in
the Core of a Massive Star, Resulting in a Disaster called
SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION in Which a Massive Star Ended Its
Life by Exploding outpouring electromagnetic radiation over
a very short period of time – STAR FORMATION in which the
Sun was Formed within a cloud of gas in a spiral arm of the
Milky Way Galaxy. There was a mass limit to neutron stars. It
was approximately about 4 solar mass. Beyond this limit the
degenerate neutron pressure was not sufficient to overcome
XXVIII

the gravitational contraction and the star collapsed to black
holes. There was no mass limit to the mass of a black hole.
PLANETARY DIFFERENTIATION in which the vast disk of gas
and debris that swirled around the sun giving birth to planets,
moons, and asteroids. Planet Earth was the third planet out −
VOLATILE GAS EXPULSION in which the Atmosphere of the
Earth was Produced – MOLECULAR REPRODUCTION in which
Life on Earth was created.
PROTEIN CONSTRUCTION in which Proteins were built
from organic compounds that contain amino and carboxyl
functional groups (Amino Acids) – FERMENTATION in which
Microorganisms Obtained Energy by converting sugar into
alcohol – CELL DIFFERENTIATION in which dividing cells
changed their functional or phenotypical type and Eukaryotic
Life had a beginning.
RESPIRATION in which Eukaryotes Evolved to Survive
in an Atmosphere with Increasing Amounts of Oxygen
– MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS CREATION In Which
Organisms Composed of Multiple Cells emerged – SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION in Which a New Form of Reproduction
Occurred and with the invention of sex, two organisms
exchanged whole paragraphs, pages and books of their DNA
helix, producing new varieties for the sieve of natural
XXIX

selection. And the natural selection was a choice of stable
forms and a rejection of unstable ones. And the variation
within a species occurred randomly, and that the survival
or extinction of each organism depended upon its ability to
adapt to the environment. And organisms that found sex
uninteresting quickly became extinct.
EVOLUTIONARY DIVERSIFICATION in which the Diversity of
Life Forms on Earth Increased Greatly in a Relatively Short
Time – TRILOBITE DOMINATION In Which Trilobites (an
extremely successful subphylum of the arthropods that were
at the top of the food chain in Earth's marine ecosystems for
about 250 million years) Ruled the Earth.
LAND EXPLORATION In Which Animals First Venture was
On to Land – COMET COLLISION in which a Comet smashed
the Earth – DINOSAUR EXTINCTION In Which an asteroid
or comet slammed into the northern part of the Yucatan
Peninsula in Mexico. This world-wide cataclysm brought to an
end the long age of the fossil reptiles of the Mesozoic era
(dinosaurs)
MAMMAL EXPANSION in which Many Species of warm-
blooded animals with hair and backbones was developed –
HOMO SAPIENS MANIFESTATION In Which our caveman
ancestors Appeared in Africa from a line of creatures that
XXX

descended from apes.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION in which something called
curiosity ensued which triggered the breath of perception and
our caveman ancestors became conscious of their existence
and they learned to talk and they Developed Spoken Language
– GLACIATION in which the formation, movement and
recession of glaciers Began.
INNOVATION in which Advanced Tools were Widely made and
Used – RELIGION In Which a Diversity of Beliefs emerged –
ANIMAL DOMESTICATION in which Humans Domesticated
Animals.
FOOD SURPLUS PRODUCTION In Which Humans Developed
and promoted the practice of cultivating plants and livestock –
INSCRIPTION In Which Writing was Invented and it allowed
the communication of ideas.
WARRING NATIONS In Which Nation Battled Nation for
Resources – EMPIRE CREATION AND DESTRUCTION In
Which the First Empire in Human History Came and went –
CIVILIZATION In Which Many and Sundry Events Occurred.
CONSTITUTION In Which a Constitution was Written
to determine the powers and duties of the government
and guarantee certain rights to the people in it –
XXXI

INDUSTRIALIZATION in Which Automated Manufacturing
and Agriculture Revolutionized the World – WORLD
CONFLAGRATIONS In Which Most of the World was at War.
FISSION EXPLOSIONS In Which Humans Developed the
most dangerous weapons on earth (Nuclear Weapons) –
COMPUTERIZATION In Which Computers were Developed
to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations
automatically.
SPACE EXPLORATION In Which Humans Began to Explore
Outer Space which fuelled interest in exploring and
discovering new worlds − pushing the boundaries of the
known − and expanding scientific and technical knowledge –
POPULATION EXPLOSION In Which the Human Population of
the Earth Increased at a Very Rapid Pace.
SUPERPOWER CONFRONTATION In Which Two Powerful
Nations Risked it All – INTERNET EXPANSION In Which a
Network of Computers Developed to carry out a vast range of
information resources and services.
RESIGNATION In Which One Human Quitted His Job –
REUNIFICATION In Which a Wall went Up and Then Came
Down.
WORLD WIDE WEB CREATION In Which a New Medium
XXXII

was Created to meet the demand for automated information-
sharing between scientists in universities and institutes
around the world – COMPOSITION In Which a Book was
Written – EXTRAPOLATION In Which Future Events were
Discussed (sharing our understanding of the workings of the
universe, opening our eyes to the grandeur of the cosmos).
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
XXXIII

In 1898, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre made the discovery
of polonium and radium. They were awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1903 for their discovery of radioactivity.
Pierre and Marie Curie, c. 1903

Nothing happens until something moves.
― Albert Einstein
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
E
ver since the beginning of human civilization, we
have not been in a state of satisfaction to watch
things as incoherent and unexplainable. While we
have been thinking whether the universe began at the big
bang singularity and would come to an end either at the big
crunch singularity, we have converted at least a thousand
joules of energy in the form of thoughts. This has decreased
CHAPTER 2
A Briefer History Of Time
XXXV

the disorder of the human brain by about few million units.
Thus, in a sense, the evolution of human civilization in
understanding the universe has established a small corner
of the order in a human brain. However, the burning
questions still remain unresolved, which set the human race
to keep away from such issues. Many early native postulates
have fallen or are falling aside – and there now alternative
substitutes. In short, while we do not have an answer, we
now have a whisper of the grandeur of the problem. With our
limited brains and tiny knowledge, we cannot hope to have a
complete picture of unlimited speculating about the gigantic
universe we live in.
Stories of creation are a fundamental part of many cultures
and traditions, serving as a way to explain the origins of
the universe and humanity. These stories can be found in
religious texts, cultural myths, and traditional tales and they
often reflect the beliefs and values of the society in which they
originated. Here are a few examples of creation stories from
different cultures.
The Bible: The Biblical Creation Story Can Be Found In The Book Of
Genesis, And It Describes How God Created The Universe In Six Days
And Rested On The Seventh. On The First Day, God Created Light, And
On Subsequent Days, He Created The Sky, The Seas, The Land, Plants,
XXXVI

Animals, And Finally Humans, Who Were Created In His Own Image.
Hinduism: In Hinduism, The Creation Of The Universe Is Described In
The Hindu Scriptures Known As The Vedas. One Of The Most Well-
Known Hindu Creation Stories Is That Of The God Brahma, Who
Emerged From The Cosmic Egg And Created The Universe And All Living
Things.
Ancient Greek Mythology: In Ancient Greek Mythology, The Universe
Was Created From The Remains Of The Titans, A Race Of Giant Beings
Who Were Defeated By The Gods Of Olympus. According To The Myth,
The God Chronos Swallowed His Children, But His Son Zeus Eventually
Defeated Him And Became The Ruler Of The Universe.
Indigenous Cultures: Many Indigenous Cultures Have Their Own
Creation Stories That Reflect Their Beliefs And Traditions. For Example,
Some Native American Tribes Have Creation Stories That Describe How
The World Was Formed From The Body Of A Giant Animal Or The
Actions Of A Great Spirit.
Chinese Mythology: In Chinese Mythology, The Universe Was Created
By The Goddess Nüwa, Who Molded Humans From Clay And Separated
The Sky From The Earth. She Also Created The Four Seasons And Set The
Laws Of Nature In Motion.
These are just a few examples of the many creation stories
that exist across cultures and traditions. Regardless of their
specific details, these stories often serve as a way to provide
meaning and context for the universe and humanity, and
they continue to play an important a part in influencing our
perspective and beliefs.
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In 1911, fresh from completion of his PhD, the young Danish
physicist Niels Bohr left Denmark on a foreign scholarship
headed for the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to work
under J. J. Thomson on the structure of atomic systems. At the
time, Bohr began to put forth the idea that since light could no
long be treated as continuously propagating waves, but
instead as discrete energy packets (as articulated by Planck
and Einstein), why should the classical Newtonian mechanics
on which Thomson's model was based hold true? It seemed to
Bohr that the atomic model should be modified in a similar
way. If electromagnetic energy is quantized, i.e. restricted to
take on only integer values of hυ, where υ is the frequency of
light, then it seemed reasonable that the mechanical energy
associated with the energy of atomic electrons is also
quantized. However, Bohr's still somewhat vague ideas were
not well received by Thomson, and Bohr decided to move from
Cambridge after his first year to a place where his concepts
about quantization of electronic motion in atoms would meet
less opposition. He chose the University of Manchester, where
the chair of physics was held by Ernest Rutherford. While in
Manchester, Bohr learned about the nuclear model of the atom
proposed by Rutherford. To overcome the difficulty associated
with the classical collapse of the electron into the nucleus,
Bohr proposed that the orbiting electron could only exist in
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certain special states of motion - called stationary states, in
which no electromagnetic radiation was emitted. In these
states, the angular momentum of the electron L takes on
integer values of Planck's constant divided by 2π, denoted by ħ
= h/2π (pronounced h-bar). In these stationary states, the
electron angular momentum can take on values ħ, 2ħ, 3ħ... but
never non-integer values. This is known as quantization of
angular momentum, and was one of Bohr's key hypotheses.
Bohr Theory was very successful in predicting and accounting
the energies of line spectra of hydrogen i.e. one electron
system. It could not explain the line spectra of atoms
containing more than one electron. For lack of other theories
that can accurately describe a large class of arbitrary elements
to must make definite predictions about the results of future
observations, we forcibly adore the theories like the big bang,
which posits that in the beginning of evolution all the
observable galaxies and every speck of energy in the universe
was jammed into a very tiny mathematically indefinable
entity called the singularity (or the primeval atom named by
the Catholic priest Georges Lemaitre, who was the first to
investigate the origin of the universe that we now call the big
bang). This extremely dense point exploded with
unimaginable force, creating matter and propelling it outward
to make the billions of galaxies of our vast universe. It seems to
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be a good postulate that the anticipation of a mathematically
indefinable entity by a scientific theory implies that the theory
has ruled out. It would mean that the usual approach of
science of building a scientific model could anticipate that the
universe must have had a beginning, but that it could not
prognosticate how it had a beginning. Between 1920s and
1940s there were several attempts, most notably by the British
physicist Sir Fred Hoyle (a man who ironically spent almost
his entire professional life trying to disprove the big bang
theory) and his co-workers: Hermann Bondi and Thomas
Gold, to avoid the cosmic singularity in terms of an elegant
model that supported the idea that as the universe expanded,
new matter was continually created to keep the density
constant on average. The universe didn’t have a beginning and
it continues to exist eternally as it is today. This idea was
initially given priority, but a mountain of inconsistencies
with it began to appear in the mid 1960's when observational
discoveries apparently supported the evidence contrary to it.
However, Hoyle and his supporters put forward increasingly
contrived explanations of the observations. But the final blow
to it came with the observational discovery of a faint
background of microwaves (whose wavelength was close to
the size of water molecules) throughout space in 1965 by Arno
Penzias and Robert Wilson, which was the the final nail in
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the coffin of the big bang theory i.e., the discovery and
confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation
(which could heat our food stuffs to only about −270 degrees
Centigrade − 3 degrees above absolute zero, and not very
useful for popping corn) in 1965 secured the Big Bang as the
best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe. Though
Hoyle and Narlikar tried desperately, the steady state theory
was abandoned.
With many bizarre twists and turns of Humanity’s deepest
desire for knowledge, super strings − a generalized extension
of string theory which predicts that all matter consists of tiny
vibrating strings and the precise number of dimensions: ten
and has a curious history (It was originally invented in the
late 1960s in an attempt to find a theory to describe the
strong force). The usual three dimensions of space − length,
width, and breadth − and one of time are extended by six
more spatial dimensions − blinked into existence. Although
the mathematics of super strings is so complicated that, to
date, no one even knows the exact equations of the theory
(we know only approximations to these equations, and even
the approximate equations are so complicated that they as
yet have been only partially solved) − The best choice we
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have at the moment is the super strings, but no one has
seen a superstring and it has not been found to agree with
experience and moreover there's no direct evidence that it
is the correct description of what the universe is. String
theory has the potential to reconcile two of the biggest
theories in physics: general relativity, which describes the
behavior of gravity on large scales, and quantum mechanics,
which governs the behavior of matter on very small scales.
However, it remains a highly theoretical and mathematically
complex area of research, and much of its predictions are
difficult to test experimentally. Nonetheless, string theory has
made significant contributions to our understanding of the
fundamental nature of the universe and remains an active area
of research in theoretical physics.
The idea of extra dimensions is motivated by a number of
theoretical and experimental considerations. One of the most
important is the search for a unified theory of all the
fundamental forces of nature, including gravity,
electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces. In
many of these theories, the extra dimensions are necessary to
unify the different forces into a single, coherent framework.
Are there only 4 dimensions or could there be more: x, y, z, t) +
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w, v, …? Can we experimentally observe evidence of higher
dimensions? What are their shapes and sizes? Are they
classical or quantum? Are dimensions a fundamental property
of the universe or an emergent outcome of chaos by the mere
laws of nature (which are shaped by a kind of lens, the
interpretive structure of our human brains)? And if they
exist, they could provide the key to unlock the deepest secrets
of nature and Creation itself? We humans look around and
only see four (three spatial dimensions and one time
dimension i.e., space has three dimensions, I mean that it
takes three numbers − length, breadth and height− to specify
a point. And adding time to our description, then space
becomes space-time with 4 dimensions) – why 4 dimensions?
Where are the other dimensions? Are they rolled the other
dimensions up into a space of very small size, something like a
million million million million millionth of an inch − so
small that our most powerful instruments can probe? Up until
recently, we have found no evidence for signatures of extra
dimensions. No evidence does not mean that extra
dimensions do not exist. However, being aware that we live in
more dimensions than we see is a great prediction of
theoretical physics and also something quite futile even to
imagine that we are entering what may be the golden age of
cosmology even our best technology cannot resolve their
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shape. For n spatial dimensions: The gravitational force
between two massive bodies is: FG = GMm / rn−1
, where G is the
gravitational constant (which was first introduced by Sir
Isaac Newton -who had strong philosophical ideas and was
appointed president of the Royal Society and became the first
scientist ever to be knighted - as part of his popular
publication in 1687 Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica and was first successfully measured by the
English physicist Henry Cavendish), M and m are the masses
of the two bodies and r is the distance between them. The
electrostatic force between two charges is: FE = Qq / 4πε0rn−1
,
where ε0 is the absolute permittivity of free space, Q and q are
the charges and r is the distance between them. What do we
notice about both of these forces? Both of these forces are
proportional to 1 / rn−1
. So in a 4 dimensional universe (3
spatial dimensions + one time dimension) forces are
proportional to 1 / r2
; in the 10 dimensional universe (9
spatial dimensions + one time dimension) they're
proportional to 1 / r8
. Not surprisingly, at present no
experiment is smart enough to solve the problem of whether
or not the universe exists in 10 dimensions or more (i.e., to
prove or disprove both of these forces are proportional to 1 /
r8
or proportional to a value greater than 1 / r8
). However, yet
mathematically we can imagine many spatial dimensions but
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the fact that that might be realized in nature is a profound
thing. So far, we presume that the universe exists in extra
dimensions because the mathematics of superstrings
requires the presence of ten distinct dimensions in our
universe or because a standard four dimensional theory is too
small to jam all the forces into one mathematical framework.
But what we know about the spatial dimensions we live in is
limited by our own abilities to think through many
approaches, many of the most satisfying are scientific. Among
many that we can develop, the most well- known, believed
theory at the present is the standard four dimensional theory.
However, development and change of the theory always
occurs as many questions still remain about our universe we
live in. And if space was 2 dimensional then force of
gravitation between two bodies would have been = GMm / r
(i.e., the force of gravitation between two bodies would have
been far greater than its present value). And if the force of
gravitation between two bodies would have been far greater
than its present value, the rate of emission of gravitational
radiation would have been sufficiently high enough to cause
the earth to spiral onto the Sun even before the sun become a
black hole and swallow the earth. While if space was 1
dimensional then force of gravitation between two bodies
would have been = GMm (i.e., the force of gravitation between
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two bodies would have been independent of the distance
between them).
The hierarchy problem in particle physics and other
theoretical issues can both be resolved with the aid of
extra dimensions. This problem arises from the fact that
the strength of gravity is much weaker than the other
fundamental forces, despite the fact that they are all thought
to arise from the same underlying framework. One possible
explanation for this discrepancy is that the extra dimensions
are responsible for diluting the strength of gravity at larger
scales. The quest for dark matter and dark energy may be
significantly impacted by the existence of extra dimensions.
Although their nature and characteristics are not completely
known, it is believed that these enigmatic substances make
up a significant fraction of the universe.According to certain
theories, they may be connected to the extra dimensions,
which may open up new pathways for discovering and
comprehending these mysterious entities. Despite their
importance, the existence of extra dimensions remains a
highly theoretical and speculative area of research. Many of
the predictions of extra dimensional theories are difficult to
test experimentally, and so far no direct evidence of extra
dimensions has been observed. Nonetheless, the study of extra
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dimensions is an active area of research in theoretical physics,
and may hold the key to unlocking some of the deepest
mysteries of the universe.
A theory of everything is a theoretical framework that seeks
to unify all the fundamental forces and particles of nature
into a single, coherent framework. In other words, it is an
attempt to explain the entire universe and all of its physical
phenomena with a single set of equations or principles. The
quest for a theory of everything has been a major goal of
theoretical physics for decades. The current framework that
describes the universe, known as the Standard Model, does an
excellent job of explaining the behavior of subatomic particles
and the electromagnetic, strong, and weak nuclear forces.
However, it does not include a description of gravity, which is
currently described by Einstein's theory of general relativity.
Attempts to unify the forces of nature into a single theory
have led to a number of theoretical frameworks, including
superstring theory, loop quantum gravity, and various
versions of M-theory. These theories propose that the universe
is made up of tiny, vibrating strings or loops, which interact
with one another to produce all of the particles and forces
we observe. One of the challenges of developing a theory of
everything is that it must be consistent with all of the existing
XLVII

experimental data and observations. This can be difficult, as
many of the phenomena that a theory of everything must
explain occur at extremely small scales, where our current
experimental techniques are limited. Another challenge is that
a theory of everything must be able to describe the behavior of
the universe at all times, from the Big Bang to the present day.
This requires a deep understanding of the physics of the early
universe, which is currently an area of active research. Despite
the challenges, the quest for a theory of everything remains
a major goal of theoretical physics. If successful, it would
represent a major breakthrough in our understanding of the
universe and the laws that govern it. However, it remains a
highly theoretical and speculative area of research, and more
work is needed to develop and test the various proposed
theories.
The selection principle that we live in a region of the universe
that is suitable for intelligent life which is called the Anthropic
principle (a term coined by astronomer Brandon Carter in
1974) would not have seemed to be enough to allow for the
development of complicated beings like us. The universe
would have been vastly different than it does now and, no
doubt, life as we know it would not have existed. And if spacial
dimensions would have been greater than 3, the force of
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gravitation between two bodies would have been decreased
more rapidly with distance than it does in three dimensions.
(In three dimensions, the gravitational force drops to 1 / 4 if
one doubles the distance. In four dimensions it would drops
to 1 / 5, in five dimensions to 1 / 6, and so on). The
significance of this is that the orbits of planets, like the earth,
around the sun would have been unstable to allow for the
existence of any form of life and there would been no
intelligent beings to observe the effectiveness of extra
dimensions. The anthropic principle is a philosophical and
scientific idea that suggests that the observed properties of the
universe and the conditions necessary for life are not
accidental, but rather are a result of the fact that we, as
conscious beings, exist to observe them. In other words, the
universe appears to be fine-tuned for the emergence of life
because we exist to observe it. The anthropic principle has
been used to explain a variety of phenomena in physics and
cosmology, such as the apparent coincidence of the physical
constants and the structure of the universe that allow for the
emergence of life. Proponents of the anthropic principle
argue that the universe must have been designed in some way
to produce life, because otherwise, we would not be here to
observe it. There are several different versions of the anthropic
principle, including the weak anthropic principle, the strong
XLIX

anthropic principle, and the participatory anthropic
principle. The weak anthropic principle suggests that the
universe must have the properties necessary for the
emergence of life, because otherwise, we would not exist to
observe it. The strong anthropic principle takes this idea
further, suggesting that the universe is in some sense
compelled to produce conscious observers. The participatory
anthropic principle argues that observers are not just passive
observers of the universe, but that they actively shape it
through their observations. The anthropic principle has been
the subject of debate and controversy in both scientific and
philosophical circles. Critics of the anthropic principle argue
that it is a form of circular reasoning, in which the existence of
life is used to explain the properties of the universe that allow
for life. Others argue that the anthropic principle is a valid
scientific idea, and that it can be used to make testable
predictions about the nature of the universe. Overall, the
anthropic principle is an idea that attempts to explain the
apparent fine-tuning of the universe for the emergence of
life. While it remains a controversial idea, it has sparked a
great deal of discussion and debate among scientists and
philosophers.
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Although the proponents of string theory (which occupies
a line in space at each moment of time) predict absolutely
everything is built out of strings (which are described as
patterns of vibration that have length but no height or width
— like infinitely thin pieces of string), it could not provide
us with an answer of what the string is made up of? And one
model of potential multiple universes called the M Theory −
has eleven dimensions, ten of space and one of time, which
we think an explanation of the laws governing our universe
that is currently the only viable candidate for a theory of
everything: the unified theory that Einstein was looking for,
which, if confirmed, would represent the ultimate triumph of
human reason − predicts that our universe is not only one
giant hologram. The concept of a multiverse, or the idea that
there may be many universes beyond our own, has become
a popular topic of discussion in both science and popular
culture. However, there are several problems and challenges
associated with the idea of a multiverse, including:
Lack of empirical evidence: While the idea of a multiverse is
theoretically possible, there is currently no empirical evidence to
support its existence. This means that it is difficult to test many of the
predictions and hypotheses associated with the multiverse.
Complexity: The idea of a multiverse can be very complex and difficult
to understand. It requires the acceptance of concepts such as infinite
LI

space, infinite time, and infinite copies of ourselves, which can be
challenging to grasp.
Lack of testability: Many of the predictions and hypotheses associated
with the multiverse are difficult or impossible to test experimentally.
This can make it difficult to determine whether the theory is true or not.
Occam's razor: The concept of a multiverse is often criticized for
violating the principle of Occam's razor, which states that the simpler
theories to be chosen over more complicated ones or that explanation
for enigmatic events be looked out first using known quantities. The
idea of a multiverse, with its infinite possibilities and universes, is much
more complex than the idea of a single universe.
Philosophical implications: The idea of a multiverse has significant
philosophical implications, such as the potential for a lack of meaning
or purpose in life if there are infinite copies of ourselves and infinite
versions of reality.
Overall, the idea of a multiverse remains a highly theoretical
and speculative area of research, with many unanswered
questions and challenges. While it is an intriguing concept,
more research and evidence is needed to determine whether it
is a valid theory or not.
Albert Einstein is one of the most famous and influential scientists
in history. He is particularly well-known for his groundbreaking
contributions to the field of theoretical physics, especially his development
of the theory of general relativity. Einstein's work revolutionized our
understanding of space and time, and his famous equation, E=mc²,
demonstrated the relationship between matter and energy. He also made
LII

important contributions to the development of quantum mechanics, and
was a key figure in the development of the atomic bomb. Einstein was
also a public figure and advocate for social justice, using his fame and
influence to promote pacifism, civil rights, and other causes. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921, and his work continues to
inspire and influence scientists and non-scientists alike to this day. Overall,
Albert Einstein is famous for his groundbreaking contributions to physics,
his revolutionary theories of space and time, and his influence on the
development of modern science and technology. He remains an important
and widely celebrated figure in both the scientific and popular imagination.
He published several important papers throughout his career, but here are
five of his most famous ones that changed the face of Physics:
On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and
Transformation of Light (1905): In this paper, Einstein introduced the
idea of photons and the quantization of light energy, which helped to
explain the photoelectric effect and led to the development of quantum
mechanics.
On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (1905): This
paper introduced Einstein's special theory of relativity, which
fundamentally changed our understanding of space and time and
showed that they are not absolute but relative to the observer's frame of
reference.
Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? (1905):
In this paper, Einstein derived the famous equation E=mc², which
describes the relationship between mass and energy. It has significant
implications for our understanding of the universe and has had
a profound impact on many areas of science and technology. In
addition, the mass-energy equivalence has important implications for
the development of energy technologies, such as nuclear power and
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renewable energy sources. It has also led to the development of medical
technologies, such as positron emission tomography (PET) scanners,
which use the conversion of matter into energy to create images of the
body.
On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation (1916): This paper
introduced Einstein's theory of general relativity, which extended
the principles of special relativity to include gravity as a curvature
of spacetime. This theory has important implications for our
understanding of the universe, including the existence of black holes
and the expansion of the universe.
Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be
Considered Complete? (1935): In this paper, Einstein, along with
Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, presented the famous EPR
paradox, which challenged the completeness of quantum mechanics
and led to important developments in our understanding of quantum
entanglement and the nature of reality.
Einstein's papers were of great importance to the field of physics and had
a profound impact on our understanding of the universe. Here are some
reasons why:
Special and General Relativity: Einstein's papers on special and general
relativity fundamentally changed our understanding of space, time,
and gravity. According to special theory of relativity, all observers,
regardless of their relative motion, are subject to the same physical laws.
General relativity went further to show that gravity is not a force but
a curvature of spacetime caused by the presence of matter and energy.
These theories have been extensively tested and confirmed through
experiments and have important implications for our understanding of
the universe.
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Quantum Mechanics: Einstein's work on quantum mechanics was
groundbreaking and helped to establish the field. His paper on the
photoelectric effect showed that light behaves like a particle, which was
one of the first pieces of evidence for the existence of photons. He also
challenged the completeness of quantum mechanics with the Einstein–
Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox, which led to important developments
in our understanding of quantum entanglement and the nature of
reality.
Energy and Mass Equivalence: Einstein's famous equation E=mc²,
which he derived in his paper on the relationship between mass
and energy, showed that mass and energy are equivalent and can be
converted into each other. The equation shows that a small amount
of mass contains an enormous amount of energy. For example, if you
were to convert one gram of matter into energy, you would release
around 90 trillion joules of energy, which is roughly equivalent to the
energy released by detonating 20,000 tons of TNT. This equation has
important implications in the field of nuclear physics, where it is used to
explain the energy released during nuclear reactions such as fission and
fusion. It is also used in the development of nuclear power and nuclear
weapons. Additionally, the equation has broader implications for our
understanding of the relationship between matter and energy, and has
contributed to many other areas of physics research.
Contributions to Cosmology: Einstein's theory of general relativity
had important implications for our understanding of the universe as
a whole. It predicted the existence of black holes and led to the
development of the Big Bang theory, which describes the origin and
evolution of the universe.
Overall, Einstein's papers contributed to some of the most important
developments in physics in the 20th century and continue to inspire new
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research and discoveries today.
Many theoretical physicists and quantum scientists of a fast
developing science have discussed about mass annihilation at
different times. Mass annihilation, also known as particle-
antiparticle annihilation, refers to the process by which
a particle and its corresponding antiparticle come together
and annihilate each other, converting their mass into energy
according to Einstein's famous equation E=mc². In particle
physics, every particle is associated with an antiparticle, which
has the same mass but opposite charge. For example, the
antiparticle of the electron is the positron, which has the same
mass as the electron but a positive charge instead of a negative
charge. When a particle and its antiparticle come into contact
with each other, they can annihilate each other, producing
energy in the form of gamma rays, which are highly energetic
photons. The process of annihilation occurs when the particle
and antiparticle come together and interacts, causing their
mass to be converted into energy. The energy produced by
the annihilation is equal to the total mass of the particles
multiplied by the speed of light squared (E = mc²), which is an
enormous amount of energy. For example, the annihilation of
an electron and a positron produces 1.02 MeV of energy, which
is released in the form of gamma rays. Mass annihilation is a
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key process in the field of particle physics and has important
implications for understanding the behavior of particles and
their interactions. It is also a source of energy in certain types
of nuclear reactions, such as those that occur in the core of the
sun, where protons and antiprotons can destroy one another,
generating gamma rays as energy. Overall, mass annihilation
is an important phenomenon in the study of particle physics
and the behavior of matter and energy in the universe.
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theoretical
framework that describes the fundamental particles and
forces that make up the universe. It is a mathematical
model that explains the behavior of subatomic particles,
including quarks, leptons, and force-carrying particles, known
as bosons. The Standard Model consists of three fundamental
forces: the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force,
and the weak nuclear force. These forces are mediated by
the exchange of force-carrying particles: photons for the
electromagnetic force, gluons for the strong force, and W and
Z bosons for the weak force. The Standard Model also includes
the Higgs boson, which gives particles mass. The Higgs boson
is the only scalar particle in the Standard Model, meaning it
has no spin, and it is responsible for breaking the electroweak
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symmetry, which is responsible for the differences between
the electromagnetic and weak forces. The Standard Model
describes matter as being made up of two types of
fundamental particles: quarks and leptons. Quarks are the
building blocks of protons and neutrons and come in six types,
or flavors: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Leptons
come in three types: electrons, muons, and tau particles, each
with their associated neutrinos. The Standard Model has
been extensively tested through high-energy particle collider
experiments, such as those carried out at the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC) at CERN. These experiments have confirmed
the existence of most of the particles predicted by the
Standard Model, including the Higgs boson. However, despite
its successes, the Standard Model is not a complete theory of
the universe. There are several known limitations and failures,
which are discussed below:
Dark Matter: The Standard Model does not account for the existence
of dark matter, which makes up around 27% of the universe. Dark
matter is a form of matter that does not interact with light or
other electromagnetic radiation, making it invisible to telescopes. Its
existence has been inferred from its gravitational effects on visible
matter, but its nature and properties are still unknown.
Neutrino Mass: The Standard Model assumes that neutrinos are
massless, but experiments have shown that they do have a very small
mass. This discrepancy suggests that the Standard Model is incomplete
and that a more comprehensive theory is needed to explain the
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properties of neutrinos.
CP Violation: The Standard Model predicts that the laws of physics
should be the same for matter and antimatter (known as CP symmetry),
but experiments have shown that this symmetry is violated in
certain particle interactions. This suggests that the Standard Model is
incomplete and that there are undiscovered particles or interactions
that could explain this violation.
Gravity: The Standard Model does not include gravity, which is one of
the four fundamental forces of nature. Gravity is described by Einstein's
theory of General Relativity, but this theory is incompatible with the
Standard Model at the quantum level. This has led to efforts to develop a
theory of quantum gravity that can incorporate both General Relativity
and the Standard Model.
Hierarchy Problem: The Standard Model does not explain why the
Higgs boson, which gives particles mass, has such a small mass itself.
The Higgs boson's mass is much smaller than would be expected based
on the energy scale of the Standard Model, leading to what is known
as the hierarchy problem. This problem suggests that there may be
undiscovered particles or interactions that could help explain the Higgs
boson's mass.
Strong CP Problem: The Standard Model predicts that the strong
force should violate a fundamental symmetry called CP symmetry, but
experiments have shown that this violation is much smaller than would
be expected. This discrepancy is known as the strong CP problem and
suggests that there may be undiscovered particles or interactions that
could help explain the smallness of CP violation in the strong force.
To sum up, while the Standard Model has been highly
successful in explaining the behavior of subatomic particles,
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it is not a complete theory of the universe. There are
several known limitations and failures of the Standard Model,
including the absence of an explanation for dark matter, the
mass of neutrinos, and the violation of CP symmetry in
certain particle interactions, among others. These limitations
suggest that there may be undiscovered particles or
interactions that could help complete our understanding of
the fundamental nature of the universe.
Photons are elementary particles that are the carriers of the
electromagnetic force. They are massless, electrically neutral
particles that move at the speed of light, which makes them
unique among the particles in the Standard Model. They
exhibit both wave-like and particle-like behavior, which
is known as wave-particle duality. When traveling through
space, they behave like waves with a specific frequency and
wavelength. However, when interacting with matter, they
behave like particles, transferring discrete amounts of energy
to the material. Their interactions with matter are responsible
for a wide range of physical phenomena, and their properties
have important applications in many areas of science and
technology including telecommunications, solar cells, and
medical imaging, among others. According to the currently
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accepted theory of physics, the Standard Model, photons are
believed to be massless particles that travel at the speed of
light. This means that they have no rest mass and travel
at the speed of light. The idea of a photon having mass is
often associated with the concept of a hypothetical particle
called the Higgs boson, which is believed to be responsible
for giving particles mass through the Higgs mechanism.
However, the Higgs mechanism only applies to particles that
have interactions with the Higgs field, and since photons
are not thought to interact with the Higgs field, they
are not believed to acquire mass through this mechanism.
Experimental evidence also supports the notion that photons
are massless. For example, High-energy photons can be
produced in particle accelerators, and their properties can be
studied in experiments. The behavior of high-energy photons
is consistent with the idea that they have zero rest mass.
From the relativistic energy equation:
E
2
= p
2
c
2
− m0
2c
4
For a photon with no rest mass can still have relativistic energy. If m0 =
0, then
E = pc
Overall, the currently accepted theory of physics, as well
as experimental evidence, supports the notion that photons
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are massless particles. This idea is a fundamental part of
our understanding of the nature of light and the universe
as a whole. Quantum mechanics and general theory of
relativity are two highly successful theories that describe the
behavior of matter and gravity, respectively. However, they
are incompatible, and some physicists believe that a theory of
quantum gravity is needed to reconcile the two. The behavior
of photons in a theory of quantum gravity may be different
from what is currently understood.
General relativity is a theory of gravity that was developed by
Albert Einstein in 1915. It is based on the idea that gravity
is not a force between masses, as described by Isaac Newton's
theory of gravity, but rather a curvature of spacetime caused
by the presence of mass and energy. In other words, matter
and energy warp the fabric of spacetime, causing objects to
move on curved paths. Here are some key features of general
relativity:
Spacetime: In general relativity, spacetime is a four-dimensional
continuum that includes the three dimensions of space and the
dimension of time. The presence of mass and energy warps the fabric of
spacetime, causing objects to move on curved paths.
Curvature: The curvature of spacetime is described by the Einstein field
equations, which relate the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of
mass and energy. These equations are highly nonlinear and difficult to
solve, but they have been used to make many successful predictions.
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Gravitational waves: According to general relativity, gravitational
waves are ripples in the fabric of spacetime that are caused by the
acceleration of massive objects. These waves travel at the speed of light
and have been detected by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-
Wave Observatory (LIGO).
Black holes: General relativity predicts the existence of black holes,
which are regions of spacetime where the curvature becomes so extreme
that nothing, not even light, can escape. The event horizon is the name
given to a black hole's boundary.
Cosmology: General relativity is the basis of modern cosmology, which
studies the large-scale structure and evolution of the universe. The
theory predicts that the universe is expanding, and that the expansion is
accelerating due to the presence of dark energy.
Tests and confirmations: General relativity has been tested and
confirmed in a variety of experiments and observations, including the
bending of light by massive objects, the precession of the orbit of
Mercury, and the detection of gravitational waves.
General relativity is a highly successful and influential
theory, and it has led to many important advances in our
understanding of the universe. However, there are some areas
where general relativity appears to break down, or where it is
unable to explain certain phenomena. Some examples of the
failures of general relativity include:
Dark matter: General relativity cannot account for the observed amount
of gravitational mass in the universe, which has led astronomers to
hypothesize the existence of dark matter.
Dark energy: General relativity cannot explain the observed
LXIII

acceleration of the expansion of the universe, which has led
astronomers to hypothesize the existence of dark energy.
Quantum gravity: General relativity is a classical theory, which means
it does not take into account the principles of quantum mechanics.
This has led to the development of theories of quantum gravity, which
attempt to reconcile general relativity with quantum mechanics.
Singularities: General relativity predicts the existence of singularities,
which are points of infinite density and curvature. These singularities
occur in the centers of black holes and at the beginning of the universe,
and are seen as a failure of the theory to provide a complete description
of these phenomena.
The conservation laws:
CONSERVATION OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE: In any reaction the total
charge of all the particles entering the reaction = the total charge of all
the particles after the reaction.
LEPTON CONSERVATION: In any reaction the sum of lepton numbers
before the interaction = the sum of lepton numbers after the interaction.
CONSERVATION OF BARYON NUMBER: In any reaction the sum of
baryon numbers before the interaction = the sum of baryon numbers
after the interaction.
have far-reaching implications as fundamental to our
understanding of the physical world which we do not see
violated. They serve as a strong constraint on any thought-
out explanation for observations of the natural world in any
branch of science. These laws govern the behavior of nature at
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the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. As a result of the
particle-particle interaction 2 things may happen:
Particles are attracted or repelled
The particles are changed into different particles
The conservation laws of physics are fundamental principles
that describe the behavior of physical systems, and they
play a crucial role in many areas of physics, from classical
mechanics to quantum field theory. The conservation laws
state that certain physical quantities are conserved over
time, meaning that they cannot be created or destroyed,
but can only be transformed from one form to another.
The conservation laws have practical applications in a wide
range of fields, from engineering to medicine. For example,
energy conservation is important in designing energy-
efficient buildings, while momentum conservation is crucial
for understanding the behavior of fluids in pipes. They are
the foundation of many physical theories, including classical
mechanics, electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics. The
conservation of energy, for example, is a key principle of
thermodynamics, while the conservation of momentum is
fundamental to the laws of motion. Overall, the conservation
laws of physics play a fundamental role in our understanding
of the physical world, and they have numerous practical
LXV

applications in many areas of science and engineering. The
conservation laws enable us to create and optimize systems
to better satisfy our needs and to investigate the underlying
principles that control the behavior of matter and energy
in the universe by offering a framework for projecting the
behavior of physical systems.
Like the formation of bubbles of steam in boiling water
− Great many holograms of possible shapes and inner
dimensions were created, started off in every possible way,
simply because of an uncaused accident called spontaneous
creation. Our universe was one among a zillion of holograms
simply happened to have the right properties − with particular
values of the physical constants right for stars and galaxies
and planetary systems to form and for intelligent beings
to emerge due to random physical processes and develop
and ask questions, Who or what governs the laws and
constants of physics? Are such laws the products of chance
or a mere cosmic accident or have they been designed? How
do the laws and constants of physics relate to the support
and development of life forms? Is there any knowable
existence beyond the apparently observed dimensions of
our existence? However, M theory sounds so bizarre and
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unrealistic that there is no experiment that can credit its
validity. Nature has not been quick to pay us any hints so far.
That's the fact of it; grouped together everything we know
about the history of the universe is a fascinating topic for
study, and trying to understand the meaning of them is one
of the key aspects of modern cosmology − which is rather like
plumbing, in a way.
The fine-tuning of the universe refers to the remarkable observation that
the fundamental physical constants and parameters of the universe appear
to be finely tuned to allow the emergence of life. If even a slight change was
made to these constants, life as we know it would not be possible. Here are
some examples of the fine-tuning of the universe:
Strong nuclear force: The strong nuclear force is responsible for binding
protons and neutrons together in the nuclei of atoms. If the strength of
this force were slightly weaker, stable atomic nuclei could not exist, and
complex chemistry and life would not be possible.
Weak nuclear force: The weak nuclear force is responsible for nuclear
decay and is involved in the process of nuclear fusion that powers stars.
If this force were slightly stronger or weaker, the abundance of certain
elements in the universe would be vastly different, which could affect
the conditions for life.
Electromagnetic force: The electromagnetic force is responsible for
the behavior of electrically charged particles, which is crucial for the
stability of atoms and molecules. If this force were slightly different,
atoms could not form stable bonds, and the chemistry required for life
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would not be possible.
Gravitational force: The gravitational force is responsible for the large-
scale structure of the universe and the formation of stars and galaxies. If
this force were significantly weaker, the universe would have expanded
too quickly for stars and galaxies to form, while if it were too strong,
stars would burn out too quickly and would not have time to support
life.
Cosmological constant: The cosmological constant is a measure of the
energy density of space itself, and it affects the expansion rate of the
universe. If this constant were different, the universe could have either
collapsed too quickly or expanded too quickly for stars and galaxies to
form.
These are just a few examples of the fine-tuning of the universe. The fact
that the universe appears to be finely tuned has led some scientists and
philosophers to speculate that it may be the result of design or intention.
Others have suggested that it may be a consequence of a multiverse, where
many different universes with different physical constants exist, and we
happen to live in one that is suitable for life. However, there is currently no
definitive answer to the question of why the universe appears to be finely
tuned, and it remains an active area of research and debate.
Max Planck is famous for his groundbreaking work in the field of
theoretical physics and for his discovery of the fundamental relationship
between energy and frequency, which is now known as Planck's law.
German physicist Max Planck lived from 1858 until 1947. In 1900, he
developed the theory of quantum mechanics, which revolutionized the
field of physics and paved the way for the development of many modern
technologies, including transistors, lasers, and computer chips. Planck's
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work on blackbody radiation, in particular, was a major breakthrough that
led to the development of quantum mechanics. He showed that the energy
of light is not continuous, as was previously believed, but rather comes
in discrete packets or quanta. This discovery fundamentally changed
the way scientists thought about energy and matter and opened up new
avenues of research in physics. Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1918 for his work on quantum theory, making him one of the
most celebrated and influential physicists of the 20th century. His work
continues to be studied and built upon by scientists today. He was a man
of indomitable will and had other talents beyond physics. He was a skilled
piano player, formed music, preceded as an artist and furthermore followed
up on the stage and one of the founders of quantum physics. His long
life had a tragic side. In 1909, his first wife, Marie Merck, the daughter of
a Munich banker, died after 22 years of cheerful marriage, leaving Planck
with two sons and twin daughters. The elder son, Karl, was killed in action
in World War I, and both of his daughters died quite young in childbirth
(1918 and 1919). His home was totally annihilated in World War II. He lost
everything − scientific manuscripts and notes, diaries, family keepsakes, all
he had accumulated over a lifetime − all burned up and gone. His youngest
son Erwin was arrested. He was suspected of involvement in the attempted
assassination of Hitler and was executed in a gruesome manner by Hitler’s
henchmen. That merciless act destroyed Planck’s will to live. In the end,
Planck was taken by the Allies to a surviving relative in Gottingen where he
died in 1947.
The idea of a spontaneous creation of the universe is a
controversial topic that has been the subject of much scientific
and philosophical debate. Here are some potential pros and
cons of this idea:
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Pros:
Offers a potential explanation for the origin of the universe: If the
universe was created spontaneously, it may help to explain how the
universe came into existence in the first place, which has been a
longstanding mystery.
Provides a naturalistic explanation: A spontaneous creation of the
universe may be seen as a naturalistic explanation for the origin of the
universe, in contrast to a creationist or religious explanation.
Fits with current scientific knowledge: The idea of a spontaneous
creation of the universe is consistent with many of the current scientific
theories and observations, including the Big Bang theory and the cosmic
microwave background radiation.
Cons:
Lacks empirical evidence: While the idea of a spontaneous creation of
the universe may be a possible explanation for the origin of the universe,
there is currently no empirical evidence to support it.
Raises questions about causality: If the universe was created
spontaneously, it raises questions about what caused this to happen and
whether causality as we understand it can be applied to the creation of
the universe.
Philosophical implications: The idea of a spontaneous creation of the
universe has profound philosophical implications, such as questions
about the nature of existence, the purpose of the universe, and whether
there is a greater meaning to life.
Difficulty in testing: Because the spontaneous creation of the universe
occurred before the existence of the laws of physics and the scientific
method, it may be difficult or impossible to test the hypothesis.
Overall, the idea of a spontaneous creation of the universe is a
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complex and multifaceted topic with both potential pros and
cons. It remains an area of active research and debate in both
the scientific and philosophical communities.
And as more space comes into existence, more of the
dark energy would appear. Dark energy is a mysterious
phenomenon that is thought to be responsible for the
accelerating expansion of the universe. The term dark energy
was first coined by cosmologist Michael Turner in 1998 to
describe the unknown force causing this acceleration. The
discovery of dark energy was made by studying distant
supernovae, which revealed that the universe's expansion is
accelerating rather than slowing down. This observation was
unexpected and led scientists to conclude that some unknown
force must be pushing the galaxies apart at an ever-increasing
rate. Despite more than two decades of intense research,
scientists still do not know exactly what dark energy is. It is
called dark because it cannot be directly observed, as it does
not interact with light or any other form of electromagnetic
radiation. Dark energy is believed to be a property of space
itself and is thought to be evenly distributed throughout
the universe. There are numerous hypotheses regarding what
dark energy might be. One of the most prominent theories
is that it is the energy of empty space, known as the
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cosmological constant. According to this theory, empty space
has a constant energy density that is driving the expansion
of the universe. Another theory is that dark energy is a
scalar field, a type of energy field that fills space and exerts
a repulsive force. This theory is known as quintessence and
suggests that dark energy is not constant but varies over
time. Other theories propose that dark energy may be related
to modifications of general relativity, the theory of gravity
developed by Albert Einstein. These theories suggest that
gravity behaves differently on large scales and that this could
explain the observed acceleration of the universe's expansion.
Despite decades of research, no one at the present time has any
understanding of where this undetected substance comes
from or what exactly it is. Is it a pure cosmological constant
or is it a sign of extra dimensions? What is the cause of the
dark energy? Why does it exist at all? Why is it so different
from the other energies? Why is the composition of dark
energy so large? The nature of dark energy remains one of the
biggest mysteries in cosmology. Continued observations and
experiments may provide new insights into the nature of dark
energy and the fundamental nature of the universe itself.
Quantum physics, also known as quantum mechanics, is a
branch of physics that studies the behavior of matter and
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energy at the atomic and subatomic level. It is a fundamental
theory that provides a description of the physical world
that is different from classical physics, which describes the
behavior of macroscopic objects. Quantum mechanics is
based on several fundamental principles, including the wave-
particle duality, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and the
principle of superposition.
The wave-particle duality principle states that particles, such as
electrons or photons, can exhibit wave-like properties, such as
diffraction and interference, in addition to their particle-like behavior.
This principle led to the development of wave mechanics, which
describes the behavior of particles as waves.
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to
measure certain properties of a particle, such as its position and
momentum, with complete precision at the same time. The more
precisely one measures one of these properties, the less precisely one
can measure the other. This principle is a fundamental limitation on the
precision of measurements in quantum mechanics.
The principle of superposition states that a quantum system can exist
in multiple states simultaneously. For example, an electron can be in
multiple positions at the same time until it is measured and its wave
function collapses into a single position.
One of the most famous applications of quantum mechanics
is the Schrödinger equation, which describes the evolution
of a quantum system over time. The Schrödinger equation
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predicts the probabilities of various outcomes for a given
experiment or measurement. Another important concept
in quantum mechanics is entanglement, which occurs
when two particles become linked in a way that their
states are correlated with each other. This phenomenon
has been demonstrated experimentally and has important
applications in quantum computing and communication.
Quantum mechanics also has important implications
for our understanding of the nature of reality. The
Copenhagen interpretation, one of the most widely accepted
interpretations of quantum mechanics, suggests that particles
do not have a definite state until they are observed, and
that the act of observation itself affects the outcome of an
experiment. To sum up, quantum mechanics is a fundamental
theory that has revolutionized our understanding of the
behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic
level. Its principles, such as the wave-particle duality,
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and the principle of
superposition, have important applications in fields such
as quantum computing, communication, and cryptography.
However, like any scientific theory, it is not perfect, and
there are some areas where it does not provide a complete or
satisfactory explanation of certain phenomena. Here are a few
examples:
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Measurement problem: The measurement problem is a fundamental
issue in quantum mechanics that has to do with the act of observation.
According to the Copenhagen interpretation, particles do not have a
definite state until they are observed, and the act of observation itself
affects the outcome of an experiment. However, this interpretation
is controversial and has been criticized for not providing a complete
explanation of the role of measurement in quantum mechanics.
Quantum entanglement: While quantum entanglement has been
experimentally demonstrated and has important applications in fields
like quantum computing, the mechanism by which it occurs is not well
understood. It is also not clear how entanglement can be maintained
over large distances or how it can be used to transmit information faster
than the speed of light, as it appears to violate the principles of relativity.
The nature of the wave function: The wave function is a central concept
in quantum mechanics, describing the state of a quantum system.
However, it is not clear what the wave function represents physically,
and different interpretations have been proposed, including the many-
worlds interpretation and the pilot-wave theory.
The problem of non-locality: Quantum mechanics predicts that
particles can be instantaneously correlated with each other, even if they
are separated by large distances, which appears to violate the principle of
locality. While this phenomenon has been experimentally confirmed, it
is not well understood and has been the subject of much debate.
Overall, while quantum mechanics is a highly successful
theory, it is not without its limitations and open questions.
These failures and limitations have led to ongoing research
LXXV

and debate in the field of quantum physics, as scientists
continue to refine and expand our understanding of the
quantum world.
String theory gives us a clue, but there’s no definitive answer.
Well, all know is that it is a sort of cosmic accelerator pedal
or an invisible energy what made the universe bang and if we
held it in our hand; we couldn't take hold of it. In fact, it would
go right through our fingers, go right through the rock beneath
our feet and go all the way to the majestic swirl of the heavenly
stars. It would reverse direction and come back from the
stately waltz of orbiting binary stars through the intergalactic
night all the way to the edge of our feet and go back and forth.
How near are we to understand the dark energy? The question
lingers, answer complicates and challenges everyone who
yearns to resolve. And once we understand the dark energy,
can we understand the birth and the death of everything in
the mankind's observable universe, from a falling apple to the
huge furnace and the earth is also an ? Dark energy is one of
the biggest mysteries in modern astrophysics. It is a theoretical
form of energy that is thought to permeate all of space and is
believed to be responsible for the accelerating expansion of the
universe. Here are some reasons why dark energy is considered
to be one of the biggest mysteries in physics:
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Unexplained acceleration of the universe: The biggest mystery of dark
energy is the unexplained acceleration of the expansion of the universe.
Dark energy is thought to be responsible for this acceleration, but we
don't understand the physics behind it. We don't know what dark energy
is made of or how it works, and we don't know how it interacts with
other forms of matter and energy.
Inconsistencies in measurements: There are inconsistencies in
measurements of the expansion of the universe, which make it
difficult to accurately determine the properties of dark energy. Different
methods of measuring the expansion rate have produced different
results, and we don't yet have a consistent and accurate picture of the
properties of dark energy.
Lack of a theoretical explanation: We have no good theoretical
explanation for dark energy. We don't know what it is or how it behaves,
and we don't have any models that can accurately predict its behavior.
This lack of understanding makes it difficult to develop a coherent and
testable theory of dark energy.
No direct detection: Dark energy has never been directly detected. We
can only infer its existence based on its effects on the universe. This
makes it difficult to study and understand, as we have no way of
observing it directly or measuring its properties.
In essence, dark energy is one of the biggest mysteries
in modern physics. Despite its potential importance for
understanding the fundamental nature of the universe, we
still don't know what it is or how it works. This makes
it a major focus of ongoing research in astrophysics and
cosmology.
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String theory is a theoretical framework in physics that
attempts to reconcile general relativity and quantum
mechanics by describing the fundamental building blocks of
the universe as one-dimensional objects called strings. While
string theory has the potential to provide a unified description
of the fundamental forces of nature, it also faces a number of
problems and challenges, including the following:
Testability: One of the main criticisms of string theory is that it is
not yet testable by experiment. String theory predicts the existence of
additional dimensions beyond the four we observe in our everyday lives,
but these extra dimensions are thought to be too small to detect with
current technology. This lack of experimental verification has led some
to question whether string theory can be considered a scientific theory.
Complexity: String theory is an extremely complex and mathematically
demanding theory, with many different variations and possible
formulations. Some critics argue that the theory is too complex to be
understood or tested, and that it is more like a mathematical construct
than a physical theory.
Multiple solutions: String theory has many possible solutions, which
describe different universes with different physical laws and constants.
Some critics argue that this undermines the theory's explanatory power,
as it can be used to describe a wide range of physical phenomena.
Background independence: String theory assumes the existence of a
fixed background geometry in which strings propagate, which is at odds
with the principles of general relativity. Some researchers are exploring
approaches to string theory that are background-independent, but this
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remains an active area of research.
Connection to the real world: String theory has yet to make testable
predictions about the observable universe, and it is not clear whether
it can be used to explain existing experimental data or to make new
predictions. While the theory has had some success in explaining
certain phenomena in theoretical physics, it has yet to provide a
complete and compelling picture of the universe.
Overall, while string theory has the potential to be a powerful
and unifying theory of physics, it still faces many challenges
and open questions. These problems have led to ongoing
research and debate in the field, as scientists work to refine
and develop the theory and to test its predictions through
experiment.
Entropy is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics that
refers to the degree of disorder or randomness in a system. The
entropy of the universe is a measure of the total disorder of all
the matter and energy in the universe. It is a fundamental
aspect of our understanding of the universe, and has
implications for everything from the evolution of stars and
galaxies to the fate of the universe itself. The entropy of the
universe is always increasing, in accordance with the second
law of thermodynamics. This law states that the total entropy
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of a closed system cannot decrease over time, meaning that the
disorder of the system will always increase or remain constant.
Since the universe is considered to be a closed system, its total
entropy is always increasing. The universe started out in a
state of very low entropy at the time of the Big Bang, and has
been increasing ever since. This is because as the universe
expands, the matter and energy within it become more
dispersed and spread out, leading to a higher degree of
disorder. The formation of stars, galaxies, and other structures
in the universe is a manifestation of this tendency towards
increased entropy, as these structures represent localized
decreases in entropy within an overall system that is
becoming increasingly disordered. The concept of the entropy
of the universe is closely related to the concept of the heat
death of the universe. The heat death scenario predicts that as
the universe continues to expand and matter and energy
become increasingly dispersed, the entropy of the universe
will eventually reach a maximum value. At this point, all of the
matter in the universe will be evenly distributed and there will
be no more sources of usable energy to power any kind of work.
This would result in a state of maximum entropy, where the
universe is effectively dead, with no further change or
activity possible. To sum it all up, the entropy of the universe
is a fundamental aspect of our understanding of the universe
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and its evolution over time. It is a measure of the degree of
disorder in the matter and energy of the universe, and is
always increasing due to the second law of thermodynamics.
The concept of the entropy of the universe has important
implications for our understanding of the evolution of stars
and galaxies, as well as for the ultimate fate of the universe
itself. There are several theories that attempt to explain the
formation of the universe, including the Big Bang theory, the
steady state theory, the cyclic model, the ekpyrotic model,
and the multiverse theory. Here is a brief overview of each of
these theories:
Big Bang Theory: This is currently the most widely accepted theory
for the formation of the universe. It states that the universe began as
a hot, dense, and infinitely small point known as a singularity, which
rapidly expanded in a massive explosion about 13.8 billion years ago.
The universe has been expanding and cooling ever since, and is still
expanding today.
Steady State Theory: This theory, proposed in the 1940s, states that
the universe has always existed and is in a constant state of expansion.
According to this theory, new matter is continuously being created to
maintain a constant density of matter in the universe.
Cyclic Model: This theory proposes that the universe undergoes an
infinite series of cycles, in which it expands and contracts repeatedly.
During each cycle, matter and energy are recycled, and the universe is
renewed.
Ekpyrotic Model: This theory suggests that the universe was formed as
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a result of a collision between two parallel, three-dimensional universes
(known as branes) in a higher-dimensional space. This collision created
a massive explosion that formed our universe.
Multiverse Theory: This theory suggests that our universe is just one
of many universes that exist in a larger multiverse. According to this
theory, the universe formed as a result of a quantum fluctuation in the
multiverse.
Of these theories, the Big Bang theory is the most widely
accepted, as it is supported by a large body of observational
and experimental evidence, including the cosmic microwave
background radiation, the abundance of light elements in
the universe, and the large-scale structure of the universe.
However, the other theories continue to be studied and refined
as scientists work to better understand the origins of the
universe.
Time dilation is a phenomenon predicted by Albert Einstein's
theory of special and general relativity, which states that time
appears to slow down for objects that are moving at high
speeds or experiencing a strong gravitational field. This effect
has been experimentally verified and has important
implications for our understanding of the nature of time and
the universe. However, there are certain situations where time
dilation may not be a significant factor or may not behave as
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predicted. One example is when an object is moving at very
slow speeds. Another example is when the gravitational field is
weak. Explaining everything ... is one of the greatest
challenges we have ever faced. Hence, it has been an endeavor
of science to find a single theory which could explain
everything, where every partial theory that we've read so far
(in school) is explained as a case of the one cogent theory
within some special circumstances. Despite being a mystery
skeptic, the Unified Field Theory (which Albert Einstein
sought [but never realized] during the last thirty years of his
life and capable of describing nature's forces within a single,
all-encompassing, coherent framework) presents an infinite
problem. This is embarrassing. Because we now realize before
we can work for the theory of everything, we have to work for
the ultimate laws of nature. At the present, we’re clueless as to
what the ultimate laws of nature really are. Are there new laws
beyond the apparently observed dimensions of our universe?
Do all the fundamental laws of nature unify? At what scale?
Ultimately, however, it is likely that answers to these questions
in the form of unified field theory may be found over the next
few years or by the end of the century we shall know can there
really be a complete unified theory that would presumably
solve our problems? Or are we just chasing a mirage? Is the
ultimate unified theory so compelling, that it brings about its
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own existence? However, if we − a puny and insignificant on
the scale of the cosmos − do discover a unified field theory, it
should in time be understandable in broad principle by
everyone, not just a few people. Then we shall all be able to take
part in the discussion of the questions of how and when did
the universe begin? Was the universe created? Has this
universe been here forever or did it have a beginning at the
Big Bang? If the universe was not created, how did it get here?
If the Big Bang is the reason there is something rather than
nothing, and then before the Big Bang there was NOTHING
and then suddenly we got A HUGE AMOUNT OF ENERGY
where did it come from? What powered the Big Bang? What is
the fate of the Universe? Is the universe heading towards a Big
Freeze (the end of the universe when it reaches near absolute
zero), a Big Rip, a Big Crunch (the final collapse of the
universe), or a Big Bounce? Or is it part of an infinitely
recurring cyclic model? Is inflation a law of Nature? Why the
universe started off very hot and cooled as it expanded? Is the
Standard Big Bang Model right? Or is it the satisfactory
explanation of the evidence which we have and therefore
merits our provisional acceptance? Is our universe finite or
infinite in size and content? What lies beyond the existing
space and time? What was before the event of creation? Why is
the universe so uniform on a large scale (even though
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uncertainty principle − which fundamentally differentiates
quantum from classic reasoning − discovered by the German
physicist Werner Heisenberg in 1927 − implies that the
universe cannot be completely uniform because there are
some uncertainties or fluctuations in the positions and
velocities of the particles)? Why does it look the same at all
points of space and in all directions? In particular, why is the
temperature of the cosmic microwave back-ground radiation
so nearly the same when we look in different directions? Why
are the galaxies distributed in clumps and filaments? When
were the first stars formed, and what were they like? Or if
string theory (which is part of a grander synthesis: M-theory
and have captured the hearts and minds of much of the
theoretical physics community while being apparently
disconnected from any realistic chance of definitive
experimental proof) is right i.e., every particle is a tiny one
dimensional vibrating string of Planck length (the smallest
possible length i.e., Planck time multiplied by the speed of
light)?
The only planet in the cosmos that is known to host life
is Earth, which is the third planet from the Sun. It has a
diameter of approximately 12,742 kilometers (7,918 miles)
and a mass of 5.97 × 1024
kilograms. The Earth is the fifth-
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largest planet in the Solar System and is believed to be around
4.54 billion years old. Earth is a complex and dynamic planet
that is still being explored and studied by scientists around
the world. Its diverse range of ecosystems and organisms make
it a unique and fascinating place to live. Human activity has
had a significant impact on the Earth's environment, with
factors such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change
contributing to global environmental problems. However,
efforts to reduce human impact and preserve the planet's
ecosystems are ongoing. While Earth may not be a perfect
environment for human life, it is still a very hospitable planet,
and it is uniquely suited to our existence. Here are a few
justifications:
The right distance from the sun: Earth is located in the habitable zone
around our sun, which is the region where temperatures are just right
for liquid water to exist on the surface. This is important because water
is essential for life as we know it, and it plays a crucial role in many of the
chemical processes that occur in our bodies.
A stable climate: Earth's atmosphere and climate are relatively
stable and predictable, which allows for the development of complex
ecosystems and the growth of agriculture. While there are natural
variations in the climate over time, Earth's climate has been relatively
stable for thousands of years, which has allowed for the development
and evolution of human civilization.
A protective atmosphere: Earth's atmosphere is made up of a
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combination of gases, including oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide,
that help to regulate the temperature and protect us from harmful
radiation from the sun. The ozone layer, in particular, helps to shield us
from harmful ultraviolet radiation that can cause skin cancer and other
health problems.
Rich biodiversity: Earth is home to an incredibly diverse range of life
forms, from tiny microbes to giant whales, and everything in between.
This biodiversity is essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems, and it
provides us with a rich array of resources and raw materials that we rely
on for our survival.
While there are certainly challenges and problems associated
with living on Earth, including issues like climate change and
environmental degradation, the planet is still incredibly well-
suited for human life, and we are fortunate to call it our home.
The laws of physics are the fundamental principles
that describe how the physical world works. These laws
explain the behavior of matter, energy, space, and time,
and they form the basis of many scientific disciplines,
including mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism,
and quantum mechanics. Here are some examples of the laws
of physics:
Newton's laws of motion: These laws describe how objects move and
interact with each other. They state that unless acted upon by an
external force, an object will continue to be at rest or moving at a
LXXXVII

uniform speed.
Conservation laws: These laws state that certain properties, such as
energy, momentum, and angular momentum, are conserved in a closed
system. This means that the total amount of these properties in the
system remains constant, even as they are exchanged and transformed
within the system.
Maxwell's equations: These equations describe the behavior of electric
and magnetic fields and their interaction with matter. They form
the basis of classical electromagnetism and explain a wide range of
phenomena, from the behavior of light to the operation of electric
motors.
The laws of thermodynamics: These laws describe how energy is
transferred and transformed between different forms, and they govern
the behavior of heat engines, refrigerators, and other energy conversion
systems.
The theory of relativity: This theory describes how the laws of physics
operate in the presence of massive objects or in situations where objects
are moving at very high speeds. It explains the nature of space and time
and how they are affected by the presence of matter and energy.
Quantum mechanics: This theory describes the behavior of matter
and energy at the microscopic level and explains phenomena such as
the behavior of atoms and molecules, the structure of solids, and the
behavior of subatomic particles.
These are just a few examples of the laws of physics. The laws
of physics are our current best understanding of the way the
physical universe works, based on empirical observations and
experimental evidence. They are the result of the collective
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work of many scientists over centuries, and have been tested
and refined over time. While the laws of physics are extremely
accurate and can be used to make very precise predictions
about the behavior of physical systems, they are not
necessarily correct in an absolute sense. In science, theories
and laws are always subject to revision and refinement as new
evidence and observations are made. It's also worth noting
that our current understanding of physics is incomplete, and
there may be phenomena that are not yet fully explained by
the existing laws. For example, the laws of classical physics are
not sufficient to explain the behavior of objects at very high
speeds or on very small scales, which requires the use of more
advanced theories such as quantum mechanics and relativity.
Why most of the matter in the Universe is dark? Is anthropic
principle a natural coincidence? If we find the answers to
them, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason
i.e., we might hold the key to address the eternal conundrum
of some of the most difficult issues in modern physics. Yet
those difficult issues are also the most exciting, for those
who address big, basic questions: What do we really know
about the universe? How do we know it? Where did the
universe come from, and where is it going? It would bring
to an end a long and glorious lesson in the history of
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mankind's intellectual struggle to understand the universe.
For then we would know whether the laws of physics started
off the universe in such an incomprehensible way or not.
Chances are that these questions will be answered long after
we’re gone, but there is hope that the beginnings of those
answers may come within the next few years, as some aspects
of bold scientific theory that attempts to reconcile all the
physical properties of our universe into a single unified and
coherent mathematical framework begin to enter the realm of
theoretical and experimental formulation.
Up until recently, a multitude of revolutions in various
domains, from literature to experimental science, has
prevailed over established ideas of modern age in a way never
seen before. But we do not know about what is the exact
mechanism by which an implosion of a dying star becomes
a specific kind of explosion called a supernova. All that we
know is that: When a massive star runs out of nuclear fuel,
the gravitational contraction continues increasing the density
of matter. And since the internal pressure is proportional to
the density of matter, therefore the internal pressure will
continually increase with the density of matter. And at a
certain point of contraction, internal pressure will be very
much greater than gravitational binding pressure and will be
XC

sufficiently high enough to cause the star to explode, spraying
the manufactured elements into space that would flung back
into the gas in the galaxy and would provide some of the
raw material for the next generation of stars and bodies
that now orbit the sun as planets like the Earth. The total
energy released would outshine all the other stars in the
galaxy, approaching the luminosity of a whole galaxy (will
nearly be the order of 10 42
Joules). In the aftermath of the
supernova, we find a totally dead star, a neutron star ‒ a cold
star, supported by the exclusion principle repulsion between
neutrons ‒ about the size of Manhattan (i.e., ten to 50 times
the size of our sun).
Why are there atoms, molecules, solar systems, and galaxies?
What powered them into existence? How accurate are the
physical laws and equations, which control them? Why do
the Fundamental Constants of Nature have the precise values
they do? The answers have always seemed well beyond the
reach of Dr. Science since the dawn of humanity − until
now (some would claim the answer to these questions
is that there is a transcendent God (a cosmic craftsman
– a transcendent being than which no being could be
more virtuous) who chose to create the universe that way
XCI

according to some perfect mathematical principle. Then the
question merely reflects to that of who or what created
the God). But the questions are still the picture in the mind
of many scientists today who do not spend most of their
time worrying about these questions, but almost worry about
them some of the time. All that science could say is that:
The universe is as it is now. But it could not explain why it
was, as it was, just after the Big Bang. This is a disaster for
science. It would mean that science alone, could not predict
how the universe began. Every attempt is made to set up the
connection between theoretical predictions and experimental
results but some of the experimental results throw cold water
on the theoretical predictions.
Planck units are a set of natural units of measurement
named after the German physicist Max Planck, who first
proposed them in 1899. These units are derived solely from
fundamental constants of nature, such as the speed of light,
the gravitational constant, and Planck's constant, and are
often used in theoretical physics, particularly in attempts
to unify the different fundamental forces of nature and
to understand the nature of space and time at the most
fundamental level. They also have practical applications in
fields such as black hole physics and quantum gravity.
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However, because the Planck units are so small and so far
beyond the range of our current experimental capabilities,
they remain purely theoretical constructs at this time. The
fundamental Planck units are:
The Planck length, denoted as LPlanck, is a unit of length in the
International System of Units (SI), named after the physicist Max
Planck. It is defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum during
the Planck time, which is the time it takes light to travel one Planck
length. In mathematical terms, the Planck length is defined as: LPlanck=
(ħG/c
3
)
1/2
where ħ is the reduced Planck constant, G is the gravitational
constant, and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. The value of the
Planck length is approximately 1.616 × 10
−35
meters. The Planck length
is significant because it is thought to be the smallest possible length
scale that has any physical meaning. At distances smaller than the
Planck length, it is believed that the laws of physics as we currently
understand them break down, and a more complete theory of quantum
gravity is needed. This is because the Planck length represents the scale
at which the effects of both quantum mechanics and general relativity
become important. Furthermore, the Planck length is also used in the
study of black holes, as it is thought to represent the minimum size of
a black hole. If a mass were to be compressed to a size smaller than
the Planck length, it would be a black hole with a Schwarzschild radius
equal to the Planck length. It is important to note that the Planck length
is an incredibly small distance that is currently impossible to measure
directly. Nonetheless, it is a fundamental concept in physics and serves
as a useful theoretical tool in the study of the most fundamental aspects
of the universe.
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The Planck time, denoted as tPlanck, is a unit of time in the International
System of Units (SI), named after the physicist Max Planck. It is defined
as the time it takes for light to travel one Planck length in a vacuum,
and is given by: tPlanck = LPlanck/c where LPlanck is the Planck length and
c is the speed of light in a vacuum. In mathematical terms, the Planck
time is approximately equal to 5.391 × 10
−44
seconds. The Planck time
is significant because it is thought to be the smallest possible unit of
time that has any physical meaning. The existing understanding of the
principles of physics breaks at timescales smaller than the Planck time,
and to correctly explain the behavior of matter and energy, a more
comprehensive theory of quantum gravity is required. The Planck time
is also related to the concept of the Planck epoch, which is the earliest
period of time in the history of the universe. During this epoch, which
occurred approximately 10
−43
seconds after the Big Bang, the universe
was incredibly hot and dense, and the four fundamental forces of
nature (gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the
weak nuclear force) were unified into a single force. It is thought that
a full understanding of the nature of the universe during the Planck
epoch will require a theory of quantum gravity, which is currently
a topic of active research. Overall, the Planck time is a fundamental
concept in physics, representing the smallest possible unit of time that
has any physical meaning. It plays a critical role in the study of the most
fundamental aspects of the universe, including the nature of space,
time, and the fundamental forces of nature.
The Planck energy, denoted as EPlanck, is a unit of energy in the
International System of Units (SI), named after the physicist Max
Planck. It is defined as the energy that corresponds to the Planck
XCIV

mass according to the equation E = mPlanckc
2
, where mPlanck is the
Planck mass and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. In mathematical
terms, the Planck energy is given by: EPlanck = (ħc
5
/G)
1/2
where ħ is
the reduced Planck constant and G is the gravitational constant. In
numerical terms, the Planck energy is approximately equal to 1.956 ×
10
9
joules. The Planck energy is significant because it is thought to be the
maximum amount of energy that can be contained in a single particle.
At energies greater than the Planck energy, the effects of quantum
gravity become important, and a more complete theory of physics is
needed to accurately describe the behavior of matter and energy. The
Planck energy is also related to the concept of the Planck temperature,
which is the maximum possible temperature that can be reached in the
universe. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the energy radiated
by a black body is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature. At
temperatures greater than the Planck temperature, the energy radiated
by a black body would be greater than the Planck energy, which is
not physically possible. The Planck energy is also important in the
study of the early universe. During the Planck epoch, which occurred
approximately 10
−43
seconds after the Big Bang, the universe was so
small and dense that quantum effects were as important as gravitational
effects. It is thought that a full understanding of the nature of the
universe during the Planck epoch will require a theory of quantum
gravity, which is currently a topic of active research. Overall, the Planck
energy is a fundamental concept in physics, representing the maximum
possible amount of energy that can be contained in a single particle.
It plays a critical role in the study of the most fundamental aspects of
the universe, including the nature of space, time, and the fundamental
forces of nature.
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The Planck temperature, denoted as TPlanck, is a unit of temperature
in the International System of Units (SI), named after the physicist
Max Planck. It is defined as the temperature that would correspond
to the energy of a particle with a mass equal to the Planck mass. In
mathematical terms, the Planck temperature is given by: TPlanck = (ħc
5
/
GkB
2)
1/2
where ħ is the reduced Planck constant, c is the speed of light
in a vacuum, G is the gravitational constant, and kB is the Boltzmann
constant. In numerical terms, the Planck temperature is approximately
equal to 1.416 × 10
32
Kelvin. The Planck temperature is significant
because it is thought to be the maximum possible temperature that can
be reached in the universe. At temperatures greater than the Planck
temperature, the effects of quantum gravity become important, and a
more complete theory of physics is needed to accurately describe the
behavior of matter and energy. The Planck temperature is also related
to the concept of the Planck length, which is the minimum length
that can be measured in the universe. According to the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, the product of the uncertainty in position and
the uncertainty in momentum must be greater than or equal to a
constant value, given by ħ/2. This leads to the concept of a minimum
length scale, which is approximately equal to the Planck length. At
temperatures greater than the Planck temperature, particles would have
enough energy to probe distances smaller than the Planck length, and
the structure of spacetime itself would become uncertain. The Planck
temperature is also important in the study of the early universe. During
the Planck epoch, which occurred approximately 10
−43
seconds after the
Big Bang, the universe was so small and dense that quantum effects
were as important as gravitational effects. It is thought that a full
understanding of the nature of the universe during the Planck epoch
will require a theory of quantum gravity, which is currently a topic of
active research. To sum up, the Planck temperature is a fundamental
XCVI

concept in physics, representing the maximum possible temperature
that can be reached in the universe. It plays a critical role in the study of
the most fundamental aspects of the universe, including the nature of
space, time, and the fundamental forces of nature.
The Planck charge is a unit of electric charge that is derived from
Planck's constant, one of the fundamental constants of nature. It can
be calculated by dividing the electron's elementary charge by the square
root of the fine structure constant. The Planck charge is given by the
formula: qPlanck= (4πε0ħc)½
where ħ is the reduced Planck constant,
c is the speed of light, ε0 is the vacuum permittivity, and G is the
gravitational constant. Using these constants' values as substitutes, we
obtain:
qPlanck=1.875545956 × 10
−18
Coulombs
The Planck charge is an extremely small value, about 20 orders
of magnitude smaller than the charge of an electron. It is used
primarily in theoretical physics and cosmology to study the behavior
of electromagnetic fields and the interactions between particles at
extremely small scales, such as in the early universe or black holes.
The significance of the Planck charge lies in its relationship to other
fundamental constants, and the fact that it represents the maximum
electric charge that can be confined to a volume smaller than the Planck
length, which is another fundamental constant.
The Planck force is a fundamental constant in physics that represents
the maximum force that can be achieved in the universe. It is defined
in terms of other fundamental constants, specifically the Planck length
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(LPlanck), the Planck mass (mPlanck), and the Planck time (tPlanck), as
follows: FPlanck = c
4
/ G, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and G is
the gravitational constant. Using the known values of these constants,
the Planck force is approximately equal to 1.21027 × 10
44
Newtons.
The Planck force is significant because it represents the maximum force
that can be achieved in nature, and any force greater than the Planck
force would result in the formation of a black hole. The Planck force
is also relevant in theories of quantum gravity, which seek to unify
the principles of quantum mechanics and general relativity. The Planck
force can be related to the Planck energy, which is the maximum energy
that can exist in the universe, and is given by EPlanck = mPlanck c
2
. The
Planck force is equal to the Planck energy divided by the Planck length,
FPlanck = EPlanck / LPlanck. This relationship shows that the Planck force is
directly related to the curvature of spacetime at the Planck length scale,
which is a key feature of theories of quantum gravity.
Back in 1700s, people thought the stars of our galaxy
structured the universe, that the galaxy was nearly static, and
that the universe was essentially unexpanding with neither a
beginning nor an end to time. A situation marked by difficulty
with the idea of a static and unchanging universe, was that
according to the Newtonian theory of gravitation, each star in
the universe supposed to be pulled towards every other star
with a force that was weaker the less massive the stars and
farther they were to each other. It was this force caused all the
stars fall together at some point. So how could they remain
static? Wouldn't they all collapse in on themselves? A balance
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of the predominant attractive effect of the stars in the universe
was required to keep them at a constant distance from each
other. Einstein was aware of this problem. He introduced a
term so-called cosmological constant in order to hold a static
universe in which gravity is a predominant attractive force.
This had an effect of a repulsive force, which could balance the
predominant attractive force. In this way it was possible to
allow a static cosmic solution. Enter the American astronomer
Edwin Hubble. In 1920s he began to make observations with
the hundred inch telescope on Mount Wilson and through
detailed measurements of the spectra of stars he found
something most peculiar: stars moving away from each other
had their spectra shifted toward the red end of the spectrum in
proportion to the distance between them (This was a Doppler
effect of light: Waves of any sort − sound waves, light waves,
water waves − emitted at some frequency by a moving object
are perceived at a different frequency by a stationary
observer. The resulting shift in the spectrum will be towards
its red part when the source is moving away and towards the
blue part when the source is getting closer). And he also
observed that stars were not uniformly distributed
throughout space, but were gathered together in vast
collections called galaxies and nearly all the galaxies were
moving away from us with recessional velocities that were
XCIX

roughly dependent on their distance from us. He reinforced
his argument with the formulation of his well- known
Hubble's law. The observational discovery of the stretching of
the space carrying galaxies with it completely shattered the
previous image of a static and unchanging cosmos (i.e., the
motivation for adding a term to the equations disappeared,
and Einstein rejected the cosmological constant a greatest
mistake).
The mysteries of the universe are vast and fascinating, and
some of the biggest questions in science remain unanswered.
We story telling animals (who TALK ABOUT THE nature of
the universe and discuss such questions as whether it has a
beginning or an end) often claim that we know so much more
about the universe. But we must beware of overconfidence. We
have had false dawns before. At the beginning of this century,
for example, it was thought that earth was a perfect sphere,
but latter experimental observation of variation of value of
g over the surface of earth confirmed that earth is not a
perfect sphere. Today there is almost universal agreement that
space itself is stretching, carrying galaxies with it, though
we are experimentally trying to answer whether cosmic
[expansion will] continue forever or slow to a halt, reverse
itself [and] lead to a cosmic implosion. However, personally,
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we’re sure that the accelerated expansion began with a state
of infinite compression and primeval explosion called the hot
Big Bang. But will it expand forever or there is a limit beyond
which the average matter density exceeds a hundredth of a
billionth of a billionth of a billionth (10−29
) of a gram per
cubic centimeter so called critical density (the density of
the universe where the expansion of the universe is poised
between eternal expansion and recollapse)... then a large
enough gravitational force will permeate the cosmos to halt
and reverse the expansion or the expansion and contraction
are evenly balanced? We're less sure about that because events
cannot be predicted with complete accuracy but that there is
always a degree of uncertainty.
Astrophysics is the branch of physics that deals with the study
of celestial objects and phenomena, including stars, galaxies,
black holes, and the origins of the universe itself. While
astrophysics has made tremendous progress in advancing our
understanding of the cosmos, there have been some notable
failures or limitations in our knowledge. One of the most
significant failures in astrophysics is the inability to fully
explain the nature of dark matter and dark energy. These
two mysterious substances make up the vast majority of the
mass-energy in the universe, but their exact nature remains a
CI

mystery. While there are many theories and hypotheses about
what dark matter and dark energy could be, there is currently
no way to directly observe or measure them, making it difficult
to fully understand their properties and behavior. Another
failure in astrophysics is the inability to predict certain types
of astronomical events with complete accuracy. For example,
while astrophysicists can predict the motion of the planets
with great precision, there are still some phenomena, such as
supernovae, that cannot be predicted with complete certainty.
These unpredictable events can make it difficult to plan space
missions and observe certain celestial objects. Additionally,
there are limitations to the technology and instruments used
in astrophysics, which can limit the accuracy and depth of
our observations. For example, some astronomical objects are
so distant that their light takes billions of years to reach us,
and by the time it does, it has been redshifted and distorted in
ways that make it difficult to study. Despite these limitations
and failures, astrophysics continues to make important
contributions to our understanding of the universe. Advances
in technology and new theoretical developments are opening
up new avenues for research and exploration, and it is likely
that many of the current limitations and failures will be
overcome in the future.
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The picture of standard model of the Forces of Nature
(a sensible and successive quantum mechanical description
developed by 1970s physicists) is in good agreement with all
the observational evidence that we have today and remains
consistent with all the measured properties of matter made
in our most sophisticated laboratories on Earth and observed
in space with our most powerful telescopes. Nevertheless, it
leaves a number of important questions unanswered like the
unanswered questions given in The Hitchhiker's Guide to
the Galaxy (by Douglas Adams): Why are the strengths of
the fundamental forces (electromagnetism, weak and strong
forces, and gravity) are as they are? Why do the force
particles have the precise masses they do? Do these forces
really become unified at sufficiently high energy? If so how?
Are there unobserved fundamental forces that explain other
unsolved problems in physics? What is the Higgs boson and
why is it important? How does the standard model explain the
unification of forces? Why is gravity so weak? May because
of hidden extra dimensions? Very likely, we are missing
something important that may seem as obvious to us as the
earth orbiting the sun – or perhaps as ridiculous as a tower of
tortoises. Only time (whatever that may be) will tell.
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The theory of evolution is a scientific explanation of how
living organisms have changed and diversified over time
through the process of natural selection. While the theory
of evolution has been incredibly successful in explaining a
wide range of biological phenomena, there have been some
limitations and failures in our understanding of evolution.
Incomplete Fossil Record: One limitation of the theory of evolution
is the incomplete fossil record. While we have found a large number
of fossils from many different time periods, there are still gaps in our
knowledge of the evolutionary history of many species. These gaps can
make it difficult to reconstruct the complete lineage of an organism, and
can leave unanswered questions about the mechanisms of evolutionary
change.
Non-Darwinian mechanisms: Another limitation of the theory of
evolution is that it was initially proposed to explain natural selection
as the main mechanism driving evolutionary change. However, since
Darwin's time, other mechanisms of evolution, such as genetic drift,
have been identified and are now recognized as important factors
in evolutionary change. These non-Darwinian mechanisms can create
limitations in our understanding of how evolution works and how it
may have occurred in the past.
Hybridization: A third challenge to the theory of evolution is
hybridization, or the interbreeding of different species, which can lead to
the formation of new species. While hybridization is not a new concept,
recent genetic studies have shown that it may be more common than
previously thought. Hybridization can create a problem for evolutionary
theory because it is often difficult to determine whether two related
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species share a common ancestor or are the result of hybridization.
Despite these limitations and challenges, the theory of
evolution remains one of the most powerful and well-
supported scientific theories of all time. As our understanding
of genetics, development, and ecology continues to grow,
new insights into the mechanisms of evolution may emerge,
providing a more comprehensive understanding of how
life has evolved and diversified over time. Like raisins
in expanding dough, galaxies that are further apart are
increasing their separation more than nearer ones. And as a
result, the light emitted from distant galaxies and stars is
shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. Observations of
galaxies indicate that the universe is expanding: the distance
D between almost any pair of galaxies is increasing at a rate V
= HD − beautifully explained by the Hubble’s law. The Hubble
law is a fundamental principle in cosmology that describes
the relationship between the distance of galaxies from us
and their recessional velocity. The law was proposed by the
astronomer Edwin Hubble in the 1920s. While the Hubble
law has been an incredibly useful tool for studying the large-
scale structure of the universe, there are some limitations to
its application. Here are some of the major limitations of the
Hubble law:
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Local environment: The Hubble law assumes that the expansion of
the universe is uniform and isotropic, which means that the universe
looks the same in all directions. However, this assumption may not be
entirely valid, as the local environment of a galaxy can affect its motion.
For example, a galaxy that is near a large cluster of galaxies may be
gravitationally attracted to that cluster, causing it to move at a different
velocity than expected from the Hubble law.
Inhomogeneities: The Hubble law assumes that the universe is
homogeneous, meaning that its properties are the same on large scales.
However, recent observations have shown that the universe is not
perfectly homogeneous, but contains structures such as galaxy clusters,
filaments, and voids. The presence of these structures can affect the
velocity of galaxies and cause deviations from the Hubble law.
Uncertainties in the Hubble constant: The value of the Hubble
constant, which relates the velocity of galaxies to their distance, is not
precisely known. Different methods of measurement can yield different
values, and the current value has an uncertainty of about 10%. This
uncertainty can affect the accuracy of the Hubble law and its application
to cosmological studies.
Redshift measurement errors: The recessional velocity of a galaxy is
typically measured by its redshift, which is the shift in the wavelength
of light emitted by the galaxy due to the Doppler effect. However,
redshift measurements can be affected by a variety of factors, such as the
gravitational pull of nearby objects or the peculiar motion of the galaxy,
which can introduce errors into the measurement of the velocity.
Despite these limitations, the Hubble law remains a powerful
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tool for studying the large-scale structure of the universe and
has provided some of the strongest evidence for the expansion
of the universe and the Big Bang theory. Ongoing efforts to
refine our measurements of the Hubble constant and study
the effects of inhomogeneities and local environments will
continue to improve our understanding of the universe and its
evolution. And quantum theory (The revolutionary theory of
the last century clashed with everyday experience which has
proved enormously successful, passing with flying colors the
many stringent laboratory tests to which it has been subjected
for almost a hundred years) predicts that entire space is not
continuous and infinite but rather quantized and measured in
units of quantity called Planck length (10 –33
cm – the length
scale found at the big bang in which the gravitational force
was as strong as the other forces and at this scale, space-time
was foamy, with tiny bubbles and wormholes appearing
and disappearing into the vacuum). However, at the present
there is no conclusive evidence in favor of quantization of
space and time and moreover nobody knows why no spatial or
time interval shorter than the Planck values exists?
For length: Planck length (a hundred billion billion times [10
20
] smaller
than an atomic nucleus) ≈1.6 × 10
−33
centimeter.
For time: Planck time ≈5 × 10
−44
seconds.
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On the other hand, there is no evidence against what the
quantum model inform us about the true nature of reality.
But in order to unify Albert Einstein's general relativity (a
theoretical framework for understanding the universe on
the largest of scales: the immense expanse of the universe
itself and it breaks down at times less than the Planck time
and at distances smaller than the Planck length, predicts
the existence of wormhole − a passageway between two
universes – gives us a better way of grasping reality than
Newtonian mechanics, because it tells us that there can be
black holes, because it tells us there's a Big Bang) with
the quantum physics that describe fundamental particles and
forces, it is necessary to quantize space and perhaps time
as well. And for a universe to be created out of nothing,
the positive energy of motion should exactly cancel out the
negative energy of gravitational attraction i.e., the net energy
of the universe should be = zero. And if that's the case, the
spatial curvature of the universe, Ωk, should be = 0.0000 (i.e.,
perfect flatness). But the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe (WMAP) satellite has established the spatial curvature
of the universe, Ωk, to be between − 0.0174 and + 0.0051.
Then, how can it cost nothing to create a universe, how can a
whole universe be created from nothing? On the other hand,
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there is a claim that the sum of the energy of matter and of
the gravitational energy is equal to zero and hence there is
a possibility of a universe appearing from nothing and thus
the universe can double the amount of positive matter energy
and also double the negative gravitational energy without
violation of the conservation of energy. However, energy of
matter + gravitational energy is = zero is only a claim based
on Big Bang implications. No human being can possibly know
the precise energy content of the entire universe. In order to
verify the claim that the total energy content of the universe
is exactly zero, one would have to account for all the forms
of energy of matter in the universe, add them together with
gravitational energy, and then verify that the sum really is
exactly zero. But the attempt to verify that the sum really
is exactly zero is not an easy task. We need precision
experiments to know for sure.
Gazing at the at the blazing celestial beauty of the night sky
and asking a multitude of questions that have puzzled and
intrigued humanity since our beginning − WE'VE
DISCOVERED a lot about our celestial home; however, we still
stand at a critical cross road of knowledge where the choice is
between spirituality and science to accomplish the hidden
truth behind the early evolution of the universe. In order to
CIX

throw light on a multitude of questions that has so long
occupied the mind of scientists and the people who have
argued over the years about the nature of reality and whose
business it is to ask why, the philosophers: Where did we and
the universe come from? Where are we and the universe
going? What makes us and the universe exists? Why we born?
Why we die? Whether or not the universe had a beginning? If
the universe had a beginning, why did it wait an infinite time
before it began? What was before the beginning? Is our
universe tunneled through the chaos at the Planck time from
a prior universe that existed for all previous time? We must
either build a sound, balanced, effective and extreme
imaginative knowledge beyond our limit. Many theories were
put forth by the scientists to look into the early evolution of
the universe but none of them turned up so far. And if, like me,
you have wondered looking at the star, and tried to make sense
of what makes it shine the way it is. Did it shine forever or was
there a limit beyond which it cannot or may not shine? And,
where did the matter that created it all come from? Did the
matter have a beginning in time? Or had the matter existed
forever and didn’t have a beginning? In other words, what
cause made the matter exist? And, what made that cause exist?
Some would claim the answer to this question is that matter
could have popped into existence 13.9 billion years ago as a
CX

result of just the eminent physical laws and constants being
there. Any meta or hyper laws of physics that would allow
(even in postulate) a matter to pop into existence are
completely outside our experience. The eminent laws of
physics, as we know them, simply are not applicable here.
Invoking the laws of physics doesn’t quite do the trick. And the
laws of physics are simply the human-invented ingredients of
models that we introduce to describe observations. They are
all fictitious, as far as we find a reference frame in which they
are observed. The question of matter genesis is clear, and
deceptively simple. It is as old as the question of what was
going on before the Big Bang. Usually, we tell the story of the
matter by starting at the Big Bang and then talking about what
happened after. The answer has always seemed well beyond
the reach of science. Until now.
Over the decades, there have been several heroic attempts to
explain the origin of matter, all of them proven wrong. One
was the so-called Steady State theory. The idea was that,
as the galaxies moved apart from each other; new galaxies
would form in the spaces in between, from matter that
was spontaneously being created. The matter density of the
universe would continue to exist, forever, in more or less the
CXI

same state as it is today. In a sense disagreement was a credit
to the model, every attempt was made to set up the connection
between theoretical predictions and experimental results but
the Steady State theory was disproved even with limited
observational evidence. The theory therefore was abandoned
and the idea of spontaneous creation of matter was doomed
to fade away into mere shadows. As crazy as it might seem,
the matter may have come out of nothing! The meaning of
nothing is somewhat ambiguous here. It might be the pre-
existing space and time, or it could be nothing at all. After all,
no one was around when the matter began, so who can say
what really happened? The best that we can do is work out
the most vain imaginative and foolish theories, backed up by
numerous lines of scientific observations of the universe.
Cats are alive and dead at the same time. But some of the most
incredible mysteries of the quantum realm (a jitter in the
amorphous haze of the subatomic world) get far less
attention than Schrödinger’s famous cat. Due to the fuzziness
of quantum theory (that implies: the cosmos does not have
just a single existence or history), and specifically
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle (which fundamentally
differentiates quantum from classic reasoning − discovered
CXII

by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg in 1927), one can
think of the vacuum fluctuations as virtual matter–
antimatter pairs that appear together at some time, move
apart, then come together and annihilate one another and
revert back to energy. Spontaneous births and deaths of roiling
frenzy of particles so called virtual matter–antimatter pairs
momentarily occurring everywhere, all the time – is the
evidence that mass and energy are interconvertible; they are
two forms of the same thing. If one argue that matter was a
result of such a fluctuation. So then the next question is what
cause provided enough energy to make the virtual matter –
antimatter pairs materialize in real space. And if we assume
some unknown cause has teared the pair apart and boosted the
separated virtual matter–antimatter into the materialized
state. The question then is what created that cause. In other
words, what factor created that cause? And what created that
factor. Or perhaps, the cause, or the factor that created it,
existed forever, and didn't need to be created. The argument
leads to a never-ending chain that always leaves us short of the
ultimate answer. Unfortunately, Dr. Science cannot answer
these questions. So, the problem remains. However, quantum
origin and separation of the matter still delights theoretical
physicists but boggles the mind of mere mortals, is the subject
of my thought; have the quantum laws found a genuinely
CXIII

convincing way to explain matter existence apart from divine
intervention? If we find the answer to that, it would be the
ultimate triumph of human reason – for then we would know
the ultimate Cause of the Matter. Over the decades, we're
trying to understand how the matter began and we're also
trying to understand all the other things that go along with it.
This is very much the beginning of the story and that story
could go in, but I think there could be surprises that no one has
even thought of. Something eternal can neither be created nor
destroyed. The first law of thermodynamics (a version of the
law of conservation of energy, adapted for thermodynamic
systems) asserts that matter or energy can neither be created
nor destroyed; it can be converted from one form to another.
The overwhelming experience of experimental science
(science based on experimental research that plays the role
of testing hypothesis, typically in controlled laboratory
settings) confirms this first law to be a fact. But if the matter
prevails in the boundary of understanding in that it neither
started nor it ends: it would simply be. What place then for an
evidence exposing that we live in a finite expanding universe
which has not existed forever, and that all matter was once
squeezed into an infinitesimally small volume, which erupted
in a cataclysmic explosion which has become known as the Big
Bang. However, what we believe about the origin of the matter
CXIV

is not only sketchy, but uncertain and based purely on human
perception. There is no reliable and genuine evidence to testify
about how the matter began and what may have existed before
the beginning of the matter. The laws of physics tell us that
the matter had a beginning, but they don’t answer how it had
begun. Mystery is running the universe in a hidden hole and
corner, but one day it may wind up the clock work with might
and main. The physical science can explain the things after big
bang but fails to explain the things before big bang. We know
that matter can be created out of energy, and energy can be
created out of matter. This doesn't resolve the dilemma
because we must also know where the original energy came
from.
Constants are fundamental and unchanging physical
quantities that play a crucial role in the behavior of the
universe. Constants like the speed of light, the gravitational
constant, and the Planck constant are fundamental to the
behavior of the universe. They define the way that energy,
matter, and forces interact with each other, and provide a
framework for understanding the physical laws that govern
the universe. The value of certain constants can reveal
important insights about the nature of the universe. For
example, the value of the cosmological constant, which
CXV

describes the expansion of the universe, has deep implications
for the ultimate fate of the universe. Constants like the fine
structure constant or the electron charge-to-mass ratio are
used in a wide range of scientific calculations, from quantum
mechanics to astrophysics. These constants provide precise
values that allow for accurate and reliable predictions of
physical phenomena. Overall, constants are important because
they define the basic properties of the universe, allow for
precise calculations, reveal insights about the nature of the
universe, provide a basis for comparison, and enable the
development of new technologies. The electrostatic and
gravitational forces according to Coulomb's and Newton's
laws are both inverse square forces, so if one takes the ratio of
the forces, the distances cancel. For the electron and proton,
the ratio of the forces is given by the equation: FE / FG = e2
/
4πε0Gmpme , where e is the charge = 1.602 × 10 –19
Coulombs, G
is the gravitational constant, ε0 is the absolute permittivity of
free space = 8.8 × 10 – 12
F/ m, mp is the mass of the proton =
1.672 × 10 –27
kg and me is the mass of the electron = 9.1 × 10–31
kg. Plugging the values we get: FE / FG = 1039
which means: FE is
greater than FG. So, it was argued by a German mathematician,
theoretical physicist and philosopher (some say it was
Hermann Weyl), if the gravitational force between the proton
and electron were not much smaller than the electrostatic
CXVI

force between them, then the hydrogen atom would have
collapsed to neutron long before there was a chance for stars to
form and life to evolve. FE FG must have been numerically
fine-tuned for the existence of life. Taking FE / FG = 1039
as an
example in most physics literature we will find that gravity is
the weakest of all forces, many orders of magnitude weaker
than electromagnetism. But this does not make sense any way
and it is not true always and in all cases. Note that the ratio FE /
FG is not a universal constant; it's a number that depends on
the particles we use in the calculation. For example: For two
particles each of Planck mass (mass on the order of 10 billion
billion times that of a proton) and Planck charge the ratio of
the forces is 1 i.e., FE / FG = 1. Moreover, when the relativistic
variation of electron mass with velocity is taken into account
then the ratio FE / FG becomes velocity dependent. The first law
of thermodynamics sometimes referred to as the law of
conservation of energy, holds that energy can only be
changed from one form to another and cannot be generated or
destroyed. While this law is fundamental to the study of
thermodynamics, it does have some limitations:
The first law of thermodynamics tells us whether energy is conserved
or not, but it does not tell us anything about whether a process will occur
spontaneously or require an external energy input. The second law of
thermodynamics comes into play in this scenario.
CXVII

The first law of thermodynamics does not distinguish between the
transfer of heat from a hotter object to a cooler one, and the
reverse process. This is referred as the arrow of time problem in
thermodynamics.
Does our universe exist inside a black hole of another
universe? The question lingers, unanswered until now. Even
though the existence of alternative histories with black holes,
suggests this might be possible i.e., our universe lies inside a
black hole of another universe, we cannot prove or disprove
this conjecture any way. Meaning that the event horizon of
a black hole is boundary at which nothing inside can escape
and then how might one can cross its event boundary and
testify whether or not our universe exist inside a black hole of
another universe. Thus we cannot answer the central question
in cosmology: Does our universe exist inside a black hole of
another universe? However, the fact that we are simply an
advanced breed of talking monkeys surviving on a sumptuous
planet, have been reckoning at least from last hundred years
− turning unproved belief into unswerving existence through
the power of perception and spending our brief time in the
sun working at understanding the deepest mysteries of nature
by doing repeated calculations and getting some answer that
seem very likely makes us feel something very special − a bit
premature to buy tickets to the nearest galaxy to visit the next
CXVIII

goldilocks planet or hunt dinosaurs. It is currently unknown
whether the entire universe exists inside a black hole, and the
idea is purely speculative. There are some theories that suggest
that our universe could exist inside a black hole, but these are
highly speculative and not supported by any direct evidence.
These theories are based on the idea that a black hole could
be a gateway to another universe or that our universe could
be the result of a black hole in another universe. However,
these ideas are still highly theoretical and have not been
supported by any concrete evidence or observations. It is also
important to note that our current understanding of black
holes is still limited, and much more research is needed to fully
understand their properties and behavior. Therefore, while it
is an interesting and thought-provoking idea, the notion that
the entire universe exists inside a black hole remains purely
speculative at this time.
The physicist has been spending a month, as he or she does
each year, sequestered with colleagues, such as fellow
theoretical physicists, to discuss many great mysteries of the
cosmos. But despite its simple approximation as a force, and its
beautifully subtle description as a property of space-time
which in turn can be summarized by Einstein's famous
CXIX

equation, which essentially states: Matter-energy → curvature of
space-time, we've come to realize over the past century that we
still don't know what gravity actually is. It has been a closed
book ever since the grand evolution of human understanding
and all physicists hang this book up on their wall and distress
about it. Unhesitatingly you would yearn to know where this
book comes from: is it related to metaphysical science or
perhaps to the greatest blast puzzles of physics still to be
discovered, like cosmic string and magnetic monopoles?
Nobody knows and for the moment, nature has not said yes in
any sense. It's one of the 10,000 bits puzzling cosmic story
with a cracking title. You might say the laws of physics
designed that book, and we don’t know how they designed
that book. The elevated design of this book, an extract of which
appears in the cosmic art gallery, sets out to the belief that it
must have designed as it could not have created out of chaos.
In some sense, the origin of the cosmic problem today remains
what it was in the time of Newton (who not only put forward
a theory of how bodies move in space and time, but he also
developed the complicated mathematics needed to analyze
those motions) – one of the greatest challenges of 21st
Century science certainly keep many an aficionado going. Yet,
we toasting each other with champagne glasses in laboratories
around the world − have made a bold but brilliant move. In less
CXX

than a hundred years, we have found a new way to wonder
what gravity is. The usual approach of science of constructing
a set of rules and equations cannot answer the question of why
if you could turn off gravity, space and time would also vanish.
In short, we don’t have an answer; we now have a whisper of
the grandeur of the problem. We don’t know exactly how it is
intimately related to space and time. It’s a mystery that we’re
going to chip at from quantum theory (the theory developed
from Planck's quantum principle and Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle which deals with phenomena on
extremely small scales, such as a millionth of a millionth of an
inch). However, when we try to apply quantum theory to
gravity, things become more complicated and confusing.
Mankind's deepest desire for scientific intervention
introduced a new idea that of time. Time is a complex and
multifaceted concept that plays a fundamental role in our
understanding of the universe and our place in it. Its nature
has been the subject of scientific and philosophical inquiry for
centuries, and it continues to be a subject of study and
fascination today. Most of the underlying assumptions of
physics are concerned with time. The nature of time has been
the subject of philosophical debate for centuries. Some
philosophers view time as an objective reality, while others see
CXXI

it as a human invention or a product of the mind. Time may
sound like a genre of fiction, but it is a well-defined genuine
concept. Some argue that time is not yet discovered by us to
be objective features of the mundane world: even without
considering time an intrinsic feature of the mundane world,
we can see that things in the physical world change, seasons
change, people adapt to that drastic changes. The fact that the
physical change is an objective feature of the physical world,
and time is independent of under whatever circumstances we
have named it. Others think time as we comprehend it does
not endure beyond the bounds of our physical world. Beyond
it, maybe one could run forward in time or just turn around
and go back. This could probably mean that one could fall
rapidly through their former selves. In a bewildering world,
the question of whether the time never begin and has always
been ticking, or whether it had a beginning at the big bang, is
really a concern for physicists: either science could account for
such an inquiry. If we find the answer to it, it would be the
ultimate triumph of human justification for our continuing
quest. And, our goal of a complete description of the universe
we live in is self-justified. Time is relative, meaning that the
passage of time can be affected by the relative motion of an
observer. This is known as time dilation, and it is a
consequence of the theory of relativity. According to this
CXXII

theory, the faster an object moves, the slower time passes for
that object. The understanding we have today is that time is
not an illusion like what age-old philosophers had thought,
but rather it is well defined mathematical function of an
inevitable methodical framework for systematizing our
experiences. If one believed that the time had a beginning, the
obvious question was how it had started? The problem of
whether or not the time had a beginning was a great concern
to the German Philosopher, Immanuel Kant (who believed
that every human concept is based on observations that are
operated on by the mind so that we have no access to a mind-
independent reality). He considered the entire human
knowledge and came to the conclusion that time is not
explored by humans to be objective features of the mundane
world domain, but is a part of an inevitable systematic
framework for coordinating our experiences. How and when
did the time begin? No other scientific question is more
fundamental or provokes such spirited debate among
physicists. Time travel is a popular concept in science fiction,
but it is not currently possible in reality. However, some
theories, such as the theory of relativity, suggest that time
travel might be possible in the future, although it would
require the ability to travel faster than the speed of light or to
create a wormhole in space-time. Since the early part of the
CXXIII

1900s, one explanation of the origin and fate of the universe,
the Big Bang theory, has dominated the discussion. Although
singularity theorem (a theorem showing that a singularity, a
point where general relativity (a theory which predicts that
time would come to an end inside a black hole – an invisible
astrophysical entity that no one has seen, but scientists have
observed gravitational evidence consistent with predictions
about it, so most scientists believe it exists) breaks down,
must exist under certain circumstances; in particular, that the
universe must have started with a singularity) predicted that
the time, the space, and the matter or energy itself had a
beginning, they didn’t convey how they had a beginning. It
would clearly be nice for singularity theorems if they had a
beginning, but how can we distinguish whether they had a
beginning? In as much as the time had a beginning at the Big
Bang it would deepen implication for the role of supreme
divine creator (that much of humanity worships as the
source of all reality) in the grand design of creation. But if it
persists in the bounds of reason in that it has neither
beginning nor end and nothing for a Creator to do. What role
could ineffable benevolent creator have in creation? Life could
start and new life forms could emerge on their own randomly
sustaining themselves by reproducing in the environment
fitted for the functional roles they perform. Personally, we're
CXXIV

sure that the time began with a hot Big Bang. But will it go on
ticking forever? If not, when it will wind up its clockwork of
ticking? We’re much less sure about that. However, we are just
a willful gene centered breed of talking monkeys on a minor
planet of a very average galaxy. But we have found a new way
to question ourselves and we have learned to do them. That
makes us something very special. Moreover, everything we
think we understand about the universe would need to be
reassessed. Every high school graduate knows cosmology, the
very way we think of things, would be forever altered. The
distance to the stars and galaxies and the age of the universe
(13.7 billion years − number has now been experimentally
determined to within 1% accuracy) would be thrown in
doubt. Even the expanding universe theory, the Big Bang
theory, and black holes would have to be re- examined. The
Big Bang theory of universe assumes the present form of the
universe originated from the hot fire ball called singularity
and it assumes time did not exist before the Big Bang. But
Erickcek deduced on the basis of NASA's, Wilkinson
Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) that the existence of
time and empty space is possible before the Big Bang.
But what would happen if you travel back in time and kill
CXXV

your grandfather before he conceives your father? This creates
a paradox where you cannot exist in the present because
you never would have been born. Would the arrow of time
reverse? Because motion makes the clock tick slower, can we
travel back in time and kill our grandfather before he conceive
our father? If not, why the universe avoids the paradox?
Time Travel − Science Fiction? Taking the laws of physics
and punching them in the stomach and throwing them down
the stairs – it's possible for you to break the universal speed
limit. It is mind boggling to think about it – you're actually
travelling backwards in time. What if you went back in
time and prevented big bang from happening? You would
prevent yourself from ever having been born! But then if you
hadn’t been born, you could not have gone back in time to
prevent big bang from happening. The concept of time travel
may sound something impressive and allow science fiction
like possibilities for people who survived from the past, but
somewhat it seems to be incredible like seeing broken tea cups
gathering themselves together off the floor and jumping back
on the table promoting cup manufacturers go out of business.
However, travelling through time may not be the farfetched
science fiction theory. At the same time, can we open a portal
to the past or find a shortcut to the future and master the
time itself is still in question and forbidden by the second law
CXXVI

of thermodynamics (which states that in any closed system
like universe randomness, or entropy, never decreases with
time). Of course, we have not seen anyone from the past (or
have we?). As of now, time travel remains purely in the realm
of science fiction, and we have yet to discover any means of
time travel that could be theoretically possible according to
our current understanding of physics.
We asked how stars are powered and found the answer in the
transformations of atomic nuclei. But there are still simple
questions that we can ask. And one is: Is our universe merely
the byproduct of a cosmic accident? If the universe were
merely the by-product of a grand accident, then our universe
could have been a conglomeration of objects each going its
own way. But everything we see in the universe obeys rules
which are governed by a set of equations, without exception
− which give philosophy a lot more attention than science.
However, this does not mean that the universe obey rules
because it exists in a plan which is created and shaped by a
grinding hand.
Maybe the universe is a lucky coincidence of a grand accident
emerged with ingredients such as space, time, mass, and
CXXVII

energy exist in one-to-one correspondence with the elements
of reality, and hence it obeys a set of rational laws without
exception. At this moment it seems as though Dr. Science will
never be able to raise the curtain on the mystery of creation.
Moreover, traditional philosophy is dead, that it has not kept
up with modern developments in science, and there is no
reason at justifying the grinding hand because the idea of God
is extremely limited and goes no further than the opening
sentence of the classical theology (which has always rejected
the idea that God can classified or defined), and much is still
in the speculative stage, and we must admit that there are yet
no empirical or observational tests that can be used to test
the idea of an accidental origin. No evidence. No scientific
observation. Just a speculation. For those who have lived by
their faith in the power of reason, the story may end like a bad
dream since free will is just an illusion.
From the Big Bang to the Bodies such as stars or black
holes including basic facts such as particle masses and force
strengths, the entire universe works because the laws of
physics make things happen. But if Meta or hyper laws
of physics were whatever produced the universe then what
produced those laws. Or perhaps, the laws, or the cause that
CXXVIII

created them, existed forever, and didn't need to be created.
We must admit that there is ignorance on some issues, that
is, we don't have a complete set of laws …. We are not
sure exactly does the existing laws hold everywhere and at
all time. Dr. Science gives us a clue, but there’s no definitive
answer to provide a purely natural, non-causal explanation
for the existence of laws of physics and our place in it. So
let's just leave it at the hypothetical laws of physics. The
question, then, is why are there laws of physics? And we
could say, well, that required a biblical deity, who created
these laws of physics and the spark that took us from the
laws of physics to the notions of time and space. Well, if the
laws of physics popped into existence 13.8 billion years ago
with divine help whatsoever, like theologians say, why aren't
we seeing a at least one evidence of an ineffable creator in
our observable universe every now and then? The origin of
the Meta or hyper laws of physics remains a mystery for
now. However, recent breakthroughs in physics, made possible
in part by fantastic revolutionary understanding of the true
nature of the mathematical quantities and theories of physics,
may suggest an answer that may seem as obvious to us as
the earth orbiting the sun – or perhaps as ridiculous as earth
is a perfect sphere. We don't know whatever the answer may
be because the Meta or hyper laws of physics are completely
CXXIX

beyond our experience, and beyond our imagination, or our
mathematics. This fact leads us to a big mystery and awaits
the next generation of high energy experiments, which hope
to shed light on the far- reaching answer that might be found
in the laws that govern elemental particles.
Who are we? We find that we intelligent apes who have only
recently left the trees, live on an fragile planet of a humdrum
star by a matter of sheer luck or by divine providence, lost in a
galaxy tucked away in some forgotten corner of a universe in
which there are far more galaxies than people. Sending the
Beatles song across the Universe and pointing the telescopes
in Deep Space Network towards the North Star, Polaris, we
seek to find intellectual beings like us outside the sheer
number of planets, vast ocean of existence, our solar system,
and our own Milky Way galaxy. How awe hunting for them
across the empty stretches of the universe would be to acquire
a bit of confirmation that either we're alone in this universe or
we are not. However, we are not the only life-form in the
universe, is reasonable to expect since we have no reason to
assume that ours is the only possible form of life. Some sort of
life could have happened in a universe of greatly different
form, but where's the evidence? The Burden of evidence is
CXXX

only on the people who regard themselves as reliable
witnesses that sightings of UFOs are evidence that we are
being visited by someone living in another galaxy who are
much more advanced enough to spread through some
hundred thousand million galaxies and visit the Earth. An
alien, like the teapot, is a hypothesis that requires evidence.
The question of whether aliens exist is a topic of much debate
and speculation. The universe is incredibly vast, with billions
of stars and planets, and it is statistically likely that there are
other forms of life out there. However, despite extensive
searches for extraterrestrial life, we have not yet found any
definitive evidence of its existence. Some scientists believe
that microbial life may exist in our own solar system, such as
on Mars or one of Jupiter's moons, where conditions may be
suitable for life. However, the search for intelligent
extraterrestrial life is a more difficult task, as it involves
detecting signals from other civilizations that may be
millions or billions of light-years away. Many theories have
been proposed about what alien life forms might look like or
how they might behave, but without concrete evidence, it is
difficult to say for sure. Popular culture often portrays aliens as
humanoid or having advanced technology, but the reality
could be much different. It's important to note that even if
aliens do exist, there are many factors that could limit our
CXXXI

ability to detect or communicate with them. These factors
include distance, the limitations of our technology, and the
possibility that other civilizations may not want to
communicate with us or even exist in a form that is
recognizable to us. Ultimately, the question of whether aliens
exist remains unanswered, but as our understanding of the
universe expands and our technology improves, we may one
day discover evidence of extraterrestrial life.
The known forces of nature can be divided into four classes:
Gravity: This is the weakest of the four; it acts on everything in the
universe as an attraction. And if not for this force, we would go zinging
off into outer space and the sun would detonate like trillions upon
trillions of hydrogen bombs.
Electromagnetism: This is much stronger than gravity; it acts only
on particles with an electric charge, being repulsive between charges
of the same sign and attractive between charges of the opposite sign.
More than half the gross national product of the earth, representing
the accumulated wealth of our planet, depends in some way on the
electromagnetic force. It light up the cities of New York, fill the air with
music from radios and stereos, entertain all the people in the world with
television, reduce housework with electrical appliances, heat their food
with microwaves, track their planes and space probes with radar, and
electrify their power plants.
Weak nuclear force: This causes radioactivity and plays a vital role in
the formation of the elements in stars. And a slightly stronger this
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force, all the neutrons in the early universe would have decayed, leaving
about 100 percent hydrogen, with no deuterium for later use in the
synthesizing elements in stars.
Strong nuclear force: This force holds together the protons and
neutrons inside the nucleus of an atom. And it is this same force that
holds together the quarks to form protons and neutrons. Unleashed in
the hydrogen bomb, the strong nuclear force could one day end all life on
earth.
These four fundamental forces of nature are responsible for
all the physical interactions that occur in the universe. They
are fundamental because they cannot be explained in terms
of other forces or interactions, and they are present in all
interactions that occur in the universe. Understanding the
fundamental forces of nature is essential to understanding
the behavior of matter in the universe, and it is a critical
component of many fields of study, including physics,
chemistry, and astronomy. The inherent goal of unification is
to show that all of these forces are, in fact, manifestations of
a single super force. We can't perceive this unity at the low
energies of our everyday lives, or even in our most powerful
accelerators (capable of accelerating particles nearly up to
the speed of light) at Fermi lab or LHC, the Large Hadron
Collider, at CERN (European Centre for Nuclear Research),
in Switzerland. But close to the Big Bang temperatures, at
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inconceivably high energies… If the forces unify, the protons
− which make up much of the mass of ordinary matter − can
be unstable, and eventually decay into lighter particles such
as antielectrons. Indeed, several experiments were performed
in the Morton Salt Mine in Ohio to yield definite evidence
of proton decay. But none have succeeded so far. However,
the probability of a proton in the universe gaining sufficient
energy to decay is so small that one has to wait at least a
million million million million million years i.e., longer than
the time since the big bang, which is about ten thousand
million years. The eminent laws do not tell us why the
initial configuration was such as to produce what we observe.
For what purpose? Must we turn to the anthropic principle
for an explanation? Was it all just a lucky chance? That
would seem a counsel of despair, a negation of all our hopes
of understanding the unfathomable order of the universe.
However, this is an extended metaphor for many puzzles in
physics uncovered with painstaking labor, and it is especially
relevant to particle physics. Still, particle physics remains
unfathomable to many people and a bunch of scientists
chasing after tiny invisible objects.
If string theory is correct, then every particle is nothing
but a vibrating, oscillating, dancing filament named a string.
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A string does something aside from moving – it oscillates
in different ways. Each way represents a particular mode of
vibration. Different modes of vibration make the string appear
as a dark energy or a cosmic ray, since different modes of
vibration are seen as different masses or spins.
If Higgs theory (which is the last piece of the Standard Model
that has still eluded capture – which is one of the theories LHC
experimentalists hope to discover and it is the capstone for
conventional big bang cosmology − which biblical creationists
reject) is correct, then a new field called the Higgs field which
is analogous to the familiar electromagnetic field but with new
kinds of properties permits all over the space (considered the
origin of mass in Grand Unified Theory – a theory that unifies
the weak, strong, and electromagnetic interactions, without
gravity). Different masses of the particles are due to the
different strengths of interaction of the particle with the Higgs
field (more the strength of interaction of the particle with the
Higgs field, more the mass of the particle). To make this easier
for you, let's say it is cosmic high-fructose corn syrup − the
more you go through it, the heavier you get.
Which explanation is right?
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Higgs theory runs rampant in the popular media claiming
that String Theory Is Not The Only Game In Town. While the
theory has been highly successful in predicting the behavior
of subatomic particles, there are still some limitations to its
application. Here are a few:
Naturalness problem: The Higgs theory predicts the existence of a
massive Higgs boson, which is responsible for the mechanism by which
particles acquire mass. However, the predicted mass of the Higgs boson
is much larger than what one might expect from the theory, which
suggests that there may be some as yet unknown physical mechanism
that cancels out the large quantum corrections to the Higgs boson mass.
Dark matter: The Higgs theory does not provide a clear explanation
for the existence of dark matter, which is a form of matter that does
not interact with light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Dark matter is believed to make up a significant fraction of the total
mass of the universe, but its existence and properties are still not well
understood.
Incomplete theory: The Higgs theory is part of the Standard Model
of particle physics, which is a highly successful theory that explains
the behavior of subatomic particles. However, the Standard Model is
incomplete, as it does not explain some important phenomena such as
gravity, dark matter, or the nature of neutrino masses.
Fine-tuning problem: The Higgs theory requires the existence of a scalar
field, which must be finely tuned to a very specific value to explain
the masses of particles. This has been criticized by some physicists
as requiring an unnecessary amount of precision, and suggesting that
there may be more elegant theories that can explain particle masses
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without such fine-tuning.
Despite these limitations, the Higgs theory remains a critical
concept in particle physics, and its discovery in 2012 was a
major milestone in our understanding of the universe.
Ongoing research aims to address some of these limitations
and to develop more complete theories of particle physics.
However, by the end of the decade, the new physics will point
to even more discoveries at the TeV scale and opens the door
beyond the Standard Model and raise new questions in
cosmology, and scientists continue to study the universe to
unlock its secrets and understand its mysteries. The Big
Bounce theory is a cosmological model that suggests that our
universe goes through cycles of expansion and contraction,
with each cycle ending in a Big Crunch that is followed by a
Big Bounce that leads to a new cycle of expansion. The
theory suggests that the universe has no true beginning or end
and that it is eternal. The idea of the Big Bounce is based on the
principles of General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics.
General Relativity predicts that the universe must have started
from a singularity, a point of infinite density and zero volume.
However, Quantum Mechanics suggests that space and time
are not continuous, but rather discrete and granular. This
means that there is a limit to how small a length or time
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interval can be. Therefore, the singularity predicted by
General Relativity cannot be a true description of the origin of
the universe. The Big Bounce theory proposes that the
universe began with a Big Bang that was not a true
singularity, but rather a highly compressed state of matter
that expanded rapidly. As the universe expanded, it cooled
down and became less dense. At some point, the expansion
slowed down and the universe started to contract under the
influence of gravity. This contraction would continue until the
matter in the universe reached a highly compressed state once
again, which would then lead to another Big Bang and a new
cycle of expansion. The Big Bounce theory also proposes that
each cycle of expansion and contraction is a quantum process,
meaning that the universe is in a superposition of all possible
states of expansion and contraction until it is observed or
measured. This interpretation of the universe is known as the
Many Worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. The Big
Bounce theory has not been fully developed and is still a topic
of active research in theoretical physics. However, if the
theory is correct, it would provide an alternative explanation
to the traditional Big Bang theory, and it would also suggest
that the universe is eternal and has no true beginning or end.
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Cosmic inflation is a brief period of exponential expansion
that occurred shortly after the Big Bang, and it is thought
to be responsible for some of the large-scale structure of the
universe. However, the cause of cosmic inflation is still not
fully understood. The Big Bang theory provides a framework
for understanding the universe's evolution since its inception,
but there are still many unanswered questions about the very
first moments after the Big Bang. Dr. Science remains silent
on the profound questions. Ultimately, however, one would
hope to find complete, consistent answers that would include
all the mathematical techniques as approximations. The quest
for such answers is known as the grand unification of the
two basic partial theories: the general theory of relativity
(which states that space and time are no longer absolute,
no longer a fixed background to events. Instead, they are
dynamical quantities that are shaped by the matter and
energy in the universe) and quantum mechanics (a theory
of the microcosm which has upended many an intuition, but
none deeper than this one − developed by 1900 physicists
in response to a number of glaring problems that arose
when 19th century conceptions of physics were applied to
the microscopic world, where subatomic particles are held
together by particle like forces dancing on the sterile stage
of space-time, which is viewed as an empty arena, devoid of
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any content). Unfortunately, however, these two theories are
inconsistent with each other – i.e., quantum mechanics and
general relativity do not work together. How the ideas of
general relativity can be consolidated with those of quantum
theory is still a ? Until we progress closer toward the laws that
govern our universe.
Astrochemistry is the study of the chemical composition and
processes in astronomical objects, including stars, planets, and
interstellar and intergalactic space. It involves the study of
the chemical reactions and physical processes that occur in
the universe, as well as the study of the chemical elements
and molecules that are present in space. One of the key
goals of astrochemistry is to understand the origins of the
chemical elements and the formation of complex molecules
in space. This involves studying the life cycles of stars,
including how they form, evolve, and die, and how they
produce and distribute elements through the universe. It
also involves the study of the chemical reactions that occur
in the interstellar medium, which is the gas and dust that
exists between stars. Astrochemistry also plays an important
role in the search for life beyond Earth. By studying the
chemical processes that occur in the environments of other
planets and moons, astrochemists can gain insights into the
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conditions necessary for life to arise and the chemical traces
that could point to the existence of life. Another important
area of research in astrochemistry is the study of the chemical
processes that occur in the early universe. This involves
the study of the cosmic microwave background radiation,
which is the afterglow of the Big Bang, and the study of
the early galaxies and quasars that formed in the early
universe. Astrochemistry is a multidisciplinary field that
draws on techniques and methodologies from a range of other
scientific disciplines, including chemistry, physics, astronomy,
and planetary science. It is a rapidly growing field, driven
by advances in technology and observational capabilities, and
it has important implications for our understanding of the
origins of the universe, the formation of planetary systems,
and the search for life beyond Earth. Astrochemistry is a
rapidly growing field of study that has made significant
contributions to our understanding of the chemical processes
and composition of astronomical objects, but like any
scientific field, there are still limitations and challenges. Here
are some potential failures or challenges of astrochemistry:
Limited observational data: Although telescopes and other
instruments have allowed us to observe and study many astronomical
objects, there are still many limitations to the data that we can collect.
For example, not all regions of space are accessible or observable, and we
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may not have the ability to observe certain chemical processes in detail.
Complexity of chemical processes: The chemical reactions that occur
in space can be incredibly complex and can involve a large number
of variables. It can be challenging to understand and model these
processes, particularly when we do not have detailed information about
the conditions and environments in which they occur.
Limited laboratory experiments: Many of the chemical reactions and
processes that occur in space are difficult or impossible to replicate in
a laboratory setting. This means that much of our understanding of
astrochemistry is based on theoretical models and observational data,
rather than experimental data.
Uncertainty in chemical models: Astrochemists often use theoretical
models to predict the chemical processes and composition of
astronomical objects. These models can be affected by uncertainties in
the underlying physical and chemical parameters, which can lead to
uncertainties in the predictions and results.
Interdisciplinary challenges: Astrochemistry is a multidisciplinary
field that draws on expertise from a range of other scientific
disciplines. This can create challenges in terms of communication and
collaboration, as well as challenges in understanding and integrating
data and methodologies from different fields.
Despite these challenges, astrochemistry continues to make
significant contributions to our understanding of the
universe, and new technologies and observational techniques
are constantly expanding our ability to study and observe the
chemical processes of astronomical objects.
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The latest theory of subatomic particles (the quantum theory)
gives an estimated value of vacuum energy density that is
about 120 orders of magnitude larger than the measured
value − claiming our best theory cannot calculate the value of
the largest energy source in the entire universe. Dr. Science
advances over the wreckage of its theories by continually
putting its ideas to experimental test; no matter how beautiful
its idea might be; it must be discarded or modified if it is at
odds with experiment. It would have been clearly be nice for
quantum theory if the value of vacuum energy density were
in the order of 1096
kg per cubic meter, but the measured
value were in the order of 10−27
kg per cubic meter. Thus, the
best candidate we have at the moment, the quantum theory,
brought about its downfall by predicting the value of vacuum
energy density that is about 120 orders of magnitude larger
than the measured value.
We a lot of exposure with darkness and disbelief and a state of
not having an immediate conclusion, and this vulnerability is
of great significance, I think. When we don't comprehend the
mind of nature, we are in the middle of darkness. When we
have an intuitive guess as to what the outcome is; we are
unsealed. And when we are fairly damn sure of what the final
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result is going to be, we are still in some uncertainty. And
uncertainty being too complex to come about randomly is
evidence for human continuing quest for justification.
Sometimes, very hard, impossible things just strike and we call
them thoughts. In most of the self-reproducing organisms the
conditions would not be right for the generation of thoughts
to predict things more or less, even if not in a simplest way,
only in the few complex organisms like us spontaneous
thoughts would generate and what is it that breathes fire into
a perception. The human perception is enormous; it’s
extensive and unlimited, and outrageous that we can ask
simple questions. And they are: What the dark energy is up to?
What it is about? Why this mysterious form of energy
permeates all of space blowing the galaxies farther and farther
apart? How accurate are the physical laws (which are
essentially the same today as they were at the time of
Newton despite the scientific revolutions and paradigm
shifts), which control it? Why it made the universe bang?
Unfortunately, the laws that we are using are not able to
answer these questions because of the prediction that the
universe started off with infinite density at the big bang
singularity (where all the known laws would break down).
However, if one looks in a commonsense realistic point of view
the laws and equations which are considered as inherent
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ingredients of reality − are simply the man-made ingredients
introduced by the rational beings who are free to observe the
universe as they want and to draw logical deductions from
what they see − to describe the objective features of reality. The
scientific data is fallible, changeable, and influenced by
scientific understanding is refreshing. Here’s an example of
what I mean. In most physics textbooks we will read that the
strength of the electromagnetic force is measured by the
dimensionless parameter α = e2
/ 4πħcε0 (where e is the charge
= 1.602 × 10 −19
Coulombs, ε0 is the absolute permittivity of
free space = 8.8 × 10 – 12
F/m, c is the speed of light in vacuum
(an awkward conversion factor for everyday use because it’s
so big. Light can go all the way around the equator of the
Earth in about 0.1 seconds) and ħ is the reduced Planck's
constant), called the fine structure constant, which was
taught to be constant became variant when the standard
model of elementary particles and forces revealed that α
actually varies with energy.
The Quantum theory of electrodynamics (a relativistic
quantum field theory or a quantum field theory – arguably the
most precise theory of natural phenomena ever advanced
which seems to govern everything small – through which we
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have been able to solidify the role of photons as the smallest
possible bundles of light and to reveal their interactions with
electrically charged particles such as electrons, in a
mathematically complete, predictive, and convincing
framework) and General Relativity (which dominates large
things and is now called a classical theory which predicts that
the universe started off with infinite density at the big bang
singularity) both try to assign mass to the singularity. But
according to generally accepted history of the universe,
according to what is known as the hot big bang model. At some
finite time in the past i.e., between ten and twenty thousand
million years ago. At this time, all matter (which is
characterized by the physical quantity we define as mass)
would have been on top of each other − which is called the
singularity, the density would have been INFINITE. Under
such conditions, all the known laws of science would break
down. However, a good mathematical theory can prove
anything with that amount of wiggle room, and findings are
really determined by nothing except its desire. For all
theoreticians and tens of thousands of university graduates at
least know, the universe started off with infinite density at the
hot big bang singularity with infinitely hot temperatures. And
at such high temperatures that are reached in thousands of H-
bomb explosions, the strong and weak nuclear forces and the
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gravity and electromagnetic force were all unified into a single
force. What was before the Big Bang? Was the Big Bang
created? If the Big Bang was not created, how was this Big
Bang accomplished, and what can we learn about the agent
and events of creation? Is it the product of chance or was been
designed? What is it that blocked the pre-Big Bang view from
us? Is Big Bang singularity an impenetrable wall and we
cannot, in physics, go beyond it? To answer one question,
another question arises. Erickcek's model suggests the
possibility of existence of space and time before the big bang.
But the world famed Big Bang theory abandons the existence
of space and time before the big bang. Both the theories are
consistent and based upon sophisticated experimental
observations and theoretical studies. Truth must be prejudiced
with honest scientific inquiry to illuminate the words of
Genesis. And this is possible only if the modern scientific
community would simply open its eyes to the truth.
Do black holes really exist? If they exist, why we haven't
observed one hole yet? Can black holes be observed directly,
and if so, how? If the production of the tiny black holes is
feasible, can particle accelerators, such as the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC) in Switzerland at the famed CERN nuclear
laboratory create a micro black hole that will eventually eat
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the world? If not − if there are no black holes, what are the
things we detect ripping gas off the surface of other stars?
What is the structure of space-time just outside the black hole?
Do their space times have horizons? : are the major questions
in theoretical physics today that haunts us. The effort to
resolve these complex paradoxes is one of the very few things
that lifts human mind a little above the level of farce, and
gives it some of the grace of province inspiring new ideas and
new experiments. Since gravity weakens with distance, the
earth pulls on your head with less force than it pulls on your
feet, which are a meter or two closer to the earth's center. The
difference is so tiny we cannot feel it, but an astronaut near
the surface of a black hole would be literally torn apart. Most
people think of a black hole as a voracious whirlpool in space,
sucking down everything around it. But that’s not really true!
A black hole is a place where gravity has gotten so strong that
even light cannot escape out of its influence.
How a black hole might be formed?
The slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed
atoms (mostly hydrogen) which lack sufficient energy to
escape the gravitational attraction of the nearby atoms,
would combine together and thus grow even denser, forming
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giant clouds of gas, which at some point become
gravitationally unstable, undergo fragmentation and would
break up into smaller clouds that would collapse under their
own gravity. As these collapses, the atoms within them collide
with one another more and more frequently and at greater and
greater speeds – the gas heats up i.e., the temperature of the gas
would increase, until eventually it become hot enough to start
nuclear fusion reactions. And a consequence of this is that the
stars like our sun (which are made up of more than one kind
of gas particle) are born to radiate their energy as heat and
light. But the stars with a physical radius smaller than its
Schwarzschild radius further collapse to produce dark or
frozen stars (i.e., the mass of a star is concentrated in a small
enough spherical region, so that its mass divided by its
radius exceeds a particular critical value, the resulting space-
time warp is so radical that anything, including light, that
gets too close to the star will be unable to escape its
gravitational grip). And these dark stars are sufficiently
massive and compact and possess a strong gravitational field
that prevent even light from escaping out its influence: any
light emitted from the surface of the star will be dragged back
by the star’s gravitational attraction before it could get very
far. Such stars become black voids in space and were coined in
1969 by the American scientist John Wheeler the black
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holes (i.e., black because they cannot emit light and holes
because anything getting too close falls into them, never to
return). Classically, the gravitational field of the black holes
(which seem to be among the most ordered and organized
objects in the whole universe) is so strong that they would
prevent any information including light from escaping out of
their influence i.e., any information is sent down the throat of
a black hole or swallowed by a black hole is forever hidden
from the outside universe (this goes by the statement that
black holes have no hair − that is, they have lost all
information, all hair, except for these three parameters: its
mass, spin and charge), and all one could say of the
gravitational monster what the poet Dante said of the
entrance to Hell: All hope abandon, ye who enter here.
Anything or anyone who falls through the black hole will soon
reach the region of infinite density and the end of time.
However, only the laws of classical general relativity does not
allow anything (not even light) to escape the gravitational
grip of the black hole but the inclusion of quantum mechanics
modifies this conclusion− quantum fields would scatter off a
black hole. Because energy can be created out of nothing, the
pair of short-lived virtual particles (one with positive energy
and the other with negative energy) appears close to the event
horizon of a black hole. The gravitational might of the black
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hole inject energy into a pair of virtual particles ... that tears
them just far enough apart so that one with negative energy
gets sucked into the hole even before it can annihilate its
partner ... its forsaken partner with positive energy... gets an
energy boost from the gravitational force of the black hole ...
escape outward to infinity (an abstract mathematical concept
that was precisely formulated in the work of mathematician
Georg Cantor in the late nineteenth century)... where it appear
as a real particle (and to an observer at a distance, it will
appear to have been emitted from the black hole). Because E =
mc2
(i.e., energy is equivalent to mass), a fall of negative
energy particle into the black hole therefore reduces its mass
with its horizon shrinking in size. As the black hole loses mass,
the temperature of the black hole (which depends only on its
mass) rises and its rate of emission of particle increases, so it
loses mass more and more quickly. We don't know does the
emission process continue until the black hole dissipates
completely away or does it stop after a finite amount of time
leaving black hole remnants.
Hawking radiation is a theoretical concept in physics that was first
proposed by Stephen Hawking in 1974. It describes a process by which
a black hole can emit particles and lose mass over time, eventually
evaporating entirely. Hawking radiation has important implications for
our understanding of black holes and the universe. It suggests that black
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holes are not truly black, but instead emit radiation and eventually
evaporate entirely. Additionally, it provides a link between quantum
mechanics and general relativity, two fundamental theories of physics that
have long been difficult to reconcile. The study of Hawking radiation and
its implications continues to be an active area of research in theoretical
physics. The attempt to understand the Hawking radiation has a profound
impact upon the understanding of the black hole thermodynamics, leading
to the description of what the black hole entropic energy is.
Black hole entropic energy = Black hole temperature × Black hole entropy
This means that the entropic energy makes up half of the mass energy of
the black hole. For a black hole of one solar mass (M = 2 × 10
30
kg), we get an
entropic energy of 9 × 10
46
joules – much higher than the thermal entropic
energy of the sun.
Microblack holes are hypothetical black holes with very small
masses, on the order of a few micrograms or less. Some
theories suggest that microblack holes could be created in
particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
However, the creation of microblack holes is a topic of much
debate among physicists, as there are many factors that make
their creation unlikely or difficult to observe. One theoretical
scenario for creating microblack holes involves colliding two
particles with extremely high energies. According to the
theory of general relativity, the higher the energy density of a
region of space, the greater the curvature of spacetime and the
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stronger the gravitational field. If the energy of the particles is
high enough, their collision could create a region of spacetime
with a high energy density and curvature, which could then
collapse into a microblack hole. However, there are several
factors that make the creation of microblack holes difficult to
observe or unlikely to occur. For example:
The energy required to create a microblack hole is very high, and the
probability of two particles colliding with enough energy to create a
microblack hole is extremely low.
Even if a microblack hole were created, it would be very small and would
evaporate very quickly due to Hawking radiation. This means that any
microblack holes created in a particle accelerator would be too short-
lived to be detected.
The effects of gravity are much weaker at the subatomic scale, so
any microblack hole created would not have a significant effect on its
surroundings.
Despite these challenges, some physicists continue to explore
the possibility of creating and studying microblack holes in
particle accelerators. The study of microblack holes remains
an active area of research in theoretical physics. Though
the emission of particles from the primordial black holes
is currently the most commonly accepted theory within
scientific community, there is some disputation associated
with it. There are some issues incompatible with quantum
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mechanics that it finally results in information being lost,
which makes physicists discomfort and this raises a serious
problem that strikes at the heart of our understanding of
science. However, most physicists admit that black holes must
radiate like hot bodies if our ideas about general relativity
and quantum mechanics are correct. Thus even though they
have not yet managed to find a primordial black hole emitting
particles after over two decades of searching. Despite its strong
theoretical foundation, the existence of this phenomenon is
still in question. Alternately, those who don’t believe that black
holes themselves exist are similarly unwilling to admit that
they emit particles.
Black hole thermodynamics is the study of the
thermodynamic properties of black holes. It is based on
the idea that black holes have entropy, a temperature, and
other thermodynamic properties that are similar to those
of ordinary systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. The
concept of black hole thermodynamics was first proposed by
Jacob Bekenstein in the 1970s, and it was later developed by
Stephen Hawking. Bekenstein suggested that black holes have
entropy proportional to their event horizon area, and that this
entropy is related to the amount of information that can be
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stored in the black hole. Hawking, using quantum field theory
in curved spacetime, showed that black holes emit radiation
with a temperature proportional to their surface gravity,
which is related to their mass and size. The thermodynamic
properties of black holes have led to several important
discoveries and insights in physics. For example, the laws
of black hole thermodynamics are analogous to the laws
of thermodynamics in ordinary systems, and they provide
a deeper understanding of the behavior of black holes. The
discovery of black hole thermodynamics has also led to the
development of the holographic principle, which suggests that
the information in a system can be encoded on its boundary,
and that the bulk of the system can be described in terms of
this boundary information. Black hole thermodynamics has
also been studied in the context of string theory, which is a
theoretical framework that attempts to unify gravity with the
other fundamental forces of nature. In string theory, black
holes are described as extended objects called branes, and their
thermodynamic properties are related to the properties of the
branes. The study of black hole thermodynamics in string
theory has led to several important insights into the nature of
quantum gravity and the structure of spacetime.
The study of black holes involves combining two of the
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most successful theories in physics - general relativity and
quantum mechanics - in order to understand how these
objects form, evolve, and interact with their environment.
It has important implications for our understanding of the
universe, as black holes are thought to play a key role in
the formation and evolution of galaxies, and may also be
responsible for some of the most energetic phenomena in the
cosmos, such as quasars and gamma-ray bursts. Black hole
physics is a complex and fascinating field of study that has
many limitations and challenges. Some of the most significant
limitations include:
Information loss: One of the biggest limitations of black hole physics
is the problem of information loss. According to classical physics, once
matter falls into a black hole, it is lost forever. This means that any
information that was contained in the matter is also lost, which is a
violation of the principle of unitarity in quantum mechanics.
Unobservable interior: Another major limitation is the fact that the
interior of a black hole is unobservable. This is because the gravitational
pull of a black hole is so strong that even light cannot escape it.
Therefore, scientists cannot directly observe what happens inside a
black hole.
Singularities: Black holes are thought to contain singularities, which
are points in space where the laws of physics break down. The existence
of singularities is a major limitation of our current understanding
of physics, as it suggests that our current theories are incomplete or
incorrect.
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Theoretical challenges: The study of black holes involves combining
two of the most successful theories in physics - general relativity and
quantum mechanics. However, these two theories are fundamentally
incompatible, and there is no agreed-upon framework for how to
combine them in a consistent way. This makes it challenging to make
accurate predictions about the behavior of black holes.
Lack of observational data: Despite their widespread theoretical
interest, black holes are relatively rare and difficult to observe directly.
This means that there is still much we do not know about their
properties and behavior, which limits our ability to make accurate
predictions and test theoretical models.
Overall, while black hole physics is a fascinating and
important field of study, there are still many limitations and
challenges that must be overcome in order to gain a deeper
understanding of these enigmatic objects.
Albert Einstein presented his general theory of relativity in
1916, but for an entire century nobody could find physical
proof of black holes. In 2016, scientists finally detected
gravitational waves that emitted from two black holes
colliding, proving that such weird things not only exists, but
that Einstein was right all along. Albert Einstein's general
theory of relativity suggests that the sun's gravity bends
the path of light from distant stars. It's a testable prediction,
CLVII

but only during a total solar eclipse. If you fall into black
hole, you will able to see both the Universe beginning and
ending due to Time Dilation. Although the Cosmic microwave
background is nearly uniform, there are tiny fluctuations in
its temperature due to variations in the density of the early
universe. These tiny fluctuations reveal the early stages of
galactic structure formation. For small black holes whose
Schwarzschild radius is much closer to the singularity, the
tidal forces would kill even before the astronaut reaches the
event horizon. Material, such as gas, dust and other stellar
debris that approach the black hole prevent themselves from
falling into it by forming a flattened band of spinning matter
around the event horizon called the accretion disk. And since
the spinning matter accelerates to tremendous speeds (v ≈ c)
by the huge gravity of the black hole the heat and powerful X-
rays and gamma rays are released into the universe.
If we could peer into the fabric of space-time at the Planck
length (the distance where the smoothness of relativity’s
space-time and the quantum nature of reality begin to rub up
against each other), we would see the 4 dimensional fabric of
space-time is simply the lowest energy state of the universe. It
is neither empty nor uninteresting, and its energy is not
CLVIII

necessarily zero (which was discovered by Richard Dick
Feynman, a colorful character who worked at the California
Institute of Technology and played the bongo drums at a strip
joint down the road− for which he received Nobel Prize for
physics in 1965). Because E = mc2
, one can think that the
virtual particle-antiparticle pairs of mass m are continually
being created out of energy E of the 4 dimensional fabric of
space-time consistent with the Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle of quantum mechanics (which tells us that from a
microscopic vantage point there is a tremendous amount of
activity and this activity gets increasingly agitated on ever
smaller distance and time scales), and then, they appear
together at some time, move apart, then come together and
annihilate each other giving energy back to the space-time
without violating the law of energy conservation (which has
not changed in four hundred years and still appear in
relativity and quantum mechanics). Spontaneous births and
deaths of virtual particles so called quantum fluctuations
occurring everywhere, all the time − is the conclusion that
mass and energy are interconvertible; they are two different
forms of the same thing. However, spontaneous births and
deaths of so called virtual particles can produce some
remarkable problem, because infinite number of virtual pairs
of mass m can be spontaneously created out of energy E of
CLIX

the 4 dimensional fabric of space-time, does the 4 dimensional
fabric of spacetime bears an infinite amount of energy,
therefore, by Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2
, does it bears
an infinite amount of mass. If so, according to general
relativity, the infinite amount of mass would have curved up
the universe to infinitely small size. But which obviously has
not happened. Virtual particles play a crucial role in many
areas of modern physics, including particle physics, condensed
matter physics, and cosmology. They are also used in the
development of new technologies, such as quantum
computing and nanotechnology. The word virtual particles
literally mean that these particles cannot be observed directly,
but their indirect effects can be measured to a remarkable
degree of accuracy. Their properties and consequences are well
established and well understood consequences of quantum
mechanics (which states that the position of a particle is
uncertain, and therefore that there is some possibility that a
particle will be within an energy barrier rather than outside of
it. The process of moving from outside to inside without
traversing the distance between is known as quantum
tunneling, and it is very important for the fusion reactions in
stars like the Sun). However, they can be materialized into real
particles by several ways. All that one require an energy =
energy required to tear the pair apart + energy required to
CLX

boost the separated virtual particle-antiparticles into real
particles (i.e., to bring them from virtual state to the
materialize state).
When Einstein was 26 years old, he calculated precisely how
energy must change if the relativity principle was correct, and
he discovered the relation E= mc2
(which led to the Manhattan
Project and ultimately to the bombs that exploded over
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945). This is now probably the
only equation in physics that even people with no background
in physics have at least heard of this and are aware of its
prodigious influence on the world we live in. And since c is
constant (because the maximum distance a light can travel in
one second is 3 ×108
meter), this equation tells us that mass
and energy are interconvertible and are two different forms of
the same thing and are in fact equivalent. Suppose a mass m
is converted into energy E, the resulting energy carries mass
= m and moves at the speed of light c. Hence, energy E is
defined by E= mc2
. As we know c squared (the speed of light
multiplied by itself) is an astronomically large number: 9
×1016
meters square per second square. So if we convert a
small amount of mass, we'll get a tremendous amount of
energy. For example, if we convert 1kg of mass, we'll get
energy of 9 × 1016
Joules (i.e., the energy more than 1 million
CLXI

times the energy released in a chemical explosion). Perhaps
since c is not just the constant namely the maximum
distance a light can travel in one second but rather a
fundamental feature of the way space and time are married
to form space-time. One can think that in the presence of
unified space and time, mass and energy are equivalent and
interchangeable. But WHY? The question lingers,
unanswered. Until now. The equation E=mc² is a well-
established principle that has been verified through numerous
experiments and observations, and its accuracy is not in
doubt. If, hypothetically, the equation E=mc² were wrong, it
would mean that our understanding of the relationship
between energy and mass would be fundamentally flawed.
This could have far-reaching consequences for a wide range of
scientific fields, including nuclear physics, astrophysics, and
cosmology. In practical terms, if E=mc² were found to be
wrong, it would likely require a complete rethinking of our
current models of the universe, energy production, and the
behavior of matter. However, given the wealth of experimental
evidence that supports the equation, it is highly unlikely that
it could be proven wrong without a significant paradigm shift
in the scientific understanding of the universe. The equation
E=mc² is important for our understanding of the origins of the
universe. According to the Big Bang theory, the universe
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began as a hot, dense soup of particles that were in thermal
equilibrium. As the universe cooled, particles began to
combine to form atoms, releasing vast amounts of energy in
the process. This energy was in the form of radiation, and it
eventually became the cosmic microwave background
radiation that we can observe today. The equation E=mc²
helps us to understand the relationship between mass and
energy in the early universe, and how they were converted
from one to the other during the formation of the cosmos.
However, the equation E = mc2
(where E is energy, m is mass, and c is
the speed of light. People often employ this equation to calculate how much
energy would be produced if, say, and a bit of matter was converted into
pure electromagnetic radiation. Because the speed of light is a large
number, the answer is a lot—the weight of matter converted to energy in
the bomb that destroyed the city of Hiroshima was less than one ounce.
But the equation also tells us that if the energy of an object increases, so
does its mass, that is, its resistance to acceleration, or change in speed) has
some remarkable consequences (e.g. conversion of less than
1% of 2 pounds of uranium into energy was used in the
atomic bomb over Hiroshima and body at rest still contains
energy. When a body is moving, it carries an additional
energy of motion called kinetic energy. In chemical and
nuclear interactions, kinetic energy can be converted into
rest energy, which is equivalent to generating mass. Also, the
rest energy can be converted into kinetic energy. In that way,
CLXIII

chemical and nuclear interactions can generate kinetic
energy, which then can be used to run engines or blow things
up). Because E = mc2
, the energy which a body possess due to
its motion will add to its rest mass. This effect is only really
significant for bodies moving at speeds close to the speed of
light. For example, at 10 percent of the speed of light a body’s
mass m = m0 / (1 – v2
/c2
)1/2
is only 0.5 percent more than its
rest mass m0, while at 90 percent of the speed of light it would
be more than twice its rest mass. And as an body approaches
the speed of light, its mass raise ever more quickly, it acquire
infinite mass and since an infinite mass cannot be accelerated
any faster by any force, the issue of infinite mass remains an
intractable problem. For this reason all the bodies are forever
confined by relativity to move at speeds slower than the
speed of light. Only tiny packets or particles of light (dubbed
photons by chemist Gilbert Lewis) that have no intrinsic
mass can move at the speed of light. There is little
disagreement on this point. Now, being more advanced, we do
not just consider conclusions like photons have no intrinsic
mass. We constantly test them, trying to prove or disprove. So
far, relativity has withstood every test. And try as we might,
we can measure no mass for the photon. We can just put upper
limits on what mass it can have. These upper limits are
determined by the sensitivity of the experiment we are using
CLXIV

to try to weigh the photon. The last number we can see that a
photon, if it has any mass at all, must be less than 4 ×10 − 48
grams. For comparison, the electron has a mass of 9 × 10 −28
grams. Moreover, if the mass of the photon is not considered to
zero, then quantum mechanics would be in trouble. And it also
an uphill task to conduct an experiment which proves the
photon mass to be exactly zero. Tachyons the putative class of
hypothetical particles (with negative mass: m 0) is believed
to travel faster than the speed of light. But, the existence of
tachyons is still in question and if they exist, how can they be
detected is still a? However, on one thing most physicists
agree: Just because we haven’t found anything yet that can go
faster than light doesn’t mean that we won't one day have to
eat our words. We should be more open minded to other
possibilities that just may not have occurred to us. Moreover,
in expanding space − recession velocity keeps increasing with
distance. Beyond a certain distance, known as the Hubble
distance, it exceeds the velocity greater than the speed of light
in vacuum. But, this is not a violation of relativity, because
recession velocity is caused not by motion through space but
by the expansion of space.
The Planck equation, also known as Planck's law, is a
CLXV

fundamental equation in physics that was first formulated by
German physicist Max Planck in 1900 and has been
extensively tested and confirmed by experimental
measurements. E= hυ (which implies the energy a photon can
have is proportional to its frequency: larger frequency (shorter
wavelength) implies larger photon energy and smaller
frequency (longer wavelength) implies smaller photon
energy) – because h is constant, energy and frequency of the
photon are equivalent and are different forms of the same
thing. And since h − which is one of the most fundamental
numbers in physics, ranking alongside the speed of light c and
confines most of these radical departures from life-as- usual to
the microscopic realm − is incredibly small (i.e., 6 × 10 –34
— a
decimal point followed by 33 zeros and a 6 — of a joule second),
the frequency of the photon is always greater than its energy,
so it would not take many quanta to radiate even ten thousand
megawatts. And some say the only thing that quantum
mechanics (the great intellectual achievement of the first half
of this century) has going for it, in fact, is that it is
unquestionably correct. Since the Planck's constant is almost
infinitesimally small, quantum mechanics is for little things.
The Planck constant is a key parameter in quantum
mechanics, the branch of physics that describes the behavior
of particles at the atomic and subatomic level. It is used to
CLXVI

describe the wave-particle duality of matter, which is a
fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. The Planck
constant plays a critical role in energy quantization, which
refers to the fact that energy is not continuous, but comes in
discrete units. The Planck constant determines the size of
these discrete energy units, which are known as quanta. If the
Planck constant were larger, the size of these energy quanta
would also increase, which could affect the energy levels of
atoms and molecules. It is important to remember that the
Planck constant is a very small constant, and any variations in
its value are likely to have very intense effects on the behavior
of particles and radiation. The Planck constant is related to
the scale at which quantum effects become important. A
change in the Planck constant could affect the size of quantum
effects, such as the uncertainty principle, and could have
implications for the behavior of particles and radiation at the
atomic and subatomic level. Yet, the Planck constant is a
fundamental constant of nature, and even slight variations in
its value could have significant effects on our comprehension
of the fundamental behavior of matter and energy.
Neutrinos are subatomic particles that are known for their
ability to pass through matter with little or no interaction.
They are one of the fundamental particles of the Standard
CLXVII

Model of particle physics, alongside quarks, leptons, and
gauge bosons. Neutrinos are electrically neutral, have very
low mass, and interact only weakly with other particles.
There are three types of neutrinos, known as electron
neutrinos, muon neutrinos, and tau neutrinos, which are
associated with the three charged leptons of the Standard
Model. Neutrinos are produced in a variety of astrophysical
and terrestrial processes, including nuclear reactions in stars,
nuclear reactors, and particle accelerators. Neutrinos were
first postulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain the
apparent violation of energy conservation in nuclear beta
decay. The first experimental evidence for neutrinos was
obtained in the 1950s, and since then, many experiments
have been conducted to study their properties. The study of
neutrinos is an active area of research, and many experiments
are underway to study their properties and behavior.
Neutrinos are important not only for our understanding of the
fundamental particles and forces of nature but also for their
potential applications in fields such as astrophysics, nuclear
physics, and particle physics. Are Neutrinos Massless? If not
they could contribute significantly to the mass of the universe?
Evidence of neutrino oscillations prove that neutrinos are not
massless but instead have a mass less than one hundred-
thousandth that of an electron. The work on atomic science
CLXVIII

in the first thirty five years of this century took our
understanding down to lengths of a millionth of a millimeter.
Then we discovered that protons and neutrons are made of
even smaller particles called quarks (which were named by the
Caltech physicist Murray Gell-Mann, who won the Nobel Prize
in 1969 for his work on them). We might indeed expect to find
several new layers of structure more basic than the quarks and
leptons that we now regard as elemental particles. Are there
elementary particles that have not yet been observed, and, if
so, which ones are they and what are their properties? What
lies beyond the quarks and the leptons? If we find answers to
them, then the entire picture of particle physics would be quite
different.
Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick
model was published in a series of five articles in the same
issue of Nature – caused an explosion in biochemistry and
transformed the science. Of these, Franklin and Gosling's
paper was the first publication of their own x-ray diffraction
data and original analysis method that partially supported
the Watson and Crick model; this issue also contained an
article on DNA (a main family of polynucleotides in living
cells) structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues,
CLXIX

whose analysis supported their double-helix molecular model
of DNA. In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and
Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine. From each gene's point of view, the 'background'
genes are those with which it shares bodies in its journey
down the generations. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – which
is known to occur in the chromosomes of all cells (whose
coded characters spell out specific instructions for building
willow trees that will shed a new generation of downy seeds).
Most forms of life including vertebrates, reptiles, Craniates or
suckling pigs, chimps and dogs and crocodiles and bats and
cockroaches and humans and worms and dandelions, carry
the amazing complexity of the information within the some
kind of replicator − molecules called DNA in each cell of their
body, that a live reading of that code at a rate of one letter per
second would take thirty-one years, even if reading continued
day and night. Just as protein molecules are chains of amino
acids, so DNA molecules are chains of nucleotides. Linking
the two chains in the DNA, are pairs of nucleic acids (purines
+ pyrimidines). There are four types of nucleic acid, adenine
A, cytosine C, guanine G, and thiamine T. An adenine
(purine) on one chain is always matched with a thiamine
(pyrimidine) on the other chain, and a guanine (purine)
with a cytosine (pyrimidine). Thus DNA exhibits all the
CLXX

properties of genetic material, such as replication, mutation
and recombination. Hence, it is called the molecule of life. We
need DNA to create enzymes in the cell, but we need enzymes
to unzip the DNA. Which came first, proteins or protein
synthesis? If proteins are needed to make proteins, how
did the whole thing get started? We need precision genetic
experiments to know for sure.
A theory is a good theory if it satisfies one requirement. It
must make definite predictions about the results of future
observations. Basically, all scientific theories are scientific
statements that predict, explain, and perhaps describe the
basic features of reality. Despite having received some great
deal, discrepancies frequently lead to doubt and discomfort.
For example, the most precise estimate of sun’s age is around
10 million years, based on linear density model. But geologists
have the evidence that the formation of the rocks, and the
fossils in them, would have taken hundreds or thousands of
millions of years. This is far longer than the age of the Earth,
predicted by linear density model. Hence the earth existed
even before the birth of the sun! Which is absolutely has no
sense. The linear density model therefore fails to account for
the age of the sun. Any physical theory is always provisional,
CLXXI

in the sense that it is only a hypothesis: it can be disproved by
finding even a single observation that disagrees with the
predictions of the theory. Towards the end of the nineteenth
century, physicists thought they were close to a complete
understanding of the universe. They believed that entire
universe was filled by a hypothetical medium called the ether.
As a material medium is required for the propagation of waves,
it was believed that light waves propagate through ether as the
pressure waves propagate through air. Soon, however,
inconsistencies with the idea of ether begin to appear. Yet a
series of experiments failed to support this idea. The most
careful and accurate experiments were carried out by two
Americans: Albert Michelson and Edward Morley (who
showed that light always traveled at a speed of one hundred
and eighty six thousand miles a second (no matter where it
came from) and disproved Michell and Laplace's idea of light
as consisting of particles, rather like cannon balls, that could
be slowed down by gravity, and made to fall back on the star) at
the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1887
− which proved to be a serve blow to the existence of ether. All
the known subatomic particles in the universe belong to one of
two groups, Fermions or bosons. Fermions are particles with
integer spin 1/2 and they make up ordinary matter. Their
ground state energies are negative. Bosons are particles (whose
CLXXII

ground state energies are positive) with integer spin 0, 1, 2 and
they act as the force carriers between fermions (For example:
The electromagnetic force of attraction between electron and a
proton is pictured as being caused by the exchange of large
numbers of virtual massless bosons of spin 1, called photons).
Positive ground state energy of
bosons plus negative ground
state energy of fermions = 0
But Why? May be because to eliminate the biggest infinity
in supergravity theory (the theory which introduced a
superpartner to the conjectured subatomic particle with spin
2 that is the quanta of gravity the graviton (called the
gravitino, meaning little graviton, with spin 3/2 ) – that even
inspired one of the most brilliant theoretical physicists since
Einstein Stephen Hawking to speak of the end of theoretical
physics being in sight when he gave his inaugural lecture
upon taking the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge
University, the same chair once held by Isaac Newton – a
person who developed the theory of mechanics, which gave
us the classical laws governing machines which in turn,
greatly accelerated the Industrial Revolution, which unleashed
political forces that eventually overthrew the feudal dynasties
CLXXIII

of Europe)?
There is strong evidence ... that the universe is permeated
with dark matter approximately six times as much as normal
visible matter (i.e. invisible matter became apparent in 1933
by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky – which can be considered
to have energy, too, because E = mc2
– exist in a huge halo
around galaxies and does not participate in the processes
of nuclear fusion that powers stars, does not give off light
and does not interact with light but bend starlight due to
its gravity, somewhat similar to the way glass bends light).
Although we live in a dark matter dominated universe (i.e.,
dark matter, according to the latest data, makes up 23
percent of the total matter or energy content of the universe)
experiments to detect dark matter in the laboratory have been
exceedingly difficult to perform because dark matter particles
such as the neutralino, which represent higher vibrations of
the superstring – interact so weakly with ordinary matter.
Although dark matter was discovered almost a century ago,
it is still a mystery shining on library shelves that everyone
yearns to resolve.
Opening up the splendor of the immense heavens for the
first time to serious scientific investigation. On the short
CLXXIV

time scale of our lives, not surprisingly, we underwent many
transformations in our slow, painful evolution, an evolution
often overshadowed by religious dogma and superstition to
seek the answer to the question from the beginnings of
our understanding. No progress was made in any scientific
explanations because the experimental data were non-
existent and there were no theoretical foundations that could
be applied. In the latter half of the 20th century, there were
several attempts such as quantum mechanics (the theory
of subatomic physics and is one of the most successful
theories of all time which is based on three principles: (1)
energy is found in discrete packets called quanta; (2) matter
is based on point particles but the probability of finding
them is given by a wave, which obeys the Schrödinger
wave equation; (3) a measurement is necessary to collapse
the wave and determine the final state of an object),
the big bang, probability theory, the general relativity (a
theoretical framework of geometry which has been verified
experimentally to better than 99.7 percent accuracy and
predicts that the curvature of space-time gives the illusion
that there is a force of attraction called gravity) to adjust
to ensure agreement with experimental measurements and
answer the questions that have so long occupied the mind of
philosophers (from Aristotle to Kant) and scientists. However,
CLXXV

we must admit that there is ignorance on some issues, for
example,
we don't have a complete theory of universe which could
form a framework for stitching these insights together into
a seamless whole – capable of describing all phenomena….
We are not sure exactly how universe happened.
However, the generally accepted history of the universe,
according to what is so-called the big bang theory (proposed
by a Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître, who learned of
Einstein's theory and was fascinated by the idea that the
theory logically led to a universe that was expanding and
therefore had a beginning) has completely changed the
discussion of the origin of the universe from almost pure
speculation to an observational subject. In such model one
finds that our universe started with an explosion. This was
not any ordinary explosion as might occur today, which would
have a point of origin (center) and would spread out from that
point. The explosion occurred simultaneously everywhere,
filling all space with infinite heat and energy. At this time,
order and structure were just beginning to emerge – the
universe was hotter and denser than anything we can imagine
(at such temperatures and densities (of about a trillion trillion
trillion trillion trillion trillion (1 with 72 zeros after it) tons
CLXXVI

per cubic inch) gravity and quantum mechanics were no
longer treated as two separate entities as they were in point-
particle quantum field theory, the four known forces were
unified as one unified super force) and was very rapidly
expanding much faster than the speed of light (this did not
violate Einstein’s dictum that nothing can travel faster than
light, because it was empty space that was expanding) and
cooling in a way consistent with Einstein field equations. As
the universe was expanding, the temperature was decreasing.
Since the temperature was decreasing, the universe was
cooling and its curvature energy was converted into matter
like a formless water vapor freezes into snowflakes whose
unique patterns arise from a combination of symmetry and
randomness. Approximately 10−37
seconds into the expansion,
a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation, during which
the universe underwent an incredible amount of superliminal
expansion and grew exponentially by a factor e3Ht
(where H
was a constant called Hubble parameter and t was the time) –
just as the prices grew by a factor of ten million in a period of
18 months in Germany after the First World War and it
doubled in size every tiny fraction of a second – just as prices
double every year in certain countries. After inflation stopped,
the universe was not in a de Sitter phase and its rate of
expansion was no longer proportional to its volume since H
CLXXVII

was no longer constant. At that time, the entire universe had
grown by an unimaginable factor of 1050
and consisted of a hot
plasma soup of high energetic quarks as well as leptons (a
group of particles which interacted with each other by
exchanging new particles called the W and Z bosons as well
as photons). And quarks and gluons were deconfined and
free to move over distances much larger than the hadron size
(1 fm) in a soup called quark gluon plasma (QGP). There
were a number of different varieties of quarks: there were six
flavors, which we now call up, down, strange, charmed,
bottom, and top. And among the leptons the electron was a
stable object and muon (that had mass 207 times larger than
electron and now belongs to the second redundant generation
of particles found in the Standard Model) and the tauon (that
had mass 3,490 times the mass of the electron) were allowed
to decay into other particles. And associated to each charged
lepton, there were three distinct kinds of ghostly particles
called neutrinos (the most mysterious of subatomic particles,
are difficult to detect because they rarely interact with other
forms of matter. Although they can easily pass through a
planet or solid walls, they seldom leave a trace of their
existence. Evidence of neutrino oscillations prove that
neutrinos are not massless but instead have a mass less than
one- hundred-thousandth that of an electron):
CLXXVIII

The electron neutrino (which was predicted in the early 1930s by
Wolfgang Pauli and discovered by Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan in
mid-1950s)
The muon neutrino (which was discovered by physicists when studying
the cosmic rays in late 1930s)
The tauon neutrino (a heavier cousin of the electron neutrino)
Gluons → excitations of the strong field
Photons → excitations of the electromagnetic field
Temperatures were so high that these quarks and leptons were
moving around so fast that they escaped any attraction toward
each other due to nuclear or electromagnetic forces. However,
they possessed so much energy that whenever they collided,
particle – antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being
continuously created and destroyed in collisions. And the
uncertainty in the position of the particle times the
uncertainty in its velocity times the mass of the particle was
never smaller than a certain quantity, which was known as
Planck's constant. Similarly, ∆E × ∆t was ≥ h / 4π (where h was
a quantity called Planck's constant and π = 3.14159 . . . was the
familiar ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter).
Hence the Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (which captures
the heart of quantum mechanics – i.e. features normally
thought of as being so basic as to be beyond question (e.g. that
CLXXIX

objects have definite positions and speeds and that they have
definite energies at definite moments) are now seen as mere
artifacts of Planck's constant being so tiny on the scales of the
everyday world) was a fundamental, inescapable property of
the universe. At some point an unknown reaction led to a very
small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and
antileptons − of the order of one part in 30 million. This
resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the
universe. The universe continued to decrease in density and
fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle
was decreased in inverse proportion to the size of the universe
(since the average energy – or speed – of the particles was
simply a measure of the temperature of the universe). The
symmetry (a central part of the theory [and] its experimental
confirmation would be a compelling, albeit circumstantial,
piece of evidence for strings) however, was unstable and, as the
universe cooled, a process called spontaneous symmetry
breaking phase transitions placed the fundamental forces of
physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their
present form. After about 10−11
seconds, the picture becomes
less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can
be attained in particle physics experiments. At about 10−6
seconds, there was a continuous exchange of smallest
constituents of the strong force called gluons between the
CLXXX

quarks and this resulted in a force that pulled the quarks to
form little wisps of matter which obeys the strong interactions
and makes up only a tiny fraction of the matter in the universe
and is dwarfed by dark matter called the baryons ( protons – a
positively charged particles very similar to the neutrons,
which accounts for roughly half the particles in the nucleus of
most atoms − and neutrons – a neutral subatomic particles
which, along with the protons, makes up the nuclei of atoms –
belonged to the class baryons) as well as other particles. The
small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of
baryons over antibaryons. The proton was composed of two
up quarks and one down quark and the neutron was composed
of two down quarks and one up quark. And other particles
contained other quarks (strange, charmed, bottom, and top),
but these all had a much greater mass and decayed very rapidly
into protons and neutrons. The charge on the up quark was = +
2/3 e and the charge on the down quark was = – 1/3 e. The
other quarks possessed charges of + 2/3 e or – 1/3 e. The
charges of the quarks added up in the combination that
composed the proton but cancelled out in the combination
that composed the neutron i.e.,
Proton charge was = (2/3 e) + (2/3 e) + (– 1/3 e) = e
Neutron charge was = (2/3 e) + (– 1/3 e) + (– 1/3 e) = 0
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And the force that confined the rest mass energy of the proton
or the neutron to its radius was so strong that it is now proved
very difficult if not impossible to obtain an isolated quark. As
we try to pull them out of the proton or neutron it gets more
and more difficult. Even stranger is the suggestion that the
harder and harder if we could drag a quark out of a proton this
force gets bigger and bigger – rather like the force in a spring as
it is stretched causing the quark to snap back immediately to
its original position. This property of confinement prevented
one from observing an isolated quark (and the question of
whether it makes sense to say quarks really exist if we can
never isolate one was a controversial issue in the years after
the quark model was first proposed). However, now it has
been revealed that experiments with large particle
accelerators indicate that at high energies the strong force
becomes much weaker, and one can observe an isolated quark.
In fact, the standard model (one of the most successful
physical theories of all time and since it fails to account for
gravity (and seems so ugly), theoretical physicists feel it
cannot be the final theory) in its current form requires that the
quarks not be free. The observation of a free quark would
falsify that aspect of the standard model, although nicely
confirm the quark idea itself and fits all the experimental data
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concerning particle physics without exception. Each quark
possessed baryon number = 1/3: the total baryon number of
the proton or the neutron was the sum of the baryon numbers
of the quarks from which it was composed. And the electrons
and neutrinos contained no quarks; they were themselves
truly fundamental particles. And since there were no
electrically charged particles lighter than an electron and a
proton, the electrons and protons were prevented from
decaying into lighter particles – such as photons (that carried
zero mass, zero charge, a definite energy E = pc and a
momentum p = mc) and less massive neutrinos (with very
little mass, no electric charge, and no radius — and, adding
insult to injury, no strong force acted on it). And a free neutron
being heavier than the proton was not prevented from
decaying into a proton (plus an electron and an antineutrino).
The temperature was now no longer high enough to create
new proton– antiproton pairs, so a mass annihilation
immediately followed, leaving just one in 1010
of the original
protons and neutrons, and none of their antiparticles i.e.,
antiparticle was sort of the reverse of matter particle. The
counterparts of electrons were positrons (positively charged),
and the counterparts of protons were antiprotons (negatively
charged). Even neutrons had an antiparticle: antineutrons. A
similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and
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positrons (positron: the antiparticle of an electron with
exactly the same mass as an electron but its electric charge is
+1e). After these annihilations, the remaining protons,
neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically
and the energy density of the universe was dominated by
photons − (what are sometimes referred to as the messenger
particles for the electromagnetic force) − with a minor
contribution from neutrinos. The density of the universe was
about 4 × 109
times the density of water and much hotter than
the center of even the hottest star – no ordinary components
of matter as we know them – molecules, atoms, nuclei – could
hold together at this temperature. And the total positive
charge due to protons plus the total negative charge due to
electrons in the universe was = 0 (Just what it was if
electromagnetism would not dominate over gravity and for
the universe to remain electrically neutral).
And a few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature
was about a billion (one thousand million; 109
) Kelvin and
the density was about that of air, protons and neutrons no
longer had sufficient energy to escape the attraction of the
strong nuclear force and they started to combine together
to produce the universe’s deuterium and helium nuclei in a
process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. And most of the
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protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei. And inside
the tiny core of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons,
which was roughly 10−13
cm across or roughly an angstrom,
a proton was never permanently a proton and also a neutron
was never permanently a neutron. They kept on changing
into each other. A neutron emitted a π meson (a particle
predicted by Hideki Yukawa (for which he was awarded the
Nobel Prize in physics in 1949) – composed of a quark and
antiquark, which is unstable because the quark and antiquark
can annihilate each other, producing electrons and other
particles) and became proton and a proton absorbed a π meson
and became a neutron. That is, the exchange force resulted due
to the absorption and emission of π mesons kept the protons
and neutrons bound in the nucleus. And the time in which
the absorption and emission of π mesons took place was so
small that π mesons were not detected. And a property of the
strong force called asymptotic freedom caused it to become
weaker at short distances. Hence, although quarks were bound
in nuclei by the strong force, they moved within nuclei almost
as if they felt no force at all.
Within only a few hours of the big bang, the Big Bang
nucleosynthesis stopped. And after that, for the next million
years or so, the universe just continued expanding, without
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anything much happening. Eventually, once the temperature
had dropped to a few thousand degrees, there was a
continuous exchange of virtual photons between the nuclei
and the electrons. And the exchange was good enough to
produce — what else? — A force (proportional to a quantity
called their charge and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them). And that force pulled the
electrons towards the nuclei to form neutral atoms (the basic
unit of ordinary matter, made up of a tiny nucleus (consisting
of protons and neutrons) surrounded by orbiting electrons).
And these atoms reflected, absorbed, and scattered light and
the resulted light was red shifted by the expansion of the
universe towards the microwave region of the electromagnetic
spectrum. And there was cosmic microwave background
radiation (which, through the last 15 billion years of
cosmic expansion, has now cooled to a mere handful of
degrees above absolute zero (–273o
C − the lowest possible
temperature, at which substances contain no heat energy and
all vibrations stop − almost: the water molecules are as fixed
in their equilibrium positions as quantum uncertainty allows)
and today, scientists measure tiny deviations within this
background radiation to provide evidence for inflation or
other theories).
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The irregularities in the universe meant that some regions
of the nearly uniformly distributed atoms had slightly higher
density than others. The gravitational attraction of the extra
density slowed the expansion of the region, and eventually
caused the region to collapse to form galaxies and stars.
And the nuclear reactions in the stars transformed hydrogen
to helium (composed of two protons and two neutrons and
symbolized by 2He4
, highly stable—as predicted by the rules
of quantum mechanics) to carbon (with their self- bonding
properties, provide the immense variety for the complex
cellular machinery — no other element offers a comparable
range of possibilities) with the release of an enormous
amount of energy via Einstein’s equation E = mc2
. This was
the energy that lighted up the stars. And the process continued
converting the carbon to oxygen to silicon to iron. And the
nuclear reaction ceased at iron. And the star experienced
several chemical changes in its innermost core and these
changes required huge amount of energy which was supplied
by the severe gravitational contraction. And as a result the
central region of the star collapsed to form a neutron star. And
the outer region of the star got blown off in a powerful and
catastrophic explosion called a supernova, which outshone an
entire galaxy of 100 billion stars, spraying the manufactured
CLXXXVII

elements into space. It was one of the most energetic events
in the universe and released more energy in a few seconds
than the sun would emit over its entire lifetime. And these
elements provided some of the raw material for the generation
of cloud of rotating gas which went to form the sun and a small
amount of the heavier elements collected together to form the
asteroids, stars, comets, and the bodies that now orbit the sun
as planets like the Earth and their presence caused the fabric
of space around them to warp (more massive the bodies, the
greater the distortion it caused in the surrounding space).
The earth was initially very hot and without an atmosphere. In
the course of time the planet earth produced volcanoes and
the volcanoes emitted water vapor, carbon dioxide and other
gases. And there was an atmosphere. This early atmosphere
contained no oxygen, but a lot of other gases and among them
some were poisonous, such as hydrogen sulfide (the gas that
gives rotten eggs their smell). And the sunlight dissociated
water vapor and there was oxygen. And carbon dioxide in
excess heated the earth and balance was needed. So carbon
dioxide dissolved to form carbonic acid and carbonic acid on
rocks produced limestone and subducted limestone fed
volcanoes that released more carbon dioxide. And there was
high temperature and high temperature meant more
CLXXXVIII

evaporation and dissolved more carbon dioxide. And as the
carbon dioxide turned into limestone, the temperature began
to fall. And a consequence of this was that most of the water
vapor condensed and formed the oceans. And the low
temperature meant less evaporation and carbon dioxide began
to build up in the atmosphere. And the cycle went on for
billions of years. And after the few billion years, volcanoes
ceased to exist. And the molten earth cooled, forming a
hardened, outer crust. And the earth’s atmosphere consisted of
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, plus other miscellaneous
gases (hydrogen sulfide, methane, water vapor, and
ammonia). And then a continuous electric current through
the atmosphere simulated lightning storms. And some of the
gases came to be arranged in the form of more complex organic
molecules such as simple amino acids (the basic chemical
subunit of proteins, when, when linked together, formed
proteins) and carbohydrates (which were very simple
sugars). And the water vapor in the atmosphere probably
caused millions of seconds of torrential rains, during which
the organic molecules reached the earth. And it took two and a
half billion years for an ooze of organic molecules to react and
built earliest cells as a result of chance combinations of atoms
into large structures called macromolecules and then advance
to a wide variety of one – celled organisms, and another billion
CLXXXIX

years to evolve through a highly sophisticated form of life to
primitive mammals endowed with two elements: genes (a set
of instructions that tell them how to sustain and multiply
themselves), and metabolism (a mechanism to carry out the
instructions). But then evolution seemed to have speeded up.
It only took about a hundred million years to develop from the
early mammals (the highest class of animals, including the
ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the whales and Mammoths, and
characterized by the production of living young which are
nourished after birth by milk from the teats (MAMMAE,
MAMMARY GLANDS) of the mother) to Homosapiens. This
picture of a universe that started off very hot and cooled as it
expanded (like when things are compressed they heat up ...
and, when things ... expand ... they cool down) is in
agreement with all the observational evidence which we have
today (and it explains Olbers' paradox: The paradox that asks
why the night sky is black. If the universe is infinite and
uniform, then we must receive light from an infinite number
of stars, and hence the sky must be white, which violates
observation). Nevertheless, it leaves a number of important
questions unanswered: Why the universe started off very hot
i.e., why it violently emerged from a state of infinite
compression? Why is the universe the same everywhere i.e.,
looks the same from every point (homogeneous) and looks the
CXC

same in every direction (isotropic)? If the cosmic inflation
made the universe flat, homogeneous and isotropic, then what
is the hypothetical field that powered the inflation? What are
the details of this inflation?
Much is explained by protons and electrons. But there remains
the neutrino…
≈10
9
neutrinos / proton. What is their physical picture in the universe?
What is our physical place in the universe?
Present 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang, the universe has undergone
a vast series of changes and transformations. In the first few minutes
after the Big Bang, the universe was hot and dense plasma of subatomic
particles, consisting mainly of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Over
time, as the universe cooled and expanded, these particles combined to
form atoms, which eventually led to the formation of stars and galaxies.
Around 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the universe had cooled enough
for atoms to form, and the cosmic microwave background radiation was
released. This radiation is still visible today and is one of the key pieces
of evidence supporting the Big Bang theory. Over the next several billion
years, the universe continued to evolve, with the formation of stars,
galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. Along the way, there were major events
such as the formation of the first stars, the reionization of the universe,
and the emergence of dark matter and dark energy. In more recent times,
the universe has continued to expand at an accelerating rate, driven by
the mysterious force of dark energy. Observations from telescopes and
experiments such as the cosmic microwave background have provided
CXCI

us with a wealth of information about the history and composition of
the universe, but there are still a lot of unanswered questions. Today,
the universe is still expanding, and it is estimated to contain billions of
galaxies, each consists of countless stars, dust, gas, planets, and other
celestial bodies, many of which are still waiting to be discovered and
explored.
The big bang theory, on its own, cannot explain these features
or answer these questions because of its prediction that the
universe started off with infinite density at the big bang
singularity. At the singularity (a state of infinite gravity), all
the known physical laws of cosmology would break down:
one couldn't predict what would come out of the infinitely
dense Planck-sized nugget called the singularity. The search
for the origin and fate of the universe (which is determined
by whether the Omega (Ω0) density parameter is less than,
equal to or greater than 1) is a distinctly human drama, one
that has stretched the mind and enriched the spirit. We (a
species ruled by all sorts of closer, warmer, ambitions and
perceptions) are all, each in our own way, seekers of an
absolute limit of scientific explanation (that may never be
achieved) and we each long for an answer to why we exist...
as our future descendants marvels at our new view of the
universe ... we are... contributing our wrong to the human
letter reaching for the stars. In the millennia of Homo sapiens
CXCII

evolution, we have found it something quite . . . puzzling. Even
that great Jewish scientist Albert Einstein (who freed us from
the superstition of the past and interpreted the constancy
of the speed of light as a universal principle of nature that
contradicted Newtonian theory) sustained a mystical outlook
on the universe that was, he said, constantly renewed from
the wonder and humility that filled him when he gazed at the
universe. I wonder, can our finite minds ever truly understand
such things as mysticism and infinity?
Flatness problem: Why is the density in the Universe almost
critical?
Horizon problem: Why is the large scale of the Universe so
smooth?
The universe is a pretty big place seems like an awful waste of space.
Nearest star: 4.22 light years.
Nearest galaxy: 2.44 million light years.
Galaxies within our horizon are now 40 billion light years away.
Universe beyond horizon: 10 to the 10 to the 100 times bigger.
The Goldilocks Planet is not all that well suited for human life.
2/3 salt water unfit for drinking.
Humans are restricted only to surface.
Atmosphere does not block harmful ultraviolet radiation which causes
skin cancer and other genetic disorders.
CXCIII

Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, famine and droughts,
diseases like cancer, AIDS, kill millions millions of people yearly.
Only two photons of every billion emitted by sun are used to warm
the Earth surface, the rest radiating uselessly into space. And lack
of oxygen and cosmic microwave background radiation (which is well
characterized by a (2.728 ± 0.002) Kelvin black body spectrum over more
than three decades in frequency) prevents humans from spending years
in outer space.
The fine-tuning coincidences refer to the observation that
certain fundamental constants and physical parameters of the
universe appear to be finely tuned to allow for the existence of
life as we know it. In other words, if these values were even
slightly different, life may not have been able to exist in the
universe. For example, if the strength of the strong nuclear
force, which binds protons and neutrons together in the
nucleus of an atom, were just slightly weaker or stronger, then
elements essential for life, such as carbon and oxygen, may not
be able to form. Similarly, if the mass of the electron were
different, the stability of atoms and molecules could be
affected, and life may not be able to exist. The fine tuning
coincidences are updated and refurbished and have been
somewhat misleadingly categorized under the designation
anthropic principle, a term coined by astronomer Brandon
Carter in 1974 – which states that the physical properties of
CXCIV

the universe are as they are because they permit the emergence
of life. This teleological principle tries to explain why some
physical properties of matter seem so fine-tuned as to permit
the existence of life − and are widely claimed to provide prima
facie evidence for purposeful design − a design with life and
perhaps humanity in mind. However, fine tuning
coincidences are only needed to fill in the details of evidence
for the existence of insulated interpositions of Divine power. If
the universe were congenial to human life, then we would
expect it to be easy for humanlike life to develop and survive
throughout the vast stretches of the universe (an intricately
complex place). We must admit that much of what we believe,
including our fundamental coincidences about the universe is
a blind leap of faith. We, after all, carbon-based biological
systems operating a billion times slower than computer chips
made of silicon, can carry the implications of the illusion of
intelligent design about as far as we can imagine we could go −
classifying as an argument from design is the contemporary
claim that the laws and constants of physics are fine-tuned
so that the universe is able to contain life – which is commonly
-- have been publicized in the popular print media, featured in
television specials on PBS and BBC, and disseminated through
a wide variety of popular and scholarly books, including
entries from prestigious academic publishing houses such as
CXCV

Oxford and Cambridge University Presses -- but misleading.
Furthermore, blind faith can justify anything and we have no
reason to conclude that earthlike planets and sun-like stars
and life itself are far too complex to have arisen by coincidence
or could not have had a purely accidental origin because
astrobiologists have now demonstrated that captured material
from a comet - analyzed immediately after striking Earth so
that effects of contamination by earthly matter are minimal-
possessed lysine, an amino acid, in the sample, suggesting that
the evolution of life on Earth had only begun after accidental
jump-start from space i.e., the first ingredients of life
accidently came from space after Earth formed. The fact that
the universe seems to be fine-tuned for life has led some to
propose the idea of a cosmic designer or a multiverse with
countless other universes, each with different physical
constants and laws, with ours just happening to be the one in
which life is possible. However, these ideas are speculative and
have not been conclusively proven. It is worth noting that
some scientists argue that the fine-tuning coincidences may
not be as surprising as they seem, as the universe may have
gone through a process of natural selection, in which only the
conditions that allow for life to exist could arise. Others
suggest that the apparent fine-tuning may be an artifact of our
limited understanding of the underlying physics of the
CXCVI

universe. Overall, the fine-tuning coincidences remain a topic
of debate and active research in cosmology and the philosophy
of science.
CXCVII
A work that contributed to the definition of the Age of Reason
and is Newton's most well-known accomplishment.
It is regarded as one of the most significant works in scientific history

A 1920 illustration of an astronaut's experience in zero gravity.

LONG STANDING
QUESTIONS
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
Are there undiscovered principles of nature: new symmetries, new physical
laws?
How can we solve the mystery of dark energy? Are dark energy and the
Higgs field related?
What are neutrinos telling us? Is dark matter is made up of weakly
interacting massive particles (something like heavy versions of the
neutrinos)?
What is dark matter? How can we make it in the laboratory?
Why are there so many kinds of particles? Why the Higgs exists and who
its cosmological cousins are?
Which particles are travelers in extra dimensions, and what are their
locations within them? Is our Universe part of a Multiverse?
How did the universe come to be? What happened to the antimatter? What
do we learn about the early Universe from experiments at the LHC? Can
precise measures of the distribution of galaxies and Dark Matter unveil
the nature of Dark Matter or Dark Energy?
CXCIX

Why there is missing energy from a weakly interacting heavy particle? Is
the direct discovery of the effects of extra dimensions or a new source
of matter- antimatter asymmetry possible? An all- embracing theory of
physics that unifies quantum mechanics (which applies to the very small:
atoms, subatomic particles and the forces between them) and general
relativity (which applies to the very large: stars, galaxies and gravity,
the driving force of the cosmos) would solve the problem of describing
everything in the universe from the big bang to subatomic particles? Our
leading candidate for a theory of everything is known as M-theory. It grew
from a merger of the two seemingly different approaches: 11-dimensional
supergravity and 10-dimensional superstring theory. Could this be the
final theory of everything? What do observations of galaxies at early times
tell us about how galaxies were made?
Mapping the dark universe
PROFILING THE INVISIBLE
Is Cosmology about to SNAP?
Or does it explain everything about the universe?
While there may be many challenges and mysteries that
remain to be solved in our understanding of the universe,
many people find great wonder and beauty in the cosmos and
consider it a source of inspiration and awe. To answer the most
challenging questions about the nature of the universe and led
CC

down open doors into new insights and findings, all the
approaches must converge. Results from accelerator
experiments at LHC must agree with most powerful and
insightful astrophysical observations and results from
sophisticated data. However, the experiments necessary to go
beyond the existing knowledge of standard physics are rapidly
becoming prohibitively expensive and time consuming and
the macroscopic experiments are difficult to perform in the
laboratory as subatomic reactions at the incredible energy
scale of 109
GeV − which is far beyond the range of our largest
particle accelerators and it is the biggest embarrassment in all
of modern physics and if you listen closely, you can almost
hear the dreams of physicists everywhere being shattered.
Physics is an essential tool for understanding the greatest
questions in cosmology, and many cosmological questions
have already been answered through the application of
physical principles. For example, the discovery of the cosmic
microwave background radiation provided strong evidence
for the Big Bang theory, which is now the leading explanation
for the origin and evolution of the universe. Other
cosmological questions that physics has helped to answer
include the nature of dark matter and the large-scale structure
of the universe. However, there are still many unanswered
questions in cosmology, and it is not yet clear whether physics
CCI

alone will be able to solve all of them. For example, the nature
of dark energy, which is thought to be responsible for the
accelerating expansion of the universe, remains a mystery,
and physicists are currently working to develop new models
and theories to explain it. Moreover, some of the greatest
questions in cosmology are philosophical or conceptual in
nature, such as the nature of time or the existence of a
multiverse. While physics can provide insights into these
questions, they may ultimately require a more
interdisciplinary approach that incorporates insights from
philosophy, mathematics, and other fields. Overall, while
physics has made great strides in understanding the cosmos,
there is still much that we do not know, and the quest to
answer the greatest questions in cosmology will likely require
continued collaboration and innovation across multiple
disciplines.
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
CCII

CHAPTER 3
Our Mathematical Universe
But the creative principle resides in mathematics. In a
certain sense, therefore, I hold it true that pure thought
can grasp reality, as the ancients dreamed.
― Albert Einstein
W
e Humans, a curious beings developed from
the Darwin's principle of natural selection,
are accustomed into an inquisition. The
question is not 'do we know everything from the triumph of
the Higgs boson to the underlying discomfort of ultimate
question of life, the universe, and everything?' or it is 'do we
know enough?' But how the creative principle resides in
mathematics? There's something very mathematical about
our gigantic Cosmos, and that the more carefully we look, the
1

more equations are built into nature: From basic arithmetic to
the calculation of rocket trajectories, math provides a good
understanding of the equations that govern the world around
us. Our universe isn't just described by math, but that universe
is a grand book written in the language of mathematics. We
find it very appropriate that mathematics has played a striking
role in our growing understanding of the events around us,
and of our own existence. The mathematical universe
hypothesisis a philosophical and scientific theory that
proposes that the universe is not just described by
mathematics, but actually is mathematics. In other words, the
hypothesis asserts that the universe is a mathematical
structure, and that all physical phenomena can be described in
terms of mathematical equations and formulas. The theory
has its roots in the ancient Greek philosophical tradition,
particularly in the work of Pythagoras and Plato, who believed
that the universe was fundamentally mathematical in nature.
In more recent times, the hypothesis has been developed and
expanded upon by several modern thinkers, including the
physicist Max Tegmark. According to the mathematical
universe hypothesis, the universe is not just described by
mathematical concepts and formulas, but is, in fact, a
mathematical structure. This means that the physical world
that we observe is simply one aspect of a much larger
MANJUNATH R
2

mathematical structure that exists beyond our perception.
Proponents of the hypothesis argue that it provides a simple
and elegant explanation for the apparent order and regularity
that we observe in the universe. They also point out that
mathematics is a powerful tool for predicting and describing
physical phenomena, which suggests that there is a deep
connection between mathematics and the physical world.
However, critics of the hypothesis argue that it is more of a
philosophical idea than a scientific theory, and that there is no
evidence to support the claim that the universe is a
mathematical structure. They also point out that the
hypothesis raises many questions about the nature of
mathematics and its relationship to the physical world. While
the mathematical universe hypothesis remains controversial,
it continues to be a topic of debate and discussion among
philosophers, mathematicians, and physicists. Some argue
that the hypothesis may have implications for our
understanding of the nature of reality and the role of human
consciousness in the universe. However, much more research
and investigation will be needed before we can fully
understand the implications of this intriguing idea.
Laws Of Universe:
FROM THE BEGINNING OF SPACE AND TIME
3

You cannot get something for nothing because matter and
energy are conserved.
You cannot return to the same energy state because there is
always an increase in entropy.
Absolute zero is unattainable.
The laws of the universe are the fundamental physical
principles that govern the behavior of matter and energy in
the universe. These laws describe the behavior of everything
from subatomic particles to galaxies and beyond. Here are
some of the most important laws of the universe:
The law of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, but can only be transformed from one form to another.
The law of conservation of mass: Mass can neither be created nor
destroyed, but can only be transformed from one form to another.
The laws of thermodynamics: These laws govern the behavior of energy
in systems, and describe the relationships between temperature, heat,
and work.
Newton's laws of motion: These laws describe the relationship between
force, mass, and acceleration, and form the basis of classical mechanics.
The law of gravitation: This law describes the gravitational force
between objects, and is fundamental to our understanding of the
motion of planets, stars, and galaxies.
The laws of electromagnetism: These laws describe the behavior of
electric and magnetic fields, and form the basis of our understanding of
electronics, electromechanical devices, and the behavior of light.
The laws of quantum mechanics: These laws describe the behavior of
MANJUNATH R
4

matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic level, and are essential
to our understanding of modern physics.
These are just a few of the many laws that govern the behavior
of the universe. Understanding and applying these laws
has allowed us to develop technologies and tools that have
transformed our lives and our understanding of the world
around us.
Equivalence Principle:
The laws of nature in an accelerating frame are equivalent to
the laws in a gravitational field.
The Equivalence Principle is a fundamental principle
in physics that states that the effects of gravity are
indistinguishable from the effects of acceleration. In other
words, if you are in a box that is being accelerated upward
at a constant rate, it would be impossible for you to tell
whether you are experiencing the effects of gravity or the
effects of the acceleration. The Equivalence Principle was
first proposed by Albert Einstein as part of his theory of
General Relativity. According to this theory, gravity is not
a force that acts between objects, as in Newtonian physics,
5

but rather a curvature of spacetime caused by the presence
of mass and energy. The Equivalence Principle has several
important implications in physics. For example, it implies that
the acceleration of an object due to gravity is independent of
its mass or composition. This was demonstrated by Galileo in
the 16th century, when he dropped objects of different masses
from the Leaning Tower of Pisa and observed that they fell
at the same rate. The Equivalence Principle also implies that
light is affected by gravity in the same way as matter. This
was confirmed by the observation of gravitational lensing, in
which the path of light is bent by the curvature of spacetime
near massive objects. Overall, the Equivalence Principle is a
key principle in our understanding of gravity and the behavior
of matter and energy in the universe.
Geometry → field theory → classical theory → quantum theory
Newton's Laws Of Motion:
Three fundamental laws, known as Newton's laws of
motion, govern how moving objects behave. They were first
formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century, and
they form the basis of classical mechanics. Newton's laws of
MANJUNATH R
6

motion tie into almost everything we see in everyday life:
Law 1 (the Law of Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest and an object in
motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction
unless acted uponby an unbalanced force.
Law 2 (the Law of Force and Acceleration) : Force equals mass times
acceleration (F = ma).
Law 3 (the Law of Action and Reaction) : For every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
These three laws provide a framework for understanding
the behavior of objects in motion and the relationships
between force, mass, and acceleration. They are used to
describe everything from the motion of planets and stars
to the behavior of everyday objects like cars and bicycles.
Newton's laws of motion are still widely used today,
and they have been expanded and refined by subsequent
physicists and mathematicians. They form the foundation of
classical mechanics, which is essential to our understanding
of the physical world. While Newton's laws of motion are
fundamental principles of classical mechanics that have been
widely applied in physics, there are certain circumstances in
which they may not hold true. Here are some examples of the
failures of Newton's laws of motion:
7

High-speed motion: At very high speeds approaching the speed of light,
the laws of motion fail to accurately describe the motion of objects. In
this regime, Einstein's theory of relativity is required.
Very small particles: At the subatomic level, the behavior of particles
is governed by quantum mechanics, which behaves differently than
classical mechanics. Quantum mechanics provides more accurate
predictions for the motion of these particles.
Non-inertial reference frames: Newton's laws of motion only hold true
in inertial reference frames, where there are no external forces acting on
the system. In non-inertial reference frames, such as a rotating reference
frame, fictitious forces arise, which do not obey Newton's laws.
Strong gravitational fields: In strong gravitational fields, such as those
near a black hole, the behavior of objects is governed by Einstein's theory
of general relativity, which predicts the curvature of spacetime.
Electrodynamic forces: The behavior of charged particles, such as
electrons and protons, is governed by electromagnetic forces. These
forces are not described by Newton's laws of motion, but by the laws of
electrodynamics.
Nuclear forces: The behavior of particles within the atomic nucleus
is governed by the strong nuclear force, which is not described by
Newton's laws of motion.
To sum up, while Newton's laws of motion are powerful tools
for understanding the behavior of objects in many situations,
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they are not always applicable and may fail under certain
circumstances.
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle:
The Uncertainty Principle was first proposed by Werner
Heisenberg in 1927 as part of his work on the foundations
of quantum mechanics. The Uncertainty Principle is a
fundamental principle of quantum mechanics that places
limits on the precision with which certain physical properties
can be measured simultaneously. It is an essential part of our
understanding of the behavior of particles in the quantum
world, and has important implications for a wide range
of fields, from atomic and molecular physics to quantum
computing and information theory. As a remarkable consequence
of the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics (which implies that
certain pairs of quantities, such as the energy and time, cannot both be
predicted with complete accuracy), the empty space is filled with what
is called vacuum energy. Although the Uncertainty Principle is
a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics with many
successes in explaining the behavior of small particles, but it
also has limitations and is the subject of ongoing debate and
research in the field of physics. The Uncertainty Principle
applies only to the measurements of small particles, such
9

as electrons or photons. It is not applicable to everyday
macroscopic objects.
The Grand Idea Of Einstein | E=Mc
2
:
Mass-energy equivalence is a fundamental concept in physics
that describes the relationship between mass and energy. It
is best known through Einstein's famous equation, E=Mc²,
which relates the energy (E) of an object to its mass (M) and
the speed of light (c). This concept was first proposed by Albert
Einstein in 1905 as part of his theory of special relativity.
The concept of mass-energy equivalence is a fundamental
part of our understanding of the physical world and allows
us to understand the behavior of subatomic particles, such as
electrons and protons, in terms of their mass and energy. It
provides a deep insight into the nature of mass and energy, and
has led to many important discoveries in fields ranging from
nuclear physics to cosmology.
Because E=Mc2
:
Mass is just energy in disguise.
A small amount of mass can equal a large amount of energy.
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The equation E=Mc2
has had profound impacts on our
understanding of the universe, including the energy source
of stars, nuclear energy, the development of nuclear weapons,
and the relationship between mass and energy. It remains a
fundamental principle in physics and continues to be a topic
of research and exploration in the field of theoretical physics.
The Fundamental Constants Of Nature:
The Seven Most Important Of The Fundamental Constants Are:
Speed of Light:
The speed of light is a fundamental constant of the universe
and is denoted by the symbol c. Its value is approximately
299,792,458 meters per second in a vacuum, which means
that it takes light about 299,792,458 meters (or about 186,282
miles) to travel in one second. The speed of light is not just
a theoretical concept; it has been experimentally verified to a
high degree of accuracy. This constant plays a crucial role in
many areas of physics, such as Einstein's theory of relativity,
which describes the relationship between space and time,
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and in the understanding of electromagnetic waves and the
behavior of particles at high energies. A small change in the
speed of light in a vacuum would have significant effects on
our understanding of the fundamental laws of physics. This
is because the speed of light is a fundamental constant of
the universe and is used in many equations and theories in
physics, such as Einstein's theory of relativity. If the speed of
light were to increase or decrease slightly, it would affect many
areas of physics, including:
Time dilation: According to Einstein's theory of relativity, time appears
to slow down for an object in motion relative to an observer. This effect
is directly related to the speed of light, and a change in its value would
affect our understanding of how time passes in different reference
frames.
Mass-energy equivalence: Einstein's famous equation E=mc
2
relates
energy to mass and the speed of light. A change in the speed of light
would affect the amount of energy released in nuclear reactions and the
stability of atomic nuclei.
Electromagnetic radiation: The speed of light is a constant in the
equations that describe the behavior of electromagnetic waves, such as
light and radio waves. A change in the speed of light would affect the
wavelength, frequency, and propagation of these waves.
Quantum mechanics: The behavior of subatomic particles, such as
electrons and photons, is described by quantum mechanics, which relies
on the speed of light as a fundamental constant. A change in the speed of
light would affect the behavior and interactions of these particles.
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It is important to note that the speed of light is a fundamental
constant of the universe, and current scientific evidence
suggests that it cannot be changed.
Gravitational Constant:
The gravitational constant, denoted by the symbol G, is a
fundamental physical constant that appears in Newton's law
of gravitation. It represents the strength of the gravitational
force between two objects with masses M and m that are
separated by a distance r. The value of the gravitational
constant is approximately 6.67430 × 10−11
N (m/kg)2
. This
means that the force of gravitational attraction between two
objects with a mass of 1 kilogram each, separated by a distance
of 1 meter, is approximately 6.67430 × 10−11
Newtons. The
gravitational constant plays a fundamental role in many areas
of physics, including:
Classical mechanics: The gravitational constant appears in Newton's
law of gravitation, which describes the force of attraction between two
masses. This law is used to calculate the gravitational force between
objects in our everyday experience, such as the force that keeps us on the
surface of the Earth.
Astrophysics: The gravitational constant is used in the study of celestial
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bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies. It is used to calculate the
gravitational force between these objects and to predict their motions.
General relativity: The gravitational constant appears in Einstein's
theory of general relativity, which describes the curvature of space and
time due to the presence of mass and energy. The theory predicts the
existence of phenomena such as black holes and gravitational waves.
Cosmology: The gravitational constant is used in the study of the large-
scale structure of the universe, including the formation and evolution of
galaxies and the distribution of dark matter.
The value of the gravitational constant is known to a high
degree of accuracy, but its exact value is still subject to ongoing
research and measurement. A small change in the value of the
gravitational constant G would have significant effects on
our understanding of the fundamental laws of physics. This is
because the gravitational constant is a fundamental constant
of the universe that appears in many equations and theories in
physics, including Newton's law of gravitation and Einstein's
theory of general relativity. If the value of the gravitational
constant were to increase or decrease slightly, it would affect
many areas of physics, including:
Planetary motion: A change in the gravitational constant would affect
the force of gravity between celestial bodies, such as planets and stars,
and would alter their motion and orbits.
Tidal forces: Tidal forces are caused by the gravitational pull of celestial
bodies, such as the Moon and the Sun, on the Earth's oceans. A change
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in the gravitational constant would affect the magnitude of these forces
and could have significant effects on the Earth's climate and geology.
Black holes: The properties of black holes, such as their event horizons
and Hawking radiation, are determined by the laws of gravity, which
depend on the value of the gravitational constant. A change in the
gravitational constant could alter the properties of black holes and affect
our understanding of these enigmatic objects.
Cosmology: The gravitational constant is used in the study of the large-
scale structure of the universe and the formation of galaxies. A change in
the gravitational constant could alter the evolution of the universe and
affect our understanding of its origins and future.
It is important to note that the value of the gravitational
constant is known to a high degree of accuracy and is
considered a fundamental constant of the universe. While
small variations in the value of G have been observed in some
experiments, these are still subject to ongoing research and
scrutiny.
Boltzmann Constant:
The Boltzmann constant (symbol: k or kB) is a fundamental
physical constant that relates the average kinetic energy of
particles in a gas to the temperature of the gas. It is
named after the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann. The
Boltzmann constant has a value of approximately 1.380649
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×10−23
joules per kelvin (J/K). This means that for every
degree Kelvin (or Celsius), a particle in a gas has an average
kinetic energy of approximately 1.380649 × 10−23
joules. A
small change in the value of the Boltzmann constant would
have significant effects on many areas of physics, particularly
in the study of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.
The Boltzmann constant is a fundamental constant that
relates the average kinetic energy of particles in a gas to
the temperature of the gas. If the value of the Boltzmann
constant were to change, it would affect many areas of physics,
including:
Thermodynamics: The Boltzmann constant is used in the laws of
thermodynamics, which describe the behavior of heat and energy
in systems. A change in the Boltzmann constant would alter the
relationships between temperature, energy, and entropy, and could
affect our understanding of thermodynamic systems, such as engines
and refrigerators.
Statistical mechanics: The Boltzmann constant is used in the equations
that describe the behavior of large numbers of particles, such as those
in a gas. A change in the Boltzmann constant would alter the equations
that describe the behavior of these systems, and could affect our
understanding of the behavior of gases, liquids, and solids.
Astrophysics: The Boltzmann constant is used in the study of celestial
bodies, such as stars and planets. A change in the Boltzmann constant
would affect the temperature and pressure calculations for these objects,
and could affect our understanding of their behavior and evolution.
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Materials science: The Boltzmann constant is used to calculate the
behavior of materials at different temperatures. A change in the
Boltzmann constant could affect our understanding of the behavior of
materials, such as their thermal conductivity and specific heat.
It is important to note that the value of the Boltzmann
constant is known to a very high degree of accuracy and
is considered a fundamental constant of the universe. While
small variations in the value of the Boltzmann constant have
been observed in some experiments, these are still subject to
ongoing research and scrutiny.
Planck's Constant:
The Planck constant, denoted as h, is a fundamental physical
constant that plays a central role in quantum mechanics. It is
named after the German physicist Max Planck, who first
introduced the concept in 1900 as a fundamental unit of
energy in the quantization of light. The Planck constant has
units of joule-seconds (J·s) or equivalently, energy multiplied
by time. The Planck constant is a fundamental constant of
nature and is one of the most precisely measured physical
constants. Its value is approximately 6.626 × 10−34
J·s. The
Planck constant relates the energy of a photon, or a particle of
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light, to its frequency. It is also related to the wave-particle
duality of matter, where particles, such as electrons, can
exhibit wave-like behavior. The Planck constant is used
extensively in many areas of physics, particularly in quantum
mechanics. It is used to calculate the energy of individual
photons, the energy levels of atoms and molecules, and the
behavior of particles on a quantum level. The Planck constant
also plays a role in understanding the behavior of black holes
and the evolution of the universe. A small change in the value
of the Planck constant would have significant effects on
various areas of physics, particularly in quantum mechanics.
Firstly, the energy of individual photons would change
proportionally to the change in the Planck constant. This
would have consequences for the absorption and emission of
light by atoms and molecules, as well as the behavior of light in
optical systems. Secondly, the value of the Planck constant
affects the allowed energy levels of atoms and molecules. A
small change in the Planck constant would lead to changes in
the spectral lines observed in atomic and molecular spectra,
which are critical for determining the composition and
properties of various celestial objects. Thirdly, the Planck
constant plays a crucial role in the behavior of subatomic
particles, such as electrons. A small change in the Planck
constant would affect the energy levels of electrons in atoms
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and molecules, which would in turn impact the chemical
properties of these systems. Finally, the Planck constant is
used in the calculation of the Hubble constant, which is a
measure of the rate of expansion of the universe. Any change
in the Planck constant would therefore have implications for
our understanding of the evolution and structure of the
universe.To sum up, a small change in the Planck constant
would have significant effects on various areas of physics,
including the behavior of light, the energy levels of atoms and
molecules, the behavior of subatomic particles, and our
understanding of the universe.
The Strong Coupling Constant:
The strong coupling constant, denoted by αs, is a fundamental
constant in physics that describes the strength of the strong
nuclear force, which is one of the four fundamental forces
of nature. The strong nuclear force binds quarks together
to form protons and neutrons, which are the building blocks
of atomic nuclei. In particle physics, the strong coupling
constant is a measure of the strength of the interaction
between quarks and gluons, the particles that mediate the
strong force. It is also known as the strong interaction
coupling constant. The value of αs depends on the energy scale
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at which the interaction is measured, due to the phenomenon
of asymptotic freedom. At high energies, αs becomes smaller,
which means that the interaction between quarks and gluons
becomes weaker. This effect is described by the theory of
quantum chromodynamics (QCD), which is the fundamental
theory of the strong nuclear force.
The Cosmological Constant:
The cosmological constant is a term in Einstein's field
equations of general relativity that represents a form of energy
that permeates all of space and exerts a negative pressure.
This term was introduced by Einstein in 1917 to account for
the apparent stability of the universe, as it was thought at
the time that the universe was static and unchanging. The
cosmological constant is denoted by the Greek letter lambda
(Λ) and has units of inverse length squared. It is related to
the energy density of the vacuum of space and is often called
dark energy, as it is not associated with any known particle or
physical phenomenon. Observations in the late 1990s showed
that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, which
is consistent with the presence of a cosmological constant.
The current best estimate of the value of the cosmological
constant is Λ = 10−52
m−2
, which is an extremely small value,
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but it has a significant effect on the large-scale structure
of the universe. The cosmological constant is an important
parameter in modern cosmology, as it influences the
expansion rate of the universe and the formation of galaxies
and other large-scale structures. Its precise value is difficult
to determine, as it depends on the details of the universe's
evolution and on the properties of the vacuum energy. The
cosmological constant remains an active area of research in
both cosmology and fundamental physics.
The Mass of an Electron:
The mass of an electron is a fundamental constant in physics,
and a small change in its value can have significant effects on
a wide range of physical phenomena. The electron mass is one
of the most precisely measured constants, with a current best
estimate of 9.10938356(11) × 10−31
kg. A small change in the
electron mass can have effects on the energy levels of atoms,
the properties of materials, and the behavior of subatomic
particles. For example:
Atomic spectra: The energy levels of atoms are determined by the
interactions between electrons and the atomic nucleus. A change in
the electron mass can alter the energy levels, causing shifts in atomic
spectra. This effect is used in precision spectroscopy and can be used to
21

test fundamental physics theories.
Chemical reactions: The electron mass affects the electronic structure
of atoms and molecules, which in turn affects chemical reactions.
A change in the electron mass can alter reaction rates and product
distributions, potentially leading to new chemical properties.
Solid-state physics: The properties of materials are determined by the
electronic structure of their constituent atoms. A change in the electron
mass can alter the band structure of solids, affecting properties such as
conductivity, magnetism, and optical properties.
Particle physics: The electron is one of the most common particles in
the universe, and a small change in its mass can affect a wide range
of particle interactions. For example, a change in the electron mass can
affect the stability of atomic nuclei and the properties of neutrinos.
In general, a small change in the electron mass can have
subtle effects on physical phenomena, and its precise value is
an important input parameter for many areas of physics. The
electron mass is also related to other fundamental constants,
such as the fine structure constant, and a change in its value
can have broader implications for our understanding of the
universe.
Stars | The Most Basic Components that Make up Galaxies:
Stars are large, luminous objects that are made up of hot gases
and are held together by their own gravity. They are one of the
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most important objects in the universe, as they are the engines
that power the universe through the process of nuclear fusion.
Stars are classified based on their spectral type, which is
determined by the temperature of their outer atmosphere. The
classification system, known as the Morgan-Keenan spectral
classification system, uses letters from O to M, with O stars
being the hottest and M stars being the coolest. A nebula,
which is a cloud of gas and dust, is where a star's life cycle
starts. The nebula begins to collapse under its own gravity,
which causes it to heat up and spin faster. Eventually, the gas
and dust in the center of the nebula become dense enough and
hot enough to ignite nuclear fusion, which creates a protostar.
Once nuclear fusion begins, the protostar begins to emit light
and heat, and becomes a fully-fledged star. The energy created
by nuclear fusion keeps the star from collapsing under its
own gravity, and creates a balance between the inward force
of gravity and the outward force of radiation pressure. Stars
spend the majority of their lives in a phase known as the
main sequence, during which they fuse hydrogen into helium
in their cores. This process releases an enormous amount of
energy in the form of light and heat, which is what makes
stars shine. As the star ages and runs out of hydrogen fuel in
its core, it begins to undergo changes that depend on its mass.
Smaller stars, such as red dwarfs, simply burn out and become
23

white dwarfs. Larger stars, such as red giants, expand and cool,
and eventually explode in a supernova. After a supernova, the
remnant of the star can become a neutron star or a black hole,
depending on the mass of the original star. Neutron stars are
incredibly dense objects that are made up entirely of neutrons,
while black holes are regions of space where the gravitational
force is so strong that nothing can escape. Overall, stars are
fascinating objects that play a crucial role in the universe.
They are responsible for the creation of all the elements in
the universe beyond hydrogen and helium, and their energy
powers the cosmos. Studying stars can help us to understand
the origins and evolution of the universe as a whole.
If the mass of the star 1.4 solar masses:
Electrons prevent further collapse.
The core will thus continue to collapse and form a white dwarf.
If the mass of the star 1.4 solar masses but mass 3 solar masses:
Electrons + protons combine to form neutrons.
Neutrons prevent further collapse.
The core will thus continue to collapse and form a neutron star.
If the mass of the star 3 solar masses:
Gravity wins! Nothing prevents collapse.
The core will thus continue to collapse and form a black hole.
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Any object with a physical radius smaller than its
Schwarzschild radius will be a black hole.
The Schwarzschild radius is a critical parameter used in
astrophysics to describe the size of the event horizon
surrounding a non-rotating black hole. It is named after
the German physicist Karl Schwarzschild, who derived its
mathematical expression in 1916 as part of his solution
to Einstein's field equations of general relativity. The
Schwarzschild radius represents the distance from the center
of a black hole at which the escape velocity is equal to the
speed of light. Anything that comes within this distance
is said to have entered the event horizon and can no
longer escape the gravitational pull of the black hole. The
Schwarzschild radius depends only on the mass of the black
hole and is given by the formula: RS= 2GM/c2
where RS is
the Schwarzschild radius, G is the gravitational constant, M
is the mass of the black hole, and c is the speed of light.
The Schwarzschild radius is an important parameter for
understanding the properties and behavior of black holes. For
example, the radius sets an upper limit on the size of a black
hole, beyond which it would no longer be able to exist. It also
provides a way to estimate the mass of a black hole based on
25

observations of its surrounding environment. To sum up, the
Schwarzschild radius is a critical parameter used to describe
the size of the event horizon surrounding a non-rotating black
hole, and it depends only on the mass of the black hole.
All the laws of physics that
we know, breaks down –
Below this time: (Planck Time)
Below this length: (Planck Length)
Above this temperature: (Planck Temperature)
Density Parameter and Curvature :
Density parameter (Ω): The ratio of the total amount of
matter in the universe divided by the minimum amount of
matter needed to cause the big crunch.
Ω 1: The Universe will continue to expand forever.
Ω 1: The Universe will eventually halt its expansion and recollapse.
Ω = 1: The Universe contains enough matter to halt the expansion but
not enough to recollapse it.
If Ω = 1, the universe is considered to be flat. If Ω 1, the universe
is considered to be open, meaning that it will continue to expand
indefinitely. If Ω 1, the universe is considered to be closed, meaning
that it will eventually collapse back in on itself due to the gravitational
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attraction of its matter and energy. The value of the density parameter
depends on the total density of matter and energy in the universe,
including both visible matter and dark matter. Observations of the cosmic
microwave background radiation, the large-scale structure of the universe,
and the distribution of galaxies and galaxy clusters suggest that the
universe is very close to being flat, with a density parameter of Ω ≈ 1.
The density parameter is an important parameter in cosmology because
it affects the expansion rate of the universe, which in turn affects the
evolution and structure of the universe. In particular, the value of the
density parameter determines the ultimate fate of the universe, whether
it will continue to expand indefinitely or eventually collapse in on
itself. Overall, the density parameter is a dimensionless quantity used in
cosmology to describe the ratio of the actual density of the universe to the
critical density required for the universe to be flat. Its value determines the
ultimate fate of the universe and affects the expansion rate and structure of
the universe.
If a black hole has a mass less than the Planck mass, its quantum
mechanical size could be outside its event horizon. This wouldn't
make sense, Planck mass is the smallest possible black hole.
When 2 similar waves are added, the resultant wave is bigger
→constructive interference
When 2 dissimilar waves are added, they cancel each other out
→destructive interference
Proton charge + Electron charge = 0
Just what it is if electromagnetism would not dominate over
27

gravity and for the universe to remain electrically neutral.
It's not their energy; it's their zero rest mass that makes
photons to travel at the speed of light.
Just like a dozen is 12 things, a mole is simply
Avogadro's number of particles.
What is GRAVITY?
Newtonian view: Force tells mass how to accelerate. Accelerated mass
tells what gravity is.
Einsteinian view: Mass tells space how to curve. Curved space tells what
gravity is.
Gravity is a fundamental force of nature that exists between
all objects with mass or energy. It is the force that causes
two or more objects to be attracted to each other. The mass
of the objects and the separation separating them determine
the gravitational force's strength. Sir Isaac Newton was the
person who originally put forth the idea of gravity in the 17th
century. According to Newton's law of gravitation, the force
of gravity between two objects is proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. In the 20th century, Albert
Einstein proposed a new theory of gravity known as general
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relativity. General relativity describes gravity as the curvature
of spacetime caused by the presence of mass and energy.
According to this theory, objects with mass or energy warp the
fabric of spacetime, and other objects move along the curved
paths created by this warping. Gravity is one of the four
fundamental forces of nature, along with electromagnetism,
the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. It is
responsible for many phenomena in the universe, including
the motion of planets and stars, the structure of galaxies, and
the behavior of black holes.
What is electromagnetic radiation?
Electromagnetic radiation, also known as electromagnetic
waves, is a type of energy that travels through space at
the speed of light. It consists of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and to
the direction of the wave's motion. Electromagnetic radiation
can have different wavelengths and frequencies, which
determine its properties and the ways in which it interacts
with matter. The entire range of electromagnetic radiation
is called the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes radio
waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. Electromagnetic radiation
29

is produced by the acceleration of electric charges, such as
electrons, and can be emitted by a variety of sources, including
the sun, light bulbs, and electronic devices. It can be absorbed,
reflected, or transmitted by matter, depending on the
properties of the material and the wavelength of the radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation has many applications in science
and technology, including communication, imaging, and
energy production. For example, radio waves are used for
wireless communication, microwaves are used in microwave
ovens, X-rays are used in medical imaging, and solar radiation
is used for renewable energy.
All objects emit electromagnetic radiation according to
their temperature. Colder objects emit waves with very
low frequency (such as radio or microwaves), while hot
objects emit waves with very high frequency (such as
infrared or ultraviolet).
Longer half-life of nucleus →Slow Radioactive Decay
Shorter half-life of nucleus →Fast Radioactive Decay
.. Physics at the atomic and subatomic level ...
… Weird things are possible:
Energy is quantized (E = nhυ).
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Momentum is quantized (L =nћ).
Charge is quantized (Q = ne).
Physics at the subatomic level is the study of the behavior
and properties of matter and energy at the smallest scales,
typically involving particles such as electrons, protons,
neutrons, and other subatomic particles. This field of physics
is known as quantum mechanics or quantum physics, and
it describes the fundamental behavior of nature at the
microscopic level. At the subatomic level, particles do not
behave like classical objects with well-defined positions and
velocities, but instead exhibit wave-particle duality. This
means that they can behave like particles, with definite
positions and momenta, or like waves, with characteristic
wavelengths and frequencies. Quantum mechanics also
predicts the existence of phenomena such as superposition,
where a particle can be in multiple states simultaneously, and
entanglement, where two particles can become correlated in
such a way that the state of one particle is instantaneously
affected by the state of the other, regardless of the
distance between them. Subatomic physics has many practical
applications, such as in the development of electronic devices,
such as transistors and microchips, and in medical imaging
technologies, such as positron emission tomography (PET)
31

and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It is also important in
the study of nuclear energy, particle physics, and astrophysics.
Dual Nature of Matter:
Because:
E = hυ, c = λυ, E = hc/ λ = pc
λ = h / p
Every particle or quantum entity may be partly described in terms not
only of particles, but also of waves.
The dual nature of matter is a fundamental concept in
quantum mechanics that is closely related to the wave-
particle duality. It refers to the fact that matter, including
subatomic particles such as electrons and protons, can
exhibit both wave-like and particle-like behavior. As waves,
matter exhibits interference patterns and diffraction, which
can be observed in experiments such as the double-slit
experiment. As particles, matter has a well-defined position
and momentum, and can be localized in space. The concept
of the dual nature of matter was first proposed by Louis
de Broglie in the early 20th century, who suggested that
just as light has both wave and particle properties, matter
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also has both wave and particle properties. This was later
experimentally confirmed by the famous Davisson-Germer
experiment, in which electrons were diffracted by a crystal
lattice, demonstrating their wave-like nature. The dual nature
of matter has important implications for our understanding
of the nature of matter and energy. It helps explain many
phenomena in the subatomic world, including the behavior
of electrons in atoms and the formation of chemical
bonds. It is also the foundation for the development of
technologies such as electron microscopy and the scanning
tunneling microscope. Overall, the dual nature of matter
is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics that has
transformed our understanding of the physical world and has
led to numerous advances in science and technology.
The Laws of Thermodynamics:
The Thermodynamic Laws think big: they dictate energy
behavior…
1 Law: Energy is conserved; its form can be converted.
2 Law: Energies can flow, equilibrate.
3 Law: Driving force for equilibration uniquely defined.
0 Law: Thermal equilibrium is transitive.
The thermodynamic laws are a set of fundamental principles
33

that govern the behavior of energy and matter in physical
systems. They have significant implications and applications
across many fields of science and engineering, including
chemistry, physics, materials science, and mechanical
engineering. Energy cannot be generated or destroyed; rather,
it can only be changed from one form to another, according
to the first law of thermodynamics, sometimes referred to
as the law of conservation of energy. This law is essential
to our understanding of energy conservation and the transfer
of energy in various physical and chemical processes. It
has important applications in the design of energy-efficient
systems and technologies, including renewable energy
systems and energy storage devices. The second law of
thermodynamics states that the entropy, or disorder, of an
isolated system always increases over time. This law is crucial
for our understanding of energy conversion and efficiency, and
it has important implications for the design of energy-efficient
engines and devices. It also explains why some processes,
such as the conversion of heat to work, are inherently less
efficient than others. The third law of thermodynamics states
that as a system approaches absolute zero temperature, its
entropy approaches a minimum value. This law is important
for our understanding of the behavior of matter at very
low temperatures and has applications in fields such as
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34

materials science and condensed matter physics. Overall, the
thermodynamic laws are fundamental principles that govern
the behavior of energy and matter in physical systems. They
are essential to our understanding of energy conservation and
efficiency, and they have significant applications across many
fields of science and engineering.
The Life of a Star:
More mass
More pressure and temperature
Faster Fusion
Shorter life
Less mass
Less pressure and temperature
Slower Fusion
Longer life
MATTER UNDER EXTREME CONDITIONS:
Nuclei + heat + pressure → quark-gluon plasma
Hydrogen atom: Diameter about a Billionth of an inch.
35

Electron: Diameter at least 1000 times smaller than that of proton.
Proton: Diameter about 60,000 times smaller than Hydrogen atom.
Probability distribution is the only way to locate an electron in an atom.
Gas Laws :
The Gas laws deal with how gases behave with respect to
pressure, volume, temperature …
Boyle's law:
Volume and pressure are inversely proportional.
Charles' law:
Volume is proportional to temperature.
Pressure law:
Pressure is proportional to temperature.
The combination of these three laws is known as the ideal gas
law, which can be expressed as:
PV / T = constant
Gas laws have many practical applications in science and
engineering, such as in the design and operation of engines,
refrigeration systems, and gas storage facilities. They are also
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important in the study of the Earth's atmosphere and the
behavior of gases in space.
Weak nuclear forces + Maxwell equations →Electro weak theory
Electro weak theory + Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) →Standard
Model of particle physics
Standard Model of particle physics→ explains everything except gravity.
Quantum Numbers:
Quantum numbers are a set of values used to describe the
energy, position, and orientation of an atomic particle, such
as an electron, within an atom. There are four main quantum
numbers:
Principal quantum number: A number that describes the average
distance of the orbital from the nucleus and the energy of the electron in
an atom.
Angular momentum quantum number: A number that describes the
shape of the orbital.
Magnetic quantum number: A number that describes how the various
orbitals are oriented in space.
Spin quantum number: A number that describes the direction the
electron is spinning in a magnetic field — either clockwise or
counterclockwise.
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Quantum numbers are important in the study of atomic and
molecular structure, as they help to explain the arrangement
and behavior of electrons within an atom. They are used in the
development of quantum mechanics and the interpretation of
spectroscopic data.
Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion:
The square of the periods of the planets (the times for them to complete one
orbit) is proportional to the cubes of their average distance from the Sun.
A consequence of this isthat the inner planets move rapidly in their orbits.
Venus, Earth and Mars move progressively less rapidly about the Sun. And
the outer planets, such as Jupiter and Saturn, move stately and slow.
Kepler's Third Law of Planetary Motion, also known as the
law of harmonies, relates the orbital period of a planet to
its distance from the Sun. This law was first formulated by
the German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the early 17th
century, based on his observations of the motion of the
planets. It is a mathematical expression of the fact that the
force of gravity between two objects decreases with the square
of the distance between them, as described by Newton's law
of universal gravitation. Kepler's Third Law has important
implications for the study of the solar system and other
planetary systems. By measuring the orbital period and
MANJUNATH R
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distance of a planet, astronomers can calculate its mass and
the mass of the star it orbits, and use this information to
study the structure and evolution of the system. The law also
helps to explain why some planets, such as the gas giants, have
much longer orbital periods than others, such as the terrestrial
planets.
Wavelength of UV radiation Wavelength of IR
radiation Wavelength of microwave radiation
Molecule dissociates (when it absorbs UV radiation).
Molecule vibrates (when it absorbs IR radiation).
Molecule rotates (when it absorbs microwave radiation).
If the expansion of space had overwhelmed the pull of gravity in the
beginning − stars, galaxies and humanswould never have been able to
form. If, on the other hand, gravity had been 5% stronger− stars and
galaxies might have formed, but they would have quickly collapsed in on
themselves and each other to form a sphere of roughly infinite density.
Neutrons have a mass of 939.56 MeV:
If the mass of a neutron was a seventh of a percent more than
it is, stars like most of those we can see would not have existed.
If the neutron mass was 0.085% less than it is, the Universe
would have been full of neutrons and nothing else.
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A neutron is a subatomic particle that is found in the nucleus of
an atom along with protons. It has no electrical charge, and its mass
is slightly greater than that of a proton. The British physicist James
Chadwick made the neutron's discovery in 1932. In terms of structure,
a neutron is composed of three quarks: two down quarks and one up
quark. The down quarks have a negative charge, while the up quark
has a positive charge, and together they give the neutron its neutral
charge. Neutrons play a crucial role in nuclear reactions, such as nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion, because they can be absorbed by atomic
nuclei, causing them to become unstable and split apart or merge
together. They are also used in many scientific applications, such as
in neutron scattering experiments to study the properties of materials
and in neutron imaging techniques to study the structure of biological
and engineering samples. In addition to their scientific applications,
neutrons have important practical uses, such as in the production
of nuclear power and in cancer treatment through neutron therapy.
However, they can also be a byproduct of nuclear reactions and can be
harmful to living organisms due to their ability to ionize atoms and
cause damage to DNA.
If we cut the surface of a sphere up into faces,
edges and vertices, and let F be the number
of faces, E the number of edges and V the
number of vertices, we will always get: V – E +
F = 2.
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Fibonacci Numbers:
From pinecones to the Hurricane Sandy, Fibonacci reflects
various patterns found in nature.
Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of numbers in which each
number is the sum of the two preceding numbers, starting
with 0 and 1. The sequence's initial few numbers are:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, ...
The sequence is named after the Italian mathematician
Leonardo Fibonacci, who introduced it to the Western
world in his book Liber Abaci, published in 1202. However,
the sequence had been previously described in Indian
mathematics. The Fibonacci sequence has many interesting
properties and applications in mathematics and science.
For example, the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers
approaches the golden ratio, which is approximately 1.618.
The golden ratio is a mathematical constant that appears
in many natural phenomena, such as the spiral patterns
in seashells and the proportions of the human body.
The Fibonacci sequence also appears in various areas of
mathematics, such as in the solution of the Fibonacci
recurrence relation, the calculation of determinants of certain
41

matrices, and the analysis of the dynamics of chaotic systems.
In addition, the Fibonacci sequence has practical applications
in computer science, such as in algorithms for sorting and
searching data. Interestingly, the Fibonacci sequence can be
observed in nature in a variety of ways. Here are a few
examples:
Flower petals: Many flowers have a number of petals that is a Fibonacci
number. For example, lilies have three petals, buttercups have five, and
delphiniums have eight.
Pinecones: The scales on a pinecone are arranged in a spiral pattern, and
the number of scales in each spiral is often a Fibonacci number.
Nautilus shells: The chambered nautilus is a marine animal that has a
spiral shell with a distinctive pattern of chambers. The shape of the shell
follows a logarithmic spiral, which is related to the Fibonacci sequence.
Leaf arrangements: The way leaves are arranged on a stem can follow
a pattern related to the Fibonacci sequence. For example, many plants
have leaves that are arranged in a spiral pattern, and the number of turns
in the spiral is often a Fibonacci number.
Human body: Some proportions of the human body follow the Fibonacci
sequence. For example, the ratio of the length of the forearm to the
length of the hand is close to the golden ratio, which is derived from the
Fibonacci sequence.
These are just a few examples of the many ways in which the
Fibonacci sequence can be observed in nature.
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The paths of anything you throw have the same shape, called an upside-
down parabola.
When we observe how objects move around in gravitationally curved
trajectories in space, we discover another recurring shape: the ellipse.
All material particles have properties
such as charge and spin.
Space itself has properties such as dimensions.
These properties are purely mathematical.
Equations aren't the only hints of mathematics that are built
into nature: there are also numbers involving not only motion
and gravity, but also areas as disparate as classical physics,
quantum mechanics, and astronomy. Equations are important
because they provide a concise and precise way of expressing
relationships between variables and making predictions about
how those variables will behave under different conditions.
Equations are used extensively in fields such as mathematics,
physics, chemistry, engineering, economics, and many others.
They allow scientists and engineers to model complex
systems, analyze data, and make predictions about how those
systems will behave. Equations are also important in everyday
life. For example, the formulas used to calculate interest on
43

a loan, determine the amount of medication to take based
on body weight, or predict the outcome of a sports game
are all based on equations. Equations allow us to make sense
of the world around us and to make informed decisions
based on data and analysis. They are a fundamental tool
in problem-solving and decision-making, and they play a
crucial role in advancing our understanding of the natural
world and the technologies we use. Equations play a crucial
role in understanding the behavior of natural systems and
phenomena. Here are a few examples of equations in nature:
Newton's laws of motion: Newton's laws of motion are a set of
equations that describe how objects move and interact with each other.
These laws are fundamental to our understanding of mechanics and the
behavior of objects in the natural world.
Maxwell's equations: Maxwell's equations describe the behavior of
electric and magnetic fields and how they interact with each
other. These equations are fundamental to our understanding of
electromagnetism and are used extensively in the study of light, radio
waves, and other electromagnetic phenomena.
The Navier-Stokes equations: The Navier-Stokes equations describe the
motion of fluids, such as water and air. These equations are important
for understanding weather patterns, ocean currents, and many other
natural phenomena.
The Schrödinger equation: The Schrödinger equation is a fundamental
equation in quantum mechanics, describing how particles behave at the
microscopic level. This equation is used to understand the behavior of
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atoms, molecules, and other small particles.
The Logistic equation: The logistic equation is used to model
population growth in ecology. It describes how populations grow and
reach a carrying capacity over time, taking into account factors such as
birth rates, death rates, and available resources.
These are just a few examples of the many equations that are
used to model and understand natural phenomena. Equations
allow us to make predictions about the behavior of natural
systems and to design technologies that harness these systems
for our benefit.
Strong force→ Force that is responsible for binding together the
fundamental particles of matter to form larger particles.
If stronger: No hydrogen would have formed; atomicnuclei for most life-
essential elements would have been unstable; thus, there would have
been no life chemistry.
If weaker: No elements heavier than hydrogen would have formed−
again, no life chemistry.
One of the four fundamental forces of nature, along with electromagnetic,
gravity, and the weak force, is the strong force. It is the force that holds the
nucleus of an atom together, binding protons and neutrons together to form
the nucleus. The strong force is the strongest of the fundamental forces, but
it has a very short range, acting only within the nucleus of an atom. It is
mediated by particles called gluons, which are exchanged between quarks,
the particles that make up protons and neutrons. The strong force is essential
for the stability of matter. Without it, the positively charged protons in
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the nucleus would repel each other and cause the nucleus to break apart,
releasing huge amounts of energy in the process. In addition to its role in
nuclear physics, the strong force also plays a crucial role in the behavior of
high-energy particles. It is responsible for the production of particles such
as mesons and baryons in particle accelerators and is also involved in the
process of quark confinement, which prevents quarks from existing as free
particles. Overall, the strong force is a fundamental force of nature that plays
a crucial role in the behavior of matter at the atomic and subatomic level.
Weak force→Force that is responsible for the radioactive decay of atoms
If stronger: Too much hydrogen would have been converted to helium
in the big bang; hence, stars would have converted too much matter into
heavy elements making life chemistry impossible.
If weaker: Too little helium would have been produced from big bang;
hence, stars would have converted too little matter into heavy elements
making life chemistry impossible.
The weak force, also known as the weak nuclear force, is one of the
four fundamental forces in the universe. It is responsible for a number of
phenomena related to particle physics, including radioactive decay, nuclear
fusion, and some types of particle interactions. The weak force is carried
by three particles called the W+
, W−
, and Z bosons. These bosons are heavy,
and their masses give the weak force a relatively short range, meaning it
operates only over very short distances. One of the unique features of the
weak force is that it violates parity symmetry, which means that it behaves
differently when viewed in a mirror. This was first observed in experiments
with the decay of cobalt-60 nuclei, where the emitted electrons were found
to be preferentially oriented in one direction relative to the nucleus. The
weak force also violates CP symmetry, which is the combination of parity
symmetry and charge conjugation symmetry. This means that the force
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behaves differently when particles and their corresponding antiparticles
interact. This violation of CP symmetry is believed to be one of the reasons
why there is more matter than antimatter in the universe. In addition to its
role in nuclear physics, the weak force is also important in astrophysics. It is
responsible for the process of stellar nucleosynthesis, where heavier elements
are created through nuclear fusion in the cores of stars. The weak force is
also involved in the process of neutrino oscillation, where neutrinos change
between different flavors as they travel through space. Overall, the weak force
is a fundamental force of nature that plays a crucial role in a variety of
physical phenomena, from radioactive decay to the behavior of stars.
Electromagnetic force→ Force that is responsible for most of the
interactions we see in our environment today.
If stronger: Chemical bonding would have been disrupted; elements
more massive than boron would have been unstable to fission.
If weaker: Chemical bonding would have been insufficient for life
chemistry.
The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature,
along with gravity, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. It is
responsible for the interaction between electrically charged particles, and is the
force behind many everyday phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism, and
light. The electromagnetic force is carried by particles called photons, which are
massless and travel at the speed of light. Electrically charged particles interact
by exchanging photons, and the strength of the interaction depends on the
magnitude and separation of the charges. One of the most important properties
of the electromagnetic force is that it obeys the inverse-square law, which means
that the force between two charged particles decreases as the distance between
them increases. This property is responsible for many of the behaviors we
observe in electric and magnetic fields, such as the way that the strength of an
47

electric field decreases with distance from a charged object. The electromagnetic
force also has a number of important applications in modern technology,
including telecommunications, electronics, and power generation. It is the force
behind the operation of electric motors, generators, and transformers, and is
the basis for many technologies such as wireless communication, radar, and
medical imaging. Overall, the electromagnetic force is a fundamental force of
nature that plays a central role in many of the phenomena we observe in the
world around us. Its properties and behaviors have been studied extensively by
physicists, and continue to be the subject of ongoing research and discovery.
c = 299,792,458 meters per second−
serves as the single limiting velocity in
the universe, being an upper bound to
the propagation speed of signals and to
the speeds of all material particles.
Ratio of electromagnetic force to gravitational force:
If larger: All stars would have been at least 40% more massive than the
sun; hence, stellar burning would have been too brief and too uneven for
life support.
If smaller: All stars would have been at least 20% less massive than the
sun, thus incapable of producing heavier elements.
Ratio of electron to proton mass:
If larger or smaller: Chemical bonding would have been insufficient for
life chemistry.
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Mass of the neutrino:
If smaller: Galaxy clusters, galaxies, and stars would have not formed.
If greater:Galaxy clusters and galaxies would have been too dense.
Ratio of exotic matter to ordinary matter:
If larger: The universe would have collapsed before the formation of
solar-type stars.
If smaller: No galaxies would have formed.
Number of effective dimensions in the early universe:
If larger or smaller: Quantum mechanics, gravity, and relativity could
not have coexisted; thus, life would have been impossible.
Entropy level of the universe:
If larger:Stars would have not formed within proto-galaxies.
If smaller:No proto-galaxies would have formed.
Polarity of the water molecule:
If greater: Heat of fusion and vaporization would have been too high for
life.
If smaller: Heat of fusion and vaporization would have been too low for
life; liquid water would not have worked as a solvent for life chemistry;
ice would not have floated, and a runaway freeze-up would have
resulted.
FE= Qq/4πε0r2
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The electrical force decreases with increasing distance between the charged
particles; when the distance is doubled, the force falls by a factor of 4.
Hubble's law:
The greater the distance d to the galaxy, the higher the velocity v with
which it receded from us, according to the formula:
v = Hubble parameter × d
Hubble's law is a fundamental principle in astrophysics that describes the
relationship between the distance to a galaxy and its radial velocity, or speed
of motion away from us. The law is named after Edwin Hubble, the American
astronomer who first proposed it in 1929 based on his observations of
distant galaxies. Hubble's law states that the velocity of recession of a galaxy
is directly proportional to its distance from us. The law implies that the
universe is expanding uniformly in all directions, with galaxies moving away
from each other at a rate proportional to their distance. This expansion
is thought to have begun with the Big Bang, which occurred approximately
13.8 billion years ago. Hubble's law has been confirmed by many subsequent
observations and is considered one of the most important discoveries in
cosmology. It provides a key tool for measuring distances to distant galaxies
and for studying the large-scale structure and evolution of the universe.
Photoelectric Effect:
The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons
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are emitted from a material when light of a certain frequency
or higher is shone on it. The effect was first observed by
Heinrich Hertz in 1887 and later explained by Albert Einstein
in 1905. In the photoelectric effect, photons (particles of light)
collide with electrons in the material, transferring energy
to the electrons and causing them to be emitted from the
surface. The energy of the emitted electrons is proportional to
the frequency of the incident light, and there is a threshold
frequency below which no electrons are emitted, regardless of
the intensity of the light. The photoelectric effect has many
practical applications, including in photovoltaic cells (solar
cells) and in electronic devices such as photomultiplier tubes
and image sensors. It also played a key role in the development
of quantum mechanics, as it provided strong evidence for
the particle nature of light. The photoelectric equation,
also known as the Einstein's photoelectric equation, is an
equation that describes the relationship between the energy
of a photon and the energy of an emitted electron in the
photoelectric effect. The equation is given as:
Energy of the photon = Work Function of the metal
surface + Kinetic energy of the emitted electron
hυ= W +m0v2
/2
If hυ W:
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No photoelectric emission.
The Lorentz factor is a term used in special relativity to
describe the relationship between time, space, and energy
or momentum for objects moving at relativistic speeds (i.e.,
speeds that approach the speed of light). The Lorentz factor is
given by the equation:
β = v/c
γ = 1 / (1 – β2
)
where γ is the Lorentz factor, v is the velocity of the object, and
c is the speed of light. As an object's velocity approaches the
speed of light, the denominator of this equation approaches
zero, making the Lorentz factor infinitely large. This means
that time dilation and length contraction become more and
more pronounced as an object approaches the speed of light.
Additionally, the increase in the Lorentz factor also leads to
an increase in the object's momentum and energy. The Lorentz
factor is a fundamental concept in special relativity and has
important implications for our understanding of time, space,
and the behavior of objects at high speeds.
Relativistic mass = Lorentz factor × Rest mass
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Contracted length = Proper length / Lorentz factor
Dilated time = Lorentz factor × Stationary time
If v = c:
Relativistic mass → ∞
Contracted length → 0
Dilated time → ∞
Neutron ↔ proton + electron + antineutrino (beta decay)
Proton + electron ↔ neutrino + neutron (electron capture)
Proton + antineutrino ↔ positron + neutron(inverse beta decay)
Closed Universe → positively curved
Open Universe → negatively curved
Flat Universe → uncurved
∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π
The momentum and the position of a particle cannot be simultaneously
measured with unlimited precision.
dA /dt = L /2m =constant
The areal velocity of a planet revolving around the sun in elliptical orbit
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remains constant which implies one-half its angular momentum divided
by its mass remains constant. A consequence of this is that the Planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
Black hole temperature:
T =ħc3
/8πGMkB
Thus, a smaller black hole is hotter, and consequently radiates more.
Technically, black holes don't evaporate in the classic
sense. Nonetheless, black holes do emit particles over time
and lose mass, according to Stephen Hawking's hypothesis
of Hawking radiation. Black hole evaporation is the name
given to this process. The evaporation time of a black hole
depends on its mass. Black holes with smaller sizes evaporate
more quickly than those with larger sizes. Specifically, the
evaporation time is given by the formula:
tev= 5120πG2
M3
/ħc4
For a black hole with the mass of the Sun (about 2 × 1030
kg),
the evaporation time is extremely long, about 2 × 1067
years. For a
supermassive black hole with a mass of 10 billion Suns, the evaporation
time is about 2 × 10100
years, which is much longer than the current age of
the universe.
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Stefan Boltzmann law:
L = σT4
A
L= luminosity
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
A = surface area
T = temperature in Kelvin
A consequence of this is that:
The larger a star is, the more energy it puts out, and the more luminous
it is.
The star with a higher temperature will be more luminous than the star
with lower temperatures.
Astrobiophysics → astrophysics + biophysics
Astrostatistics → astrophysics + statistical analysis + data mining
Black hole entropy is a measure of the disorder or
randomness of a black hole's internal state. It is a concept in
theoretical physics that is closely related to the second law
of thermodynamics, which states that the total entropy of a
closed system never decreases over time. The concept of black
hole entropy was first proposed by physicist Jacob Bekenstein
in the early 1970s, and was later refined by Stephen Hawking.
According to Hawking's theory of Hawking radiation, black
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holes emit particles over time and eventually evaporate. If A
stands for the surface area of a black hole (area of the event
horizon), then the black hole entropy is given by:
SB= kBA/4LPlanck
2
This formula implies that the entropy of a black hole is
proportional to the area of its event horizon. The larger the
black hole, the greater its surface area and hence its entropy.
This relationship between black hole entropy and surface area
is known as the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula. Black
hole entropy is an important concept in modern physics, as
it provides a link between gravity and thermodynamics, two
seemingly unrelated areas of physics. It also plays a role in the
ongoing effort to reconcile the laws of quantum mechanics
and general relativity, known as the problem of quantum
gravity.
Wien's Law: The wavelength of peak emission is inversely
proportional to the temperature of the emitting object.
λmax= b /T
b is a constant of proportionality called Wien's displacement constant,
equal to 2.897771955...×10
−3
mK
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Thus, hotter objects emit most of their radiation at shorter
wavelengths; hence they will appear to be bluer.
Wien's Law is a principle in physics that describes the relationship between
the wavelength of the peak emission of a blackbody radiation spectrum and
its temperature. This law applies to any object that emits thermal radiation,
regardless of its composition or shape. A blackbody is an idealized object that
absorbs all radiation incident upon it and emits radiation at all wavelengths.
The spectrum of radiation emitted by a blackbody is continuous, and the
peak of the spectrum shifts to shorter wavelengths (i.e., higher frequencies)
as the temperature increases. Wien's Law has many practical applications,
including in the design of incandescent light bulbs, the study of astrophysics,
and the analysis of thermal imaging data.
Stellar Radiation Pressure:
Pradiation= 4σT4
/3c
Thus, a doubling of temperature means an increase of
radiation pressure by a factor of 16.
The nuclear radius R can be approximated by the following formula:
R = r0 A2/3
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A = Atomic mass number (the number of protons Z plus the number of
neutrons N) and r0= 1.25 fm = 1.25 × 10
−15
m.
Thus, size of nucleus depends on the mass number of nucleus.
If electrons were bosons, rather than
fermions, then they would not obey
the Pauli Exclusion Principle. There
would be no life chemistry.
FG= GMm/r2
G represents the gravitational constant, which has a value of 6.674 ×10
−11
N
(m/kg)
2
. Because G is small, gravitational force is very small unless
large masses are involved. Newton's law of gravitation is a fundamental
principle in physics that describes the force of gravity between two objects
with mass. However, the law is unable to explain the anomalous precession
of the orbit of Mercury, which was observed to deviate slightly from what
would be predicted by Newton's law. This deviation was later explained by
Einstein's theory of general relativity.
The Eddington Limit:
The Eddington limit is a critical luminosity beyond which a
star or other astronomical object would become unstable and
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unable to maintain its current size and shape. It is named after
the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington, who first derived
this limit in 1926. The Eddington limit is based on the balance
between the inward gravitational force and the outward
radiation pressure exerted by a star. At the Eddington limit,
the radiation pressure becomes so strong that it overcomes
the gravitational force, causing the star to expand and become
unstable. Specifically, the Eddington luminosity limit is given
by:
LEdd= 4πGMmpc / σT
where LEdd is the Eddington luminosity, G is the gravitational constant,
M is the mass of the star, c is the speed of light, σT is the Thomson
scattering cross-section for the electron, and mp is the mass of a proton.
For a star that exceeds the Eddington limit, the radiation
pressure can cause the outer layers of the star to be blown
away, resulting in a massive stellar wind or even a complete
explosion known as a supernova.
Virial Theorem for star:
Thermal energy + gravitational potential energy =
1/2 × gravitational potential energy
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Thermal energy = − 1/2 × gravitational potential energy
K = − U /2
As a consequence of this is that: The thermal energy increases
if the gravitational potential energy becomes more negative.
Wavelength of light size of particle : Geometrical scattering
Wavelength of light ≈ size of particle : Mie scattering
Wavelength of light size of particle : Rayleigh scattering
kBT KE Fermi: the electron gas is fully degenerate
kBT ≈ KE Fermi: the electron gas is partially degenerate
kBT KEFermi: the electron gas is non-degenerate
The spin of the neutron, proton and electron are all 1/2. If
beta decay involves just a neutron becoming a proton and an
electron, spin is not conserved.
Neutron → proton + electron
1/2 → 1/2 + 1/2
Half integral → integral
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Hence, the above reaction cannot take place since spin is not
conserved.
The electrostatic repulsion between two protons is e
2
/ 4πε0r
2
while the
gravitational attraction between them is Gmp
2/r
2
. The ratio of these two
forces is e
2
/ 4πε0Gmp
2. This expression is independent of distance between
them, so the relative strength of the forces is the same throughout all space.
If mv2
/ 2 GMm/r :
Object of mass m will escape the gravitational field of mass
M.
In classical physics, it is possible to
exactly specify both position and
momentum simultaneously.
In Quantum mechanics: if we try to localize a particle
spatially, we lose information about its momentum.
A light year is the distance traveled by light in a year:
1 light year = (speed of light) × (1 year) =
3×10
10
cms
−1
× 3 × 10
7
s = 9×10
17
cm.
Water freezes at 273 K (
61
≡0 C)
o

Hubble's law→ Consequence of the expansion of the space through which
light is travelling.
mpc
2
/kB→Temperature below which proton is effectively removed from the
universe
The angles in a triangle when added together sum up to 180
o
.
The circumference of a circle divided by its diameter is a fixed number
called π.
In a right angled triangle the lengths of the sides are related by c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
where c is the length of the side opposite to the right angle.
1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19
J
1 keV is a thousand eV
1 MeV is a million eV
1 GeV is a thousand million eV
1 TeV is a million million eV
Particles can only spin at a rate that
is a multiple of h/2π
Fermions (quarks and leptons) spin at 1/2 × h/2π
Bosons (photons and gluons) spin at 1 × h/2π or 2 × h/2π.
Euler's formula:
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Water boils at 373 K (≡100 C)
o

eπi
+ 1 = 0
Connects the five fundamental constants of mathematics (e, π, i, 0, 1).
[Imaginary number i = (−1)
1/2
]
Euler's formula shows that even though e, π, and i are seemingly unrelated
constants, they are connected in a fundamental way through this equation.
It has important applications in various branches of mathematics,
including complex analysis, number theory, and signal processing.
Maxwell equations→ electromagnetism
Schrödinger equation → quantum mechanics
Balmer equation→ Interpretation of atomic spectra
Yang-Mills equation → SU(2) gauge symmetry of isospin
Dirac equation→ relativistic quantum mechanics
Higgs field equation → symmetry breaking
Einstein equations→ relativity
The logistic map → chaotic dynamics
Noether's Theorem (1918): For every continuous symmetry
there is a corresponding conserved quantity [such as electric
charge] and vice versa.
(iγμdμ
− m ) Щ = 0
The Dirac Equation that predicts
the existence of antimatter
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where:
i = imaginary number
γμ= Pauli matrices
d
μ
= derivative in 4 dimensions
m = fermion mass
Щ = wave function
Bayes' Theorem:
P (H | E) = P (E | H) × P (H) / P (E)
H represents a hypothesis and E the evidence.
P (H | E) – the probability of H given E is true
P (E | H) – the probability of E given H is true
P (E) – the probability of E
P (H) – the probability of H
Bayes' Theorem is a fundamental concept in probability
theory that provides a way to update our beliefs about the
probability of an event occurring based on new evidence or
information. It is named after the English statistician Thomas
Bayes who first formulated it in the 18th century. Bayes'
Theorem is widely used in fields such as statistics, data
science, and machine learning, where it is used to update
probabilities based on new evidence or data. It has numerous
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practical applications, such as in medical diagnosis, spam
filtering, and image recognition.
The number 0 is the neutral element of addition:
1 + 0 = 1
23 + 0 = 23
Adding 0
Nothing happens
Zero (0) is a number that represents the absence of quantity or value. It
is an important concept in mathematics and plays a critical role in many
mathematical operations. Zero is the additive identity, meaning that when
it is added to any number, the result is that number itself. It is also the
multiplicative identity, meaning that when it is multiplied by any number,
the result is zero. Zero was not recognized as a number in early civilizations,
and it was not until the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta introduced
the concept of zero as a number in the 7th century that it became widely
accepted. Today, zero is an essential part of the number system and is used
in a wide range of mathematical applications, including algebra, calculus,
and number theory. Zero also has many practical applications in fields such
as physics, computer science, and engineering, where it is used to represent
empty spaces, null values, or starting points of measurements.
FG= GMm/r2
G → Constant that controls the strength of gravity
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H2O → Consisting of one oxygen atom and
two hydrogen atoms, water molecule plays
a special role in the chemistry of life.
General relativity→ Tell us about the geometry
of spacetime, but not the topology.
The Planck mass is a fundamental constant of nature that has
important significance in theoretical physics, particularly in
the field of quantum gravity. It is defined as:
mPlanck= (ħc/G)1/2
whichis roughly 24,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (2.4 ×
1022) times the mass of the electron.The Planck mass is the
mass that would be required to create a black hole with a
Schwarzschild radius equal to the Planck length. The Planck
mass is significant because it corresponds to the mass scale
where quantum gravitational effects are expected to become
significant. This is due to the prediction that the curvature
of spacetime will become very nonlinear and that quantum
effects of gravity will become significant at energies and
masses close to the Planck scale, demanding the development
of a theory of quantum gravity. The Planck mass is also
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relevant in cosmology, where it is used to define the Planck
density, which is the maximum possible energy density of the
universe. The Planck mass therefore represents a fundamental
limit on the amount of mass that can be concentrated in a
given volume of space.
Planck's law is accurate at all wavelengths.
Wien's Law is a good approximation at short wavelengths.
The Rayleigh-Jeans Law is a good approximation at large wavelength.
α = e2
/4πε0ħc
Fine structure constant→ Constant
characterizing the strength of interaction
between charged particles.
The fine structure constant, also known as Sommerfeld's constant, is
a dimensionless physical constant that characterizes the strength of the
electromagnetic interaction between charged particles. It is denoted by
the symbol α and is approximately equal to 1/137. The fine structure
constant is a fundamental constant of nature that appears in many areas
of physics, including atomic and molecular physics, condensed matter
physics, particle physics, and cosmology. It is related to the fundamental
constants of nature, such as the speed of light, Planck's constant, and
the elementary charge. The fine structure constant is derived from a
combination of physical constants, including the elementary charge, the
vacuum permittivity, and the reduced Planck constant. It is a unitless,
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dimensionless quantity. One of the most notable features of the fine
structure constant is its apparent unexplained value. Despite decades
of experimental and theoretical efforts, there is currently no accepted
explanation for why α has the value it does. Some theories suggest that
the value of α might be evidence of the existence of extra dimensions or
other fundamental physics beyond the standard model. The fine structure
constant is also important in the study of atomic and molecular spectra. It
determines the spacing between energy levels in atoms and molecules, and
can be used to predict the wavelengths of spectral lines with high precision.
The fine structure constant also plays a role in the calculation of the rate of
spontaneous emission of light by excited atoms, and in the calculation of
the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron.
Observations
↓
Hypothesis
↓
Experiment
↓
Laws
↓
Theory
Five Equations That Changed the World:
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F = GMm/r2
(Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation)
P + ρ × v
2
/2 = constant (Bernoulli's Law of Hydrodynamic Pressure)
∇ × E = − ∂B / ∂t(Faraday's Law of Induction)
E = mc
2
(Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence)
Suniverse 0 (Clausius's Law of Thermodynamics)
c2
= 1 / (vacuum permittivity × vacuum permeability)
c = 1 / (ε0× μ0)1/2
c → Determined by the electromagnetic
properties of free space – μ0and ε0
Quantum mechanics + General theory of relativity
→ Quantum theory of gravity
The quantum theory of gravity is a theoretical framework that seeks
to describe the nature of gravity within the framework of quantum
mechanics. Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces of nature,
responsible for the attraction between masses. However, our current
understanding of gravity, which is described by Einstein's theory of
general relativity, is incompatible with quantum mechanics, the theory
that describes the behavior of matter and energy at a microscopic level.
The quantum theory of gravity is an active area of research in theoretical
physics, and several competing theories have been proposed, including
string theory, loop quantum gravity, and causal dynamical triangulation.
These theories attempt to reconcile the apparent incompatibility between
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general relativity and quantum mechanics by describing gravity as a
quantum field or a quantum property of spacetime. One of the main
challenges in developing a quantum theory of gravity is the problem
of infinities that arise in the calculations. This is known as the
problem of non-renormalizability, and it requires the development of
new mathematical techniques and conceptual frameworks. Despite the
challenges, the quantum theory of gravity is an important area of research,
as it may lead to a deeper understanding of the fundamental nature of the
universe and the unification of all fundamental forces into a single theory.
If the density perturbations were much
weaker, then galaxies may never have
coalesced. Without galaxies there would be no
buildup of heavy elements, and it is unlikely
that planets, and life, would have emerged.
In the presence of gravity, time slows
down — the stronger the effect of gravity
the more that time slows down
Entropy of Universe = entropy of visible Universe +
entropy of dark matter + entropy of black holes
The total energy of the star = internal energy due to thermal
motion and radiation + gravitational potential energy
Stars with mass 0.08 Msun burn hydrogen.
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Stars with mass 0.5 Msun burn hydrogen and helium.
Stars with massin the range of 1 to 8 Msun continue nucleosynthesis up till
the production of carbon.
Stars with mass 10 Msun synthesize all the elements up to iron and nickel.
Rate of energy production in the pp-processof hydrogen burning ∝
(Temperature)
4
Rate of energy production in the CNO-processof hydrogen burning ∝
(Temperature)
18
Superstrings → Supersymmetry + Quantum
Gravity + Grand Unified Theories
Size of our universe ≈1026
m
The distance Earth–Sun is ≈ 1.5 × 1011
m
The radius of the Sun is ≈ 7 × 108
m
The radius of the Earth is ≈ 6.4 × 106
m
Rocks, Humans, . . . ≈ 1 m
Grains of sand ≈ 10−3
m
Viruses ≈ 10−7
m
Simple molecules ≈ 10−9
m
Atoms ≈ 10−10
m
What can astronomers learn from redshifts?
Redshift = (λobserved/ λemitted) − 1
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is always positive, i.e. observed radiation is redder than the
emitted one − which implies: Universe is in expansion.
Redshift is a phenomenon in astronomy that occurs when the light
emitted from an object, such as a star or a galaxy, appears to shift
towards longer wavelengths, or towards the red end of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Redshift is caused by the Doppler Effect, which is a change in
the frequency of waves emitted by a moving source relative to an observer.
When an object is moving away from an observer, the wavelengths of light
emitted by the object are stretched out, making them appear longer and
redder. This is known as redshift. The amount of redshift is proportional
to the velocity of the object and the distance between the observer and
the object. The more distant an object is, the greater its redshift will be.
Redshift is an important tool in astronomy, as it can be used to measure
the velocity and distance of celestial objects. By studying the redshift of
galaxies, astronomers have been able to determine that the universe is
expanding, as the observed redshift of distant galaxies is proportional to
their distance from Earth. There are two types of redshift: gravitational
redshift and cosmological redshift. Gravitational redshift occurs when
light is emitted from an object that is located in a strong gravitational
field, such as a black hole or a neutron star. The gravitational field causes
the wavelength of the light to stretch, resulting in redshift. Cosmological
redshift results from the universe's expansion. As the universe expands,
the distance between objects in space increases, causing the wavelengths of
light to stretch out and resulting in redshift. The amount of cosmological
redshift is proportional to the distance between the observer and the object
and is used to measure the distance and velocity of galaxies and other
celestial objects.
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Principle of equivalence:
m in (m × a) and the m in GMm/r2
are identical.
Inertial mass and gravitational mass are identical.
Gravity will affect anything carrying energy
↓
Root of the construction of Einstein's
equations which describe gravity
Light intensity drops as 1 / (distance)2
In an open universe (negative curvature): the angles in a
triangle add up to less than 180o
.
In a closed universe (positive curvature): the angles in a
triangle add up to more than 180o
.
In a flat universe (zero curvature): the angles in a triangle add
up to 180o
.
The energy of the universe is constant.
The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum.
External Reality Theory (ERT) → External reality
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exists completely independent of human beings.
Mathematical Universe Theory (MUT) → External
physical reality is a mathematical structure.
G when associated with c and with the reduced Planck's constant ħ, it
leads to the definition of the Planck's time: tPlanck=(ħG/c
5
)
1/2
= 5.4 × 10
−44
seconds (The shortest possible time interval that can be measured).
The nuclear charge Q can be approximated by the following formula:
Q = Ze
Z = Atomic number (the number of protons).
Thus, charge of nucleus depends on the number of protons.
The strong coupling constant defines
the strength of the force that holds
protons and neutrons together.
The Universe is made up of three things:
Vacuum
Matter
Photons
Total energy density of the universe:
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ρ = ρvacuum+ ρmatter+ ρradiation
ρvacuum=Λc2
/8πG is constant and independent of time. The
cosmological constant Λ has negative pressure equal and
opposite to its energy density and so causes the expansion of
the universe to accelerate.
Vacuum energy density refers to the energy that is thought to be
present in the vacuum of space, even in the absence of matter or
radiation. This energy is believed to be responsible for the accelerating
expansion of the universe, and is closely related to the concept of dark
energy. The idea of vacuum energy density arises from quantum field
theory, which describes the behavior of subatomic particles and their
interactions with each other. According to this theory, the vacuum of
space is not empty, but instead contains fluctuations of quantum fields
that can give rise to particles and antiparticles, which are constantly
popping into and out of existence. These fluctuations are known as
virtual particles, and they have measurable effects on the properties of
particles and fields. The vacuum energy density is calculated by adding
up the contributions of all the quantum fields in the universe, and then
subtracting out any contributions from matter or radiation. However,
the calculated value of vacuum energy density is many orders of
magnitude larger than what is observed in the universe. This is known
as the vacuum energy catastrophe, and it remains one of the biggest
unsolved problems in physics. One possible explanation for the observed
value of vacuum energy density is that it is due to a type of dark energy
that permeates all of space and drives the accelerating expansion of
the universe. This dark energy is thought to have a negative pressure,
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which counteracts the gravitational attraction of matter and causes the
expansion of the universe to accelerate. However, the nature of this dark
energy remains a mystery, and further observations and experiments
are needed to better understand it.
mproton/ melectron= 1836.15267245
↓
Changing their values changes the physical phenomena
The proton to electron mass ratio is a dimensionless
constant that represents the mass ratio between a proton
and an electron. The value of the proton to electron
mass ratio is approximately 1836.15267245, meaning that a
proton is approximately 1836 times more massive than an
electron. This ratio is an important fundamental constant in
physics and is used in many calculations involving subatomic
particles. It is also used in the study of atomic and subatomic
particles, including in the calculation of atomic spectra and
the determination of the masses of other subatomic particles.
When the Universe was at the Planck
temperature (ħc5
/GkB
2)1/2
and the
mean energy of photons was close
to the Planck energy (ħc5
/G)1/2
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Solar mass = 2 × 1030
kg − of which about 70% is hydrogen,
28% helium, and 2% consists of other elements. Only about a
seventh part of that hydrogen mass is available at any time for
hydrogen fusion in the core of the Sun.
At Planck length (ħG/c3
)1/2
, the gravitational force
is as strong as the other forces and space-time is
foamy − filled with tiny bubbles and wormholes
appearing and disappearing into the vacuum.
Rayleigh scattering law: The amount of scattering of light is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
I ∝ 1/ λ4
Thus, Rayleigh scattering is more intense at shorter wavelengths.
Rayleigh scattering is the scattering of light by particles much
smaller than the wavelength of the light. It was first described
by Lord Rayleigh in the late 19th century. The Rayleigh
scattering law explains why the sky appears blue during the
day. The Earth's atmosphere contains tiny particles such as
molecules of nitrogen and oxygen that scatter sunlight in all
directions. Blue light has a shorter wavelength than red light,
so it is scattered more in the atmosphere. As a result, the blue
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light is scattered in all directions, making the sky appear blue
to an observer on the ground.
Supersymmetry →The positive zero point energy of the boson field exactly
cancels the negative zero point energy of the fermion field.
h→ 6.62607004 × 10−34
m2
kg/s
Because h is too small: Quantum mechanics is for little things.
Gravity pulls everything in, but a mysterious
force called dark energy tries to push it
all back together again. Our fate relies on
which force will win the desire to succeed.
Because of CP violation (violation of charge
conjugation parity symmetry) there was more matter
than antimatter right after the Big Bang.
CP violation, also known as charge-parity violation, is a
phenomenon in particle physics where the symmetry of
charge conjugation (C) and parity (P) is violated in certain
processes. Charge conjugation is the operation of changing all
particles to their corresponding antiparticles, while parity is
the operation of changing the direction of space coordinates.
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In other words, CP violation occurs when the laws of physics
do not behave the same way under the combined operation
of charge conjugation and parity as they do under the
separate operations of charge conjugation or parity alone. CP
violation was first observed in 1964 in the decay of neutral
kaons, which are particles composed of a quark and an anti-
quark. The observation of CP violation was a significant
discovery because it implies that the laws of physics are not
symmetric under all possible transformations, and it opened
up new areas of research in particle physics. One of the most
important consequences of CP violation is that it may provide
an explanation for the observed imbalance of matter and
antimatter in the universe. According to the laws of physics,
matter and antimatter should have been created in equal
amounts in the Big Bang, but our universe is predominantly
made up of matter. CP violation may be responsible for this
asymmetry by allowing some particles to decay into matter
more frequently than into antimatter. However, the exact
mechanism for this is still an active area of research.
General theory of relativity
describes gravity, ignoring
quantum mechanics.
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m = m0/ (1− v2
/c2
)1/2
Tachyons (if they exist) have v c. This means that m is imaginary!
Tachyons are hypothetical particles that are postulated to
travel faster than the speed of light in vacuum. The concept
of tachyons was first introduced by the physicist Gerald
Feinberg in 1967, and the name tachyon comes from the
Greek word tachus, which means fast. According to special
relativity, particles with mass can never reach or exceed the
speed of light, because the closer a massive object gets to
the speed of light, the more its mass increases, making it
harder to accelerate further. However, tachyons are postulated
to have imaginary mass, meaning that their mass squared is
negative, which leads to some unusual properties, including
the ability to travel faster than light without violating the laws
of relativity. One of the most striking consequences of the
existence of tachyons is that they would violate the principle
of causality, which states that an effect cannot occur before
its cause. This is because a tachyon could potentially travel
backwards in time, allowing it to arrive at its destination
before it was even sent. However, there is currently no
experimental evidence for the existence of tachyons, and they
remain purely hypothetical. While tachyons are not currently
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considered to be a viable possibility in our universe, they
have been the subject of much theoretical and philosophical
speculation, and continue to be studied in the context of some
exotic theories of physics, such as string theory and other
models of quantum gravity.
Math in Nature:
Hexagon→ Bee Hive.
Concentric Circles→ Ripples of a pond when a
stone hits the surface of the water.
Mathematics is present in many aspects of nature, from the shapes and
patterns of plants and animals to the laws that govern the behavior of
the universe. One example of math in nature is the Fibonacci sequence,
which appears in the spiral patterns of many plants, such as pinecones,
sunflowers, and nautilus shells. The Fibonacci sequence is a series of
numbers where each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers (0,
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, etc.), and the ratio between adjacent numbers
approaches the golden ratio, approximately 1.618. This ratio is also seen in
the proportions of many natural forms, such as the human body and the
Mona Lisa. Another example is fractals, which are self-similar geometric
patterns that repeat at different scales. Fractal patterns can be found in
many natural phenomena, such as the branching patterns of trees, the
shapes of clouds and mountains, and the distribution of galaxies in the
universe. The mathematics of fractals has led to many applications in
computer graphics and visualization. Mathematics is also fundamental to
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our understanding of the laws of physics that govern the behavior of
the universe, from the motion of objects under gravity to the behavior
of subatomic particles. The language of mathematics provides a precise
and universal way to describe and quantify these phenomena, and has led
to many technological advances in fields such as astronomy, physics, and
engineering. Overall, mathematics is a powerful tool for understanding
the natural world, and has led to many insights and discoveries in fields
ranging from biology and ecology to cosmology and quantum mechanics.
In more than three space dimensions,
planetary orbits would be unstable and
planets would either fall into the sun
or escape its attraction altogether.
What goes up must get down →Newton's law of gravity
What goes up need not descend
− if it is shot upward faster than the
escape velocity (2GM/R)1/2
Because: 2πr = nλ
Only orbits with circumferences corresponding to a whole number of
electron wavelengths could survive without destructive interference.
Because: r = 3GM/c2
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The photon spheres can only exist in
the space surrounding an extremely
compact object (a black hole or possibly
an ultracompact neutron star).
A photon orbit is a trajectory that a photon can follow when
moving around a massive object under the influence of gravity.
The photon orbit is also known as the photon sphere.
The concept of the photon orbit was first introduced by the
physicist Johann Georg Rosen in 1913, and later developed
further by other scientists, including Albert Einstein.
According to general relativity, the path of light is curved by
the gravitational field of a massive object, and the curvature
increases as the object becomes more massive and compact.
For a black hole, the photon orbit is located at a distance of
1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius, which is the distance from
the center of the black hole where the speed of light seems
to be the escape velocity. The photon orbit is of interest to
astronomers, as it can be used to study the properties of black
holes and test the predictions of general relativity. Overall,
the concept of the photon orbit is an important application of
general relativity, and has contributed to our understanding
of the nature of gravity and the behavior of light in the
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presence of massive objects.
In phase →wave crests and troughs reinforce each other.
Out of phase →wave crests and troughs cancel out.
The energy above which (Grand unification energy ≈ 1016
GeV), the electro-magnetic force, weak force, and strong
force become indistinguishable from each other.
Since the graviton has no mass of its own, the gravitational force
of attraction between the sun and every planet is long range.
The proton and neutron masses
are so similar; they differ only
by the replacement of an up
quark with a down quark.
Because: E/B = c
Electric and magnetic fields turn into each other in a wavelike motion,
creating an electromagnetic field that travels at the speed of light.
When two black holes collide, they merge, and the area of the final black
hole is greater than the sum of the areas of the original holes.
Inside the nucleus of an atom, a proton is never permanent
a proton and a neutron is never permanently a neutron. They
keep on changing into each other. A neutron emits a pi meson
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and become proton and a proton absorbs a pi meson and
become a neutron.
Neutron → proton + π–
Proton + π−
→ neutron
There is no escape from a black hole in classical theory, but
quantum theory enables energy and information to escape.
Accelerated massive bodies give off gravitational waves just as
bound electrons in an atom emit electromagnetic radiation.
A rotating neutron star (a tiny, burnt out star)
generates regular pulses of radio waves.
Quantum mechanics says that the position of a particle
is uncertain, and therefore that there is some possibility
that a particle will be within an energy barrier rather
than outside of it. The process of moving from outside to
inside without traversing the distance between is known as
quantum tunneling, and it is very important for the fusion
reactions in stars like the Sun. A successful application of
quantum tunneling is in the field of quantum computing.
In a quantum computer, information is stored and processed
using quantum bits (qubits) that can exist in multiple states at
once. Quantum tunneling is one of the key mechanisms used
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to manipulate and control the quantum states of qubits, and is
essential for many quantum computing algorithms.
Because:
dM = (k/8πG) dA+ ΩdJ + ΦdQ
M stands for mass, k for surface gravity, A for area of the event
Horizon, J for angular momentum, Ω for angular velocity,
Q for charge and Φ for the electrostatic potential
the size and shape of the black hole depends only on its mass,
charge and rate of rotation, and not on the nature of the star
that had collapsed to form it.
Hund's rule: Every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron
before any one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly
occupied orbitals have the same spin.
Because:
Photon energy = 13.6 eV + Kinetic energy of the emitted electron
Photons need an energy 13.6 eV
to ionize hydrogen atom.
Palindrome number: A number that reads the same forwards
or backwards.
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11 × 11 → 121
111,111,111 × 111,111,111 → 12,345,678,987,654,321
If particle A enters the ergosphere of a Kerr black hole, then it
splits into particles B and C.
EA= EB+ EC
Particle C with Energy EC 0 (negative energy)→ falls into the
black hole. Particle B with Energy EB EA→ escapes. The added
negative energy particle will slow down the spinning of the
Kerr black hole and reduce its energy and therefore its mass.
Black holes are incredibly dense objects in space that have
such strong gravitational fields that nothing, not even light,
can escape once it gets too close. While it is not currently
possible to directly extract energy from a black hole, there are
several theoretical processes that could be used to indirectly
extract energy from these powerful cosmic phenomena. Here
are some of the most promising methods:
Accretion disks: When matter falls into a black hole, it forms an
accretion disk around the black hole. This disk can become incredibly
hot and emit high-energy radiation, including X-rays and gamma rays.
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By capturing this radiation and converting it into usable energy, it may
be possible to extract energy from the black hole.
Hawking radiation: According to Stephen Hawking's theory, black holes
are not completely black, but instead emit a form of radiation called
Hawking radiation. This radiation is extremely weak for large black
holes, but for smaller black holes, it can be significant. By capturing and
converting this radiation, it may be possible to extract energy from the
black hole.
Penrose process: The Penrose process is a theoretical method for
extracting energy from a rotating black hole. It involves sending an
object into the black hole's ergosphere (a region just outside the event
horizon where the black hole's rotation drags spacetime around it), and
then allowing it to split into two parts, with one part falling into the
black hole and the other escaping with increased energy. This process
can extract energy from the black hole's rotation.
Black hole mergers: When two black holes merge, they release a
tremendous amount of energy in the form of gravitational waves.
While this energy is not directly extractable, it could be captured by
gravitational wave detectors and converted into usable energy.
It's worth noting that these methods are all highly theoretical
and would require significant advances in technology before
they could be used to extract energy from black holes.
Because:∇ × E = − ∂B / ∂t
Electricity and magnetism are related
Tycho's model → Planets orbit around the Sun and the Sun orbit around
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the Earth at the center of the Universe.
Electromagnetic wave →The undulating strength of the electric
and magnetic disturbance − propagating through space − carrying
electromagnetic radiant energy.
The expansion of the Universe can
be compared to the expanding
surface of a balloon that is being
inflated. As more air is blown into
it, we would see the surface area of
the balloon expanding and every
point on its surface getting further
and further away from one other.
In a bound atom of hydrogen the negatively charged
electron moves round the positively charged nuclei. In high
temperature plasma the nuclei and electrons are no longer
bound.
Motion of stars in galaxies reveals the
existence of hypothetical form of mass
thought to account for approximately 85%
of the mass in the universe and about 27%
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of its total mass–energy density, or dark
matter, whose nature remains unknown.
Three Hydrogen nuclei →Nuclear Fusion→ Helium nuclei + Energy
Large nucleus →Nuclear Fission+ Two Smaller nucleus + Energy
Atomism: The world view that everything is built up from
two fundamental principles: atom (fundamental indivisible
component) and void.
The sum of multiple waves → superposition
(The resulting wave form is stable in time and space)
Complementarity Principle: Wave and particle or position and momentum
cannot be observed at the same time.
Ontology: What the underlying structure of reality is?
Paradigm → Framework for thinking about the nature of reality
Aristotle (384−322 B.C)→The earth is spherical in shape.
Aristarchus (312-230 B.C)→The Universe is Sun-centered.
Johannes Kepler (1571−1630)→ Planets more around the Sun in Orbits
which are not circular but elliptical.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473−1543)→ The Sun is at the centre of the Solar
System.
Galileo Galilei (1564−1642)→ The Sun has both hot high temperature
and dark low temperature spots.
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When two numbers are added, their order is not important
1 + 2 = 2 +1
Arithmetic and number theory→ patterns of number and counting
Geometry→ patterns of shape
Calculus→ patterns of motion
Logic→ patterns of reasoning
Probability theory→patterns of chance
Topology→ patterns of closeness and position
Gravity and Distance:
F1= GMm/r2
If the distance between the masses triples, the gravitational
force decreases by three squared, or nine:
F3(force at thrice the distance) = GMm/(3r)2
F3= GMm/9r2
= F1/9
Increasing the distance by twenty times would decrease the
gravitational attraction by four hundred times:
F20(force at twenty times the distance) = GMm/(20r)2

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F20= GMm/400r2
= F1/400
Since the Moon's mass is 7.35 × 1022
kg i.e.,
about 1.2 percent of Earth's mass, it has a
much weaker gravitational pull on us. This
means our weight would be less on the
Moon than on Earth. In fact, we would weigh
about one-sixth what we weigh on Earth.
Spontaneous generation theory
↓
Different kinds of nonliving matter give rise to
different kinds of living creatures
(Rotting meat gives rise to flies while old rags give rise to mice)
Albert Einstein's theory: The entire universe can expand or contract
− just like the overall stretching or shrinking of an elastic sheet.
Max Tegmark's 4 distinct types of parallel universes:
Parallel universes with the same laws of physics but different initial
conditions.
Parallel universes with the same equations of physics but perhaps
different constants of nature.
Parallel universes superimposed in the same physical space but mutually
isolated and evolving independently.
Parallel universes with different mathematical structures.
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Parallel universes, also known as the multiverse theory, is a hypothetical
concept in which there may exist multiple universes or realities, each with
its own set of physical laws and properties. This idea has been explored in
various fields such as physics, cosmology, philosophy, and science fiction.
The concept of parallel universes is often associated with the idea that
there may be alternate versions of us and events that we experience in our
own universe. There are several versions of the multiverse theory, including
the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, which suggests that
every possible outcome of a quantum measurement exists in its own separate
universe, and the inflationary multiverse theory, which suggests that our
universe is just one of many bubble-like universes that emerged from an
earlier period of inflation. While the concept of parallel universes remains
speculative and has yet to be definitively proven, it is a fascinating topic that
continues to inspire research and exploration into the nature of the universe
and our place within it.
Object moves at constant velocity in an inertial
frame ↔Object experiences zero net force
In string theory:
(Laws of physics + Particle spectrum+ Nature of forces) is
Dictated by (shape + size (geometry) of dimensions)
String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to
reconcile two pillars of modern physics: general relativity and
quantum mechanics. It posits that at the most fundamental
level, everything in the universe is made up of tiny, one-
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dimensional strings that vibrate at different frequencies to
produce the various particles and forces that we observe.
In this theory, there are ten dimensions of space and one
dimension of time, and the extra dimensions are thought to
be curled up or compactified at very small scales beyond our
current ability to observe. String theory has the potential to
unify all fundamental forces of nature, including gravity, and
it has inspired a wide range of mathematical and theoretical
research. However, it has yet to be conclusively proven, and
there remain significant challenges in testing its predictions
and confirming its validity through experiments.
(ħG/c3
)1/2
→
c5
)1/2
→Planck time are the smallest possible
units. (ħc5
/ GkB
2)1/2
→Planck temperature is
the hottest possible temperature. (ħc / G)1/2
→
Planck mass, however, is not the smallest
possible mass. Many things weigh less, like,
for example, an electron or a proton. The
Planck mass is big because G = 6.67408 ×
10−11
m3
kg−1
s−2
(relatively very weak).
Spatial dimensions ≥ 4: Electrons fall on the nuclei and therefore the
atomic structure of matter does not exist. The atomic matter and therefore
life are possible only in 3-dimensional space.
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(ħG/
Planck length and

If the electron charge were increased by a factor ~3 no nuclei with atomic
number 5 would exist and no living organisms would be possible.
Entropy change ≥ 0
Entropy change = 0 (reversible process)
Entropy change 0 (irreversible process)
Principle of ﬂotation
↓
Since boat displaces a weight of water equal
to its own weight: It floats in water
Temperature Curie temperature
Ferromagnetic → Paramagnetic
(Magnetic materials lose their ferromagnetic properties)
Temperature Néel temperature
Antiferromagnetic → Paramagnetic
(Magnetic materials lose their antiferromagnetic properties)
Electron + proton → neutrino + neutron (inverse beta decay)
(Takes place in stars of extremely high density)
Jeans mass:
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MJ= 3kBTR / 2Gm
kB= Boltzmann constant, T = temperature in Kelvin, R = radius of gas
cloud, m = mass of gas particle and G = gravitational constant
Mass of gas cloud MJ
Gravity wins
↓
Thermal pressure cannot support the gas cloud against its self gravity
↓
Gas cloud collapses!
The Jeans mass is a concept in astrophysics that determines
the minimum mass required for a cloud of gas to collapse
under its own gravitational attraction and form a stable object,
such as a planet or star. It is named after the British physicist
James Jeans, who first derived the equation for calculating the
Jeans mass in 1902. In general, if the mass of a gas cloud is
less than the Jeans mass, the cloud will not collapse and will
remain in a stable state. However, if the mass is greater than
the Jeans mass, the cloud will collapse and form a dense core,
leading to the formation of a star or planet. The Jeans mass
is an important concept in understanding the formation and
evolution of objects in the universe, and it plays a key role in
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the study of astrophysics, cosmology, and planetary science.
Virial Theorem: 2K + U = 0
If 2K U: the gas pressure will dominate over gravity.
If 2K U: the gas cloud will collapse.
The Virial Theorem is a fundamental principle in physics that
relates the average kinetic energy and the average potential
energy of a stable system in equilibrium. It was first developed
in the mid-19th century by the German physicist Rudolf
Clausius and later extended by other scientists, including
James Clerk Maxwell and Willard Gibbs. The Virial Theorem
is important in many areas of physics, such as astrophysics,
molecular physics, and statistical mechanics, where it is used
to calculate the properties of complex systems and understand
the dynamics of gases and other materials. For example, the
Virial Theorem can be used to estimate the mass of a galaxy
from its observed motions or to study the properties of
interstellar clouds and their role in star formation.
Low mass star→ cooler, fainter, long lifetime.
High mass star→ hotter, brighter, short lifetime.
Planck mass = 1.2 × 1019
GeV → about 22μ gram − much
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heavier than any mass of existing elementary particles.
Binary Stars – A pair of stars in orbit
around their common center of gravity.
Binary stars are two stars that are gravitationally bound to
each other and orbit around a common center of mass. They
are relatively common in the universe, and are formed when
two stars are formed from the same gas cloud or when a
passing star gravitationally captures another star into orbit.
Binary stars can have different characteristics and orbital
configurations. They can be close or wide, with distances
between them ranging from a few astronomical units (AU)
to several thousand AU. They can also have different masses,
sizes, temperatures, and luminosities, and can be composed
of different types of stars, such as main-sequence stars, red
giants, white dwarfs, or neutron stars. Binary stars play an
important role in many areas of astronomy and astrophysics.
They are used to study the properties of stars, such as their
masses, radii, temperatures, and compositions, as well as their
evolution and dynamics. They can also be used to test theories
of gravity and to search for exoplanets through the detection
of their gravitational influence on the motion of the stars.
Overall, binary stars are fascinating objects that offer insights
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into the formation, evolution, and structure of stars and the
universe as a whole.
Apparent Magnitude – A star's brightness as it appears to Earth.
Absolute Magnitude – How bright a star actually is.
Because: T =ħc3
/8πGMkB
Tiny Black Hole is hot
Big Black Hole is cold
Objects moving away from observer→ Frequency
decreases → wavelength increases (red shift)
Objects moving towards observer→ Frequency increases
→ wavelength decreases (blue shift)
Einstein Theory → 4 dimensions (length, width, depth, and time)
String theory → 4 dimensions + 7 other dimensions
(11th dimension holds the universe together)
The black hole no hair theorem: Mass, charge, and angular
momentum are the only properties a black hole can possess.
The no hair theorem is a principle in physics that states that
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black holes can be described by only three parameters: their
mass, electric charge, and angular momentum. This means
that all other information about the matter that formed the
black hole, such as its density, temperature, and chemical
composition, is lost and cannot be observed from outside
the event horizon. The no hair theorem was first proposed
in the 1970s by physicist John Wheeler and later developed
by other scientists, including Stephen Hawking. It is based
on the idea that black holes are completely characterized by
their macroscopic properties and that their internal structure
is hidden from observers. The no hair theorem has important
implications for the study of black holes and the universe as
a whole. It suggests that black holes are among the simplest
objects in the universe, and that they have a universal nature
that is independent of their initial conditions. It also implies
that black holes are predictable and stable objects, and that
their properties can be determined by measuring their mass,
charge, and angular momentum. Overall, the no hair theorem
is a powerful concept in physics that has greatly advanced our
understanding of black holes and their role in the universe.
The Sky is Dark at Night→ There must be some
limit to the observable Universe.
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Thomson Scattering (hυ m0c
2
): The photon and electron just both
bounce off each other, changing their direction, but there is no exchange of
energy.
Compton scattering (hυ m0c
2
): A photon of high energy collides with a
stationary electron and transfers part of its energy and momentum to the
electron, decreasing its frequency in the process.
Brown dwarf
Too big to be a planet
Too small to be a star
Pulsars→ Rotating neutron stars emitting beams of particles and
electromagnetic radiation.
Special Relativity→The speed of light is the same for any observer.
At scale L ~ (Għ/ c3
) 1/2
, energy
ﬂuctuations become so large
that even spacetime geometry
is no longer smooth at all.
3 types of geometries for our universe:
Hyperbolic (negative curvature)
Elliptic (positive curvature)
Euclidean (zero curvature)
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Photon + Hydrogen atom → proton
+ electron (photodissociation)
Proton + electron → Photon + Hydrogen
atom (radiative recombination)
Newton Theory:
Weight is proportional to Mass
Einstein Theory:
Energy is proportional to Mass
Neither explained origin of Mass
Electroweak theory predicted a heavy version of the photon
called the Z
0
which was discovered in 1983.
The electroweak theory is a theoretical framework that
describes the electromagnetic and weak nuclear interactions
between elementary particles. It unifies two of the four
fundamental forces of nature, the electromagnetic force and
the weak force, into a single force that is mediated by four
particles: the W+
, W−
, Z bosons, and the photon. The theory
was developed in the 1970s by Sheldon Glashow, Abdus
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Salam, and Steven Weinberg, and it is an essential part of the
Standard Model of particle physics. The electroweak theory
postulates that the electromagnetic force and the weak force
are different manifestations of the same underlying force. At
high energies, the two forces are indistinguishable, but at
lower energies, the weak force becomes dominant, and the
electromagnetic force is weakened. The theory predicts the
existence of the Higgs boson, which is responsible for giving
mass to elementary particles. One of the key predictions of
the electroweak theory is the existence of the W+
, W−
, and
Z bosons, which were discovered in 1983 by the UA1 and
UA2 experiments at CERN. The discovery of these particles
provided strong evidence for the electroweak theory and
helped to confirm the Standard Model of particle physics.
Quantum field theory which postulates that
matter is composed out of elementary particles
bound together by forces, mediated by
exchange of other elementary particles.
Hawking 1975: Black hole background + Quantum
Field theory → Black hole emits radiation!!
Hawking 1976: Black hole as a quantum pure state + Hawking
radiation → Unitarily of Quantum Mechanics is broken!!
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Computable Universe Theory: Our external physical reality is defined
by computable functions.
Computable functions: The functions that can be calculated using a
mechanical calculation device given unlimited amounts of time and
storage space.
Theories of Origin of Life:
Life formation on the earth may have been taken place due to supernatural
entity.
Life formation did not take place on earth. It took place somewhere else in
the space or on any other planet and carried to the earth.
Life formation on the earth could have arisen through a series of
organic chemical reactions that produced ever more complex biochemical
structures.
Life may have evolved from non-living matter as association with prebiotic
molecules under primitive earth conditions.
Frame dragging is the idea that spacetime is elastic and particles in it will
exchange energy. That means spacetime will absorb some of the energy of
a spinning particle. Research studies have shown that Earth is dragging
spacetime around it as it rotates.
Zero-energy universe hypothesis: The total amount of energy
in the universe is exactly zero: its amount of positive energy
in the form of matter is exactly canceled out by its negative
energy in the form of gravity. According to this hypothesis, the
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universe could have originated from a quantum fluctuation
in which equal amounts of positive and negative energy were
created. As the universe expanded, the positive energy took
the form of matter, while the negative energy took the form
of gravitational potential energy. The zero-energy universe
hypothesis has some compelling theoretical and observational
support. For example, the large-scale structure of the universe
appears to be consistent with a universe that has zero
total energy. Additionally, the cosmic microwave background
radiation, which is thought to be the leftover heat from the Big
Bang, appears to have a total energy of zero. However, the zero-
energy universe hypothesis is still a subject of ongoing debate
and research in cosmology. While some scientists believe
that the hypothesis could be a fundamental principle of the
universe, others argue that it may be inconsistent with certain
observations or theoretical models.
Lambda-CDM model: Big-Bang cosmological model with a cosmological
constant and cold dark matter.
Eternal inflation: New universes pop into existence at an unknown rate −
creating a complex web of bubble universes within a vast multiverse.
Loop quantum gravity: The universe is a network of intersecting quantum
threads − each of which carries quantum information about the size and
shape of nearby space.
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Graviphoton: A hypothetical particle whose physical properties are
virtually indistinguishable from a photon − which emerges as an excitation
of the gravitational field in spacetime dimensions higher than four −
as described in Kaluza–Klein theory (classical unified field theory of
gravitation and electromagnetism).
Ekpyrotic model of the universe: Our current universe arose from the
collision of two three-dimensional universes traveling in a hidden fourth
spatial dimension. This model does not require a singularity at the moment
of the Big Bang.
Hartle-Hawking model : Universe has no initial boundaries in time or
space.
Fermions (= matter): quarks and leptons
Bosons (= interactions): gauge fields + Higgs boson (God's particle)
Venus and Uranus are the only planets that
rotate clockwise. The other six planets in
the solar system rotate counterclockwise.
Weak Anthropic Principle:
If the world were any different we would not be here.
(The emergence of life is possible)
Strong Anthropic Principle:
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The world had to be as it is in order for us to be here.
(The emergence of life is inevitable)
Absurd universe:Our universe just happens to be the way it is.
Unique universe: There is a deep underlying unity in the laws of physics
that make it necessary for the Universe being the way it is.
Multiverse: The idea of multiple universes. Each of which comprise
everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, energy,
information, and the physical laws and constants that describe them.
Intelligent design: Life on earth is so complex that it cannot be explained
by the scientific theory of evolution and therefore must have been designed
by a supernatural entity.
Self-explaining universe: No phenomenon can be said to exist until it is
observed.
Fake universe: We are living in a simulated universe.
N → number of spatial dimensions
T → number of time dimensions
If N 3 and T =1: the orbit of a planet about its Sun cannot
remain stable.
If T 1: the high energetic protons and electrons would be
unstable and could decay into particles having greater mass
than themselves.
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A proton can decay into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino
An electron can decay into a neutron, an antiproton and a neutrino
If N = 1 and T = 3: all particles are tachyons with imaginary
rest mass.
Only a (N + T) = (3 + 1) dimensional universe can contain
dynamic observers who are complex and stable enough to be
able to understand and predict all of space and time and their
contents (including planets, stars, galaxies and all other forms
of matter and energy) to any extent at all.
T 1 or T 1: insufficient predictability
N 3: insufficient stability
N 3: insufficient complexity
1 dimensional universe→ made up of only 1 dimension (width).
2 dimensional universe→ made up of 2 dimensions (width and breadth).
3 dimensional universe→ made up of 3 dimensions (width, breadth and
height).
4 dimensional universe→ made up of 4 dimensions (width, breadth, height
and time).
5 dimensional universe→ more challenging to visualize because we
ourselves cannot perceive dimensions 4 around us.
Causality Principle: All real events necessarily have a cause.
Dark matter could warm
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certain planets in the place
of a sun, allowing life to arise
on a sunless planet.
The only thing that can make a bigger atom than hydrogen is a star. The
entire periodic table, every element you have ever heard of was processed
inside the body of a star. The star then unraveled or exploded… and here we
are. We are dead stars.
Black hole cosmology: The Hubble radius of the observable universe is
equal to its Schwarzschild radius.
Conformal cyclic cosmology: The universe goes through infinite endless
cycles from creation to destruction over and over again.
Loop quantum cosmology: Application of loop quantum gravity to
eliminate singularities - such as the big bang and big crunch singularity.
Eternal recurrence: The idea that all events in the world repeat themselves
in the same sequence through an eternal series of cycles.
Quantum emergence: Space and time develop out of a primeval state
described by a quantum theory of gravity.
Isenthalpic process: ΔH = 0 (Enthalpy constant)
Isentropic process: ΔS = 0 (Entropy constant)
Steady state process: ΔU = 0 (Internal energy constant)
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Weakless universe: A hypothetical universe that contains no weak
interactions.
Avogadro's hypothesis states that equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of particles. At
Standard Temperature and Pressure, one mole (6.02 × 10
23
particles) of any
gas occupies a volume of 22.4 liters.
Bernoulli's principle: As speed of the fluid increases, pressure within the
fluid decreases.
Isothermal process: ΔT = 0 (Temperature constant)
Isobaric process: ΔP = 0 (Pressure constant)
Isochoric process: ΔV = 0 (Volume constant)
Adiabatic process: ΔQ = 0 (No heat flow between the system
and the surroundings)
ΔG = ΔH − T ΔS
If ΔG is negative ( 0), the process is spontaneous (exergonic).
If ΔG is positive ( 0), the process is non spontaneous (endergonic).
Hypervelocity stars are stars that have been ejected from the center of
a galaxy due to interaction with a massive central black hole and sent
rocketing through intergalactic space at speeds up to 2 million miles per
hour. Most of the hypervelocity stars that have been identified so far are of
similar size and mass as the Sun, but theoretically could be bigger.
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The color and size of a star tells astronomers its age.
Yellow dwarfs and blue giants are young.
Red giants and red supergiants are older.
White dwarfs and black dwarfs are the oldest.
Quantum physics says reality changes with observation.
Quantum Bayesianism says reality is observation.
Quark matter is an extremely dense phase
of matter made up of subatomic particles
called quarks. This theoretical phase would
occur at extremely high temperatures
and densities. It may exist at the heart of
neutron stars. It can also be created for
brief moments in particle colliders on Earth,
such as CERN's Large Hadron Collider.
Theory of relativity:
Removes inconsistencies in the classical theory.
Describes the behavior of matter at high energies and high speeds.
Quantum mechanics:
Removes disagreements between theory and experiments.
Describes the behavior of microscopic particles.
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Like a black hole, a white hole is a prediction of Albert Einstein's theory
of general relativity. It is essentially a black hole in reverse: if nothing can
escape from a black hole's event horizon, then nothing can enter a white
hole's event horizon.
special relativity + quantum mechanics
↓
Relativistic quantum electrodynamics
(very precise and highly successful)
quantum mechanics + gravity
↓
Theories of quantum gravity
(no data to test them)
1 Second to Get the Moon
8 Minutes to Get the Sun
2000 years to get out of Milky Way
46.5 Billion Years to Get the Edge of the Observable Universe
The evolution of mathematics reflects humankind's quest
for cosmic understanding. From the properties of smallest
atomic particles and the realm of intergalactic physics to
the formation of a giant mathematical object (universe),
math proves unquestionably effective in describing and
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predicting their physical reality. In an effort to resolve the
basic conundrum of why our universe appears to be so
mathematical, most accomplished scientists of our timeput
out a revolutionary assumption: that our material existence
is not only characterized by mathematics, but is itself
mathematics. Mathematics may offer answers to our most
fundamental questions: How big is reality? What is the
composition of everything? Why our universe is structured
the way it is? Math stand as mankind's greatest invention
and gives us the definitive measurement of not only our
universe but also all other conceivable universes. However,
a question that lies at the intersection of philosophy and
science arises: Is Math the Language of the Universe? The
idea that the universe is made of math is a philosophical and
theoretical concept that has been explored by many scientists
and thinkers throughout history. The concept is based on the
idea that mathematical principles and structures can be found
in many aspects of the natural world, from the patterns of
leaves on a tree to the movements of celestial bodies. In some
ways, the idea that the universe is made of math is supported
by the success of mathematics in describing and predicting
the behavior of the natural world. Mathematics has proven to
be an incredibly powerful tool for understanding everything
from the behavior of subatomic particles to the structure of
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the universe on its largest scales. However, while mathematics
is undeniably a fundamental tool for describing the natural
world, it is also important to recognize that mathematics
is a human creation. While the patterns and structures that
we observe in the natural world can be described using
mathematical language, it's not necessarily the case that the
universe is inherently mathematical in nature. Ultimately,
whether or not the universe is made of math is a matter
of philosophical debate and one that is unlikely to be fully
resolved anytime soon. Regardless of the answer, mathematics
remains a powerful tool for understanding and exploring the
natural world.
Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of spacetime that propagate
outward from accelerating masses. They were first predicted by Albert
Einstein's theory of general relativity, and were detected for the first
time in 2015 by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory
(LIGO). The gravitational wave signal was observed by LIGO detectors in
Hanford and in Livingston on 14 September 2015. An exact analysis of
the gravitational wave signal based on the Albert Einsteinian theory of
general relativity showed that it came from two merging stellar black
holes with 29 and 36 solar masses, which merged 1.3 billion light years
from Earth. Before the merger, the total mass of both black holes was 36 +
29 solar masses = 65 solar masses. After the merger, the mass of resultant
black hole was 62 solar masses.
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What happened to three solar masses?
It was turned into the energy transported by the emitted gravitational
waves. Using Albert Einstein's equation E = mc2
, where E is the energy
transported by the emitted gravitational waves, m is the missing mass (3
solar masses) and c is the speed of light, we can estimate the energy released
as gravitational waves:
E = (3 × 2 × 1030
kg) × (3 × 108
m/s) 2
E = 5.4 × 1047
J
This is roughly 10
21
more energy than the complete electromagnetic
radiation emitted by our sun.
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
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CHAPTER 4
Amazing Facts About Space
and the Universe
A lot of prizes have been awarded for showing the universe
is not as simple as we might have thought.
− Stephen Hawking
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
Universe: The LARGE Book of Incredible
Facts and Intriguing Stuff
The universe is a vast expanse of space that includes
everything that exists, from the smallest particles to the
largest structures such as galaxies and galaxy clusters. The size
and scale of the universe are almost impossible to
comprehend, but scientists have developed models and
measurements to help us understand its properties and
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evolution. The universe is thought to have begun with the Big
Bang, a cataclysmic event that occurred approximately 13.8
billion years ago. At this moment, the universe was incredibly
hot and dense, and it rapidly expanded and cooled over time.
As it expanded, matter began to clump together under the
force of gravity, eventually forming stars, galaxies, and other
structures. The observable universe, or the part of the universe
that we can see, is thought to have a diameter of about 93
billion light-years. This means that the light from the most
distant objects we can observe has taken approximately 13.8
billion years to reach us. The universe is made up of various
types of matter and energy, including visible matter (such as
stars and planets), dark matter, and dark energy. Visible
matter makes up only a small fraction of the universe, while
dark matter and dark energy are believed to make up the
majority. Dark matter is a type of matter that does not interact
with light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation, and its
existence is inferred from its gravitational effects on visible
matter. The accelerated expansion of the universe is supposed
to be caused by dark energy, a hypothetical form of energy.
The energy source of stars is nuclear fusion, a process that
involves the combining of atomic nuclei to form heavier
elements. The exact details of the fusion process in stars are
still not fully understood, and researchers are still trying to
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unlock the mysteries of this process. The universe is also
subject to a variety of physical laws, including gravity,
electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces.
These laws govern the behavior of matter and energy in the
universe and allow for the formation of structures such as
galaxies and stars. Scientists study the universe using a
variety of tools and methods, including telescopes, satellites,
and computer simulations. By studying the universe,
scientists hope to gain a better understanding of the
fundamental laws of nature and the origins of the universe
and life itself. Our universe is incredible. This universe's sheer
size, together with its trillions of things, millions of stunning
constellations, zillions of stars, and planetary systems, is really
fascinating. Mystery, wonder, and a wealth of fascinating
information are all woven into this realm. We have outlined
several astounding and unbelievable facts about the universe
in this chapter. If you want to discover more about the entirety
of space, time, and existence —including planets, stars,
galaxies, and all other types of matter and energy — this
chapter is for you.
Mercury and Venus are the only two planets in our solar system that
orbit closest to the Sun and have no moons.
The hottest planet in our solar system is Venus and is named after the
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Roman goddess of love and beauty.
A light-year is the unit of length used to express astronomical distances
and is the distance covered by light in a single year and is equal to
9.46×10
12
km.
The Sun accounts for 99.86% of the mass in the solar system and weighs
about 330,000 times more than Earth.
Our solar system is 4.568 billion years old formed from the
gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud.
The highest mountain discovered is the Olympus Mons, which is an
enormous shield volcano on the planet Mars.
Because of lower gravity, a person who
weighs 100 kg on Earth would only
weigh 38 kg on the surface of Mars.
The Sun has a north and south pole, just as the Earth does, and makes a
full rotation once every 25 – 35 days.
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only planet not named
after a God.
On average, 13.8 billion years have passed since the universe's
beginning. Scientists arrived at this number by studying the cosmic
microwave background radiation, which is the residual heat left over
from the Big Bang.
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The surface of Venus is dominated by volcanic features and has more
volcanoes than any other planet in the Solar System.
Uranus' blue glow is due to the cold methane gas in its atmosphere.
In our solar system that are 4 planets which don't have hard surfaces
and instead have swirling gases above a solid core − known as gas giants:
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Uranus is an Ice Giant planet and nearly four times larger than Earth
and has 27 moons that have been discovered so far.
The largest known structure in the universe is the Hercules-Corona
Borealis Great Wall, a colossal collection of galaxies that stretches over
10 billion light-years across. To put that in perspective, the diameter of
the Milky Way is estimated to be around 100,000 light-years.
A photon of energy hυ= mc
2
generated at the center of the star makes its
way to the surface. It may take up to several million years to get to the
surface.
Because of its unique tilt, each season on Uranus lasts 21 earthly years
and makes a huge difference between winter-summer and autumn-
spring.
Triton is the largest of Neptune's 13 moons and orbits the planet
backwards.
There are more stars in space than there are grains of sand in the world
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and there exist roughly 10,000 stars for each grain of sand on Earth.
As photon travel near the event horizon of a black hole they can still
escape being pulled in by gravity of a black hole by traveling at a vertical
direction known as exit cone. A photon on the boundary of this cone
will not completely escape the gravity of the black hole. Instead it orbits
the black hole.
The cosmos is expanding, and it is expanding faster. Two separate teams
of astronomers were researching far-off supernovae when they made
this discovery in 1998.
Tachyons are theoretically postulated hypothetical particles that always
travel faster than light and have 'imaginary' masses.
Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth and takes nearly 165 Earth years
to make one orbit of the Sun.
Pluto's largest moon, Charon − also known as Pluto I, is half the size of
the dwarf planet Pluto.
A day on Pluto is 6.4 Earth days or 153.3 hours long.
Saturn is the second largest planet in our solar system and a gas giant
with an average radius of about nine times that of Earth.
The inner planets or rocky and terrestrial planets − Mercury, Venus,
Earth and Mars are the four planets that orbit closest to the Sun.
Only 5% of the universe is visible from Earth.
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The heaviest elements, such as gold, silver, and platinum, are formed
in the violent explosions of supernovae. These explosions occur when
a massive star runs out of fuel and collapses in on itself, releasing an
enormous amount of energy.
It takes sunlight an average of 8 minutes and 20 seconds to travel from
the Sun to the Earth.
There are three main types of galaxies: elliptical, spiral and irregular.
There are about 100 thousand million stars in the Milky Way alone.
The Andromeda Galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy approximately 2.5
million light-years from Earth and the nearest major galaxy to the Milky
Way.
The warp and twist of space-time near the earth. The Moon follows this
warp of spacetime as it orbits Earth.
The universe is thought to be flat, meaning that parallel lines will never
meet, and the sum of the angles of a triangle adds up to 180 degrees. This
conclusion was drawn from observations of the cosmic microwave
background radiation and the large-scale structure of the universe.
Light exhibits wave-particle duality, which means that it can act as
both a wave and a particle. In some experiments, light behaves like a
wave, while in others, it behaves like a particle.
The astronomical unit is a unit of length, roughly the distance from
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Earth to the Sun and equal to about 150 million kilometers (93 million
miles) or ~8 light minutes.
Astronauts can grow approximately two inches (5 cm) in height when in
space.
Exoplanets or extrasolar planets are planets that orbit around other
stars.
The Enormous dust cloud at the center of the Milky Way smells like rum
and tastes like raspberries.
Our only proper natural satellite moon is being pushed away from Earth
by 1.6 inches (4 centimeters) per year.
Saturn is the only planet that is lighter than water.
Asteroids are the rocky planetoids revolving around the sun and the
byproducts of formations in the solar system − more than 4 billion years
ago.
The Earth weighs about 81 times more than the Moon.
Light can bend and refract when it passes through different mediums,
such as air, water, or glass. This is because light travels at different
speeds in different mediums, causing it to change direction.
The moon's density is 3.34 grams per cubic centimeter. That is about 60
percent of Earth's density.
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Mercury is the hottest planet in our solar system and has no atmosphere
− which means there is no wind or weather.
There are 88 recognized star constellations in our night sky.
Due to the Sun and Moon's gravitational pull, we have tides.
The five best known dwarf planets in our Solar System are: Ceres, Pluto,
Makemake, Haumea and Eris.
Light can be polarized, which means that the electric field vector
of the light waves oscillates in a specific direction. This is used in
many technologies, including Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screens and
polarized sunglasses.
Mars is the second-smallest planet in the Solar System and the most
likely planet (which carries the name of the Roman god of war) in our
solar system to be hospitable to life.
Pluto is smaller than Earth's moon and is only half as wide as the United
States.
Astronaut's footprint can last a million years on the surface of the moon
as there is no wind.
There are 79 known moons orbiting Jupiter.
Most part of the atom is empty.
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Temperature greater than Planck temperature cannot exist only for
the reason that the quantum mechanics breaks down at temperature
greater than 10
32
K.
Gravity waves are vibrations in the 4 dimensional fabric of space-time.
Gravitons are their quanta.
Exposure to light can affect our sleep patterns. Blue light, which is
emitted by electronic devices such as smartphones and tablets, can
disrupt the body's production of melatonin, a hormone that regulates
sleep.
DNA carries information but cannot put that information to use, or even
copy itself without the help of RNA and protein.
There is no escape from a black hole in classical theory, but quantum
theory enables energy and information to escape.
The more massive a star, the more luminous it will be. This rule is called
the mass luminosity law.
The objects of different masses are accelerated towards the earth at the
same rate, but with different forces.
When we place two long parallel uncharged plates close to each other,
virtual particles outside the plates exerts more pressure than the virtual
particles inside the plates, and hence the plates are attracted to each
other, which we call the Casimir effect.
Newton rings is a phenomenon in which an interference pattern is
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created by the reflection of light between two surfaces — a spherical
surface and an adjacent flat surface. It is named after Isaac Newton, who
first studied them in 1717.
Electric and magnetic forces are far stronger than gravity, but remain
unnoticeable because every macroscopic body contain almost equal
numbers of positive and negative electrical charges (i.e., the electric and
magnetic forces nearly cancel each other out).
By analyzing the stellar spectrum, one can determine both the
temperature of a star and the composition of its atmosphere.
If the leptons would have felt the strong force, then they would have
combined to form different particles. The entire picture of Particle
Physics would have been quite different.
As mercury repeatedly orbits the sun, the long axis of its elliptical path
slowly rotates, coming full circle roughly every 360,000 years.
Energy budget of the universe:
13.7 Billion Years ago (when the Universe was 380,000 years old):
Dark Matter: 63%
Neutrinos: 10%
Photons: 15%
Ordinary Matter: 12%
Today:
Dark Matter: 23 %
Dark Energy: 73%
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Ordinary Matter: 4%
Out of 4% we only make up 0.03% of the ordinary matter.
Neither of these extremes would have allowed for the existence of stars
and life: A slightly stronger weak force, all the neutrons in the early
universe would have decayed, leaving about 100 percent hydrogen, with
no deuterium for later use in the synthesizing elements in stars. A
slightly weaker weak force, few neutrons would have decayed, leaving
about 100 percent helium, with no hydrogen to fuel the fusion processes
in stars.
Matter bends the fabric of space and time. The distortion of the space-
time affects the path of light.
Matter tells space how to curve, and
curved space tells matter how to move.
Matter → curvature of space-time
The two neutron stars that are orbiting each other continually emit
gravitational waves. These waves carries energy at the speed of light
and are now considered as fossils from the very instant of creation . . . .
since no other signal have survived from that era.
The quarks are much smaller than the wavelength of visible light and so
they do not possess any color in the normal sense.
Surface gravity g = GM /R
2
is the same at all points on the event horizon
of a black hole, just as the temperature is the same everywhere in a body
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at thermal equilibrium.
Every living cell of cyanobacteria, and eventually higher plants
(including flowering angiosperms, orchids, conifers and other cone
bearing gymnosperms, ferns, club mosses, hornworts, mosses and
the multicellular eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae)possess tiny
molecular factories, called chloroplasts, which are in charge of a dye
sensitized photochemical redox process - the conversion of sunlight,
water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen.
6CO2+ 6H2O + Sunlight → C6H12O6+ 6O2
Ordinary matter is made of atoms; atoms are made of nuclei, nuclei
made of quarks.
Gravitational force FG= GMm /r
2
is a purely attractive force which keeps
the planets in orbit around the sun and the moon in orbit around the
Earth.
Sun and other stars all emits approximately a black body radiation
filling up the universe giving a concrete evidence for the Stefan-
Boltzmann law i.e., power radiated per unit area is proportional to the
fourth power of their temperature and the proportionality constant is
Stefan's constant.
In any closed system like universe: randomness or entropy never
decreases with time.
Neutrinos only feel the weak force.
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Black hole is a region of space-time. According to the theory of
relativity, nothing can travel faster than light. Thus if light cannot
escape, neither can anything else; everything is dragged back by the
gravitational field.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transferred
from one form to another.
Chandrasekhar limit (≈1.4 times the mass of the sun) is the maximum
possible mass of a stable cold star, above which it collapses into a cosmic
body of extremely intense gravity from which nothing, not even light,
can escape.
The energy above which (Grand unification energy), the electro-
magnetic force, weak force, and strong force become indistinguishable
from each other.
The distance — and the path — that a body travels, looks different to
different observers.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance between successive peaks or
troughs. Faint light means fewer photons.
Wormholes provides shortcuts between distant points in space.
In more than three spatial dimensions, planetary orbits would be
unstable and planets would either fall into the sun or escape its
attraction altogether.
Neutron stars are the fastest spinning objects known in the universe.
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The decrease in frequency of light from distant galaxies due to the
Doppler effect, indicate that they are moving away from us.
The universe was in perfect symmetry before the big bang. Since then,
the universe has cooled and expanded, and hence the four fundamental
forces of nature and their symmetries have broken down. Today, the
universe is horribly broken, with all the forces split off from each other.
Electric and magnetic fields turn into each other in a wavelike motion,
creating an electromagnetic field that travels at the speed of light.
The gravitational force of attraction between the sun and every planet
is due to the exchange of a particle of spin 2 called the graviton between
the particles that make up these two bodies. And this exchange makes
the planets orbit the sun with a velocity = (2GM / r)
1/2
.
Accelerated massive bodies give off gravitational waves just as bound
electrons in an atom emit electromagnetic radiation.
The laws of physics remain unchanged under the combination of
operations known s C, P, and T (C → changing particles for antiparticles.
P → taking the mirror image so left and right is swapped for each other.
T → reversing the direction of motion of all particles — in effect, running
the motion backward).
Speed of light is the limiting velocity in the universe, unaffected by the
movement of its source and independent of all observers.
Solids, liquids, and gases frame up the three familiar states of matter, but
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plasma (a gas of ionized atoms) form the fourth state of matter.
Mercury does not have any moons or rings.
Venus is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty and rotates
in the opposite direction to most other planets.
The proton is composed of two up quarks and one down quark. The
neutron is composed of two down quarks and one up quark.
Friction takes place when one object tries to slide over the surface of
another.
Quarks feel the strong force, leptons do not.
All antiquarks have baryon number = − 1/3
All reactions must conserve energy, momentum and electrical charge.
For each particle species there is a threshold temperature: T = m0c
2
/ kB.
Once the universe drops below that temperature the species is effectively
removed from the universe.
The first object considered to be a black hole is Cygnus X-1.
Little black holes may have formed immediately after the cosmic
explosion that marked the beginning of the universe. Quickly growing
space may have crushed some regions into tiny, dense black holes less
massive than the sun.
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If a star moves too close in proximity to a supermassive black hole, the
star can be torn apart.
Because a black hole is a region of space having a gravitational field so
intense that no matter or radiation can escape — it's impossible for us
to see them with the naked eye or sense the hole directly through our
instruments.
Black holes distort time and space around them.
There is a supermassive black hole at the heart of the Milky Way (the
galaxy that contains our Solar System) — it is four million times more
massive than the sun.
Nothing can travel faster than light, but that doesn't apply to the
stretching of space. During the universe's inflationary phase, space
expanded much faster than light.
Both space and time were created at the Big Bang. Before that, neither
time nor space existed.
It is believed that all the 4 basic forces of nature (gravity, strong nuclear,
weak nuclear and electromagnetic) were combined into a single super
force prior to 10
−43
s after the Big Bang. At the Planck time (ħG / c
5
)
1/2
,
gravity is thought to have separated from the other forces.
The lowest mass atom is the hydrogen atom, with one electron and a
nucleus consisting of just one proton.
The electron-Volt is a very small energy unit:
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1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19
joule
The neutron has a mass of 939.57 MeV and it decays into a proton, an
electron and an antineutrino:
neutron→ proton + electron + antineutrino
Antineutrinos colliding with a proton may produce a neutron and a
positron:
antineutrino + proton→ neutron + positron
Free antineutron decays into an antiproton, a positron and a neutrino:
antineutron→ antiproton + positron + electron–neutrino
The more inertia that a body has, the more mass that it has.
Because FG=GMm / r
2
: the force of gravitational attraction decreases as
we move away from the earth by distance squared.
Gravitational potential energy (PE = mgh) increases as height increases.
Light slows down, bends toward the normal and has a shorter
wavelength when it enters a medium with a higher index of refraction.
White light is actually made up of all the colors of the rainbow. When
light passes through a prism, it is refracted and separated into its
component colors, creating a rainbow-like effect. A prism produces a
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rainbow from white light by dispersion.
The period of a wave is the inverse of its frequency. So waves with higher
frequencies have shorter periods.
Only waves show diffraction, interference and the polarization.
Whenever charged particles are accelerated, electromagnetic waves are
produced.
Named after the Greek word for the sun, Helios, Helium is the second
most common element in the universe. Long before it was discovered
on Earth, Helium was first discovered in the sun's spectral lines. A
completely unreactive, colorless, and odorless gas.
Quarks were first predicted by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George
Zweig in the 1960s. At the time, there was no experimental evidence
for the existence of quarks, but their existence was later confirmed by
experiments. Quarks are some of the smallest known particles in the
universe. They are much smaller than the protons and neutrons they
make up. Quarks are constantly exchanging particles called gluons,
which mediate the strong nuclear force that binds them together. They
are always found in groups of two or three, never alone. This is due to a
property called color confinement, which means that quarks are always
bound together by the strong nuclear force.
It takes 225 million years for our Sun to travel round the galaxy.
Only one two-billionth of the Sun's energy hits the Earth.
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Earth is the only known planet with plate tectonics.
The planet with the hottest surface temperature is not Mercury, but
Venus, because of the Greenhouse Effect of its atmosphere.
You could fit 1.3 million Earths in the Sun.
It takes 8 minutes for the Sun's light to reach Earth.
The Sun is about 4.5 billion years old and is 92,960,000 miles away from
Earth.
The Sun can appear blue when viewed at a wavelength of about 475 nm.
The gravity of the Sun is 28 times larger than Earths and there are
thousands of colder patches on the Sun − they are called 'Sunspots'.
These sunspots form in areas of strong magnetic activity that inhibit
heat transfer.
The Suns magnetic polarity reverses every eleven years.
The atmosphere of the Sun is composed of three layers:
The photosphere (layer at which the Sun becomes opaque to radiation)
The chromosphere (emits a reddish glow as super-heated hydrogen
burns off)
The corona (the Sun's outermost layer that merges with the solar
wind)
To match the energy of the Sun, it would take 100 billion tons of
dynamite exploding every second.
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The Sun rotates in the opposite direction to Earth with the Sun rotating
from west to east instead of east to west like Earth.
Helium is the only element that was not first discovered on Earth.
Instead, it was discovered in 1868 in the form of previously unknown
spectral lines in the light of the sun.
Going as fast as the Earth we could reach the reach the moon in 3.5
hours.
The Earth Isn't a Perfect Sphere − It Has a 27 Mile Tall Bulge at Its Belly.
If you leave at Age of 15 in a Spaceship at Speed of Light and Spends 5
Years in Space, when you get back on Earth you will 20 Years old. But all
of your Friends who were 15 when you Left, will be 65 Years Old at that
Time.
There's a highway in Space, called the Interplanetary Superhighway. It
is used to send spacecraft around the solar system with least resistance
using gravity.
Time slows down at high speeds and around massive objects. It
completely stops at the speed of light and at the event horizon of a black
hole and does not exist at the center of a black hole.
Without the discovery of wormholes, there is no scope for interstellar
travel.
Even if we travel at the speed of light, it would take millions of years to
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get to the nearest galaxy.
Because of time dilation:
Your head is older than your feet.
The earth's surface is 2.5 years older than its core.
Clocks placed at higher altitudes run faster than the clocks at lower
altitudes.
Three physicists flew around the world twice in 1971 with synced
atomic clocks to test out thetime dilation theory. Upon meeting up, they
found that all 3 of the clocks disagreed with each other.
YOU CANNOT CRY ON SPACE BECAUSE
YOUR TEARS WON'T EVER FALL.
Sunspots are regions on the Sun's surface where the magnetic field's
lines of force are bent and ripped. As a result, strong plasma discharges
known as solar flares happen in these regions.
The speed of a meteoroid traveling through the earth's atmosphere has
speed at least 5 times of that of sound. Their mere passing by a building
can lead to broken windows due to shock waves.
According to astronauts, space smells like seared steak, hot metal and
welding fumes.
Astronauts on the international space station witness around 15
sunrises and 15 sunsets every day.
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99% of matter is empty space. If you removed all the space within our
atoms, then humanity (7 billion people) would fit into one sugar cube.
Light is used for long-distance communication through fiber optic
cables, which transmit data using pulses of light. This technology is
used for internet and telephone communication, as well as many other
applications.
The coldest temperature ever recorded in the known universe was
in Massachusetts, MIT, where scientists attained temperatures 810
trillionths of a degree Fahrenheit above the absolute zero (-459.67°F).
Plasma is actually the most common phase of matter in the universe
(consists of a gas of ions – atoms or molecules which have one or
more orbital electrons stripped, and free electrons), despite being rare
on Earth. The Sun, the stars, and most of the interstellar matter in the
universe are comprised of plasma.
If astronauts traveled in a spaceship at a constant 1gof acceleration,
they could travel the entire universe in their own lifetime, while billions
of years would have passed by on earth.
Luminosity→ how much energy the Sun releases each second
Nuclear fission→ Splitting of an atomic nucleus
Nuclear fusion→ Fusion of two atomic nuclei
If an astronaut in Earth's orbit fired a bullet at the Sun at 1500ft/sec it
would take roughly 10.4 years to hit its target.
YOU ARE THE SAME AGE AS THE UNIVERSE BECAUSE
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MATTER CAN NEVER BE CREATED OR DESTROYED.
Because the period of a planet's orbit increases with increasing distance
from the sun:
Mercury (the innermost planet) takes only 88 days to orbit the Sun.
The earth takes 365 days, while Saturn requires 10,759 days to do the
same.
period→ The time a planet takes to complete one orbit around the sun.
semimajor axis→ size of orbit.
eccentricity→ how elongated the orbit is.
perihelion (position of smallest distance to sun): The point in the orbit
of a planet that is nearest to the sun.
aphelion (position of greatest distance to sun): The point in the orbit of
a planet most distant from the sun.
Light can be used to create energy through solar panels, which convert
sunlight into electricity. This technology is becoming increasingly
popular as a renewable energy source.
Half the atoms in our galaxy − including the atoms in our body − likely
came from outside the Milky Way (i.e., came from across the universe).
The largest galaxy in the observable universe is an elliptical galaxy, IC
1101. It has 100 trillion stars and is 6 million light years across. By
comparison, the Milky Way has a mere 100 billion stars and is 120,000
light years across.
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When a ball is dropped to the ground, it experiences Earth's
gravitational force. According to Isaac Newton's third law of motion,
the ball exerts equal and opposite force on the ground. Even though
both the ball and ground experience the same force, their acceleration is
different. The mass of ground is enormous compared to that of a ball. So
a ball experiences larger acceleration and the ground experiences almost
negligible acceleration. Due to the negligible acceleration, ground
appears to be stationary when a ball is dropped to the ground.
Only Earth has oxygen in its atmosphere and liquid water on its surface.
Conservation of angular momentum:
radius × rotation rate = constant
Large radius → slow rotation
Small radius → rapid rotation
There are a trillion stars in the known universe for every human on
Earth.
Astronauts in space need to sleep near fans so that when they exhale,
there isn't a CO2 cloud in front of their face causing them to potentially
suffocate.
Giant stars→ radius between 10 and 100 times the Sun's
Dwarf stars→radius equal to or less than the Sun's
Supergiant stars→radius more than 100 times the Sun's
Carbon-detonation supernova→ If the mass of white dwarf exceeds
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1.4 solar masses, electron degeneracy can no longer keep the core
from collapsing. Carbon fusion begins throughout the star almost
simultaneously, resulting in acarbon explosion.
We cannot see 80% of stars in the universe. If we could, the sky would
look extremely cluttered. The reason why we can't see 80% of the stars is
that 80% of the stars in the universe are Red Dwarfs. Red Dwarfs are dim
and give off red light. Their luminosity is only 0.1% of that of the sun.
Every star in the night sky is larger than the sun.
There are 200 billion to 400 billion stars in our galaxy, but the naked eye
can't spot more than a few thousand of them.
One of the strange properties of dark energy is that it has a constant
energy density, regardless of the expansion of the universe. This means
that as the universe expands, the amount of dark energy per unit
volume remains constant.
The twinkling of stars (stellar scintillation) is caused by the refraction
of light as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere.
Cool objects radiate at long wavelengths, hot objects at short
wavelengths.
Photons can pass around objects which are much smaller than their
wavelength.
As the earth rotates more slowly around the sun from year to year, 2016
was one second longer than 2015.
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Cosmic rays are high-energy particles that originate from sources
outside of the solar system. They are constantly bombarding the
Earth from all directions, with an estimated 100,000 particles passing
through every square meter of the Earth's atmosphere every second.
Cosmic rays can pose a risk to human health, particularly for astronauts
on long space missions, who are exposed to high levels of cosmic
radiation outside of the protective shielding of the Earth's atmosphere.
The planet Uranus was discovered in 1781, while the Antarctica was not
discovered until 1820.
The classification of dwarf planets is still a topic of debate among
astronomers. For example, Pluto was once considered a planet but was
later reclassified as a dwarf planet, raising questions about what exactly
constitutes a planet.
Each year the moon moves 3.8 cm further from the Earth.
Every minute, you travel over 12,000 miles in space. That's just while
standing still.
The reason why space is cold even if there is sun at the center is simply
because there is no matter to absorb that heat.
Unprotected exposure to outer space can kill us in less than 30 seconds.
A cosmic year is the amount of time it takes the Sun to revolve around
the center of the Milky Way... about 225 million years.
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The Outer Space Treaty, signed by all major space faring nations,
prohibits claiming territory in space or on celestial bodies. Space is
considered the shared heritage of mankind.
If the Sun was scaled down to the size of a white blood cell, the Milky
Way would be the size of the continental United States.
There is a mass reservoir of water floating in space that is 100,000 times
bigger than our sun and holds 140 trillion times more water than all of
our oceans.
Due to the highly elliptical orbit of Pluto, it sometimes gets closer to the
Sun than Neptune. In fact during the years 1979 to 1999, Neptune was
the 9th Planet and Pluto was the 8th Planet from the Sun.
Dark energy and dark matter are often confused or used
interchangeably, but they are actually two separate phenomena. Dark
matter is thought to be a form of matter that we cannot directly detect,
while dark energy is a form of energy.
Mass and weight are not the same thing.
mass→ amount of matter.
weight → force with which gravity acts on matter.
On average a meteor the size of a car enters the Earth's atmosphere
about once per year. Most burn up before hitting the ground.
The core of a star reaches 16 million degrees Celsius. A grain of sand this
hot would kill someone from 150 kilometers away.
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Continuous spectrum arise from hot, high pressure gas or solid.
Bright emission lines arise from hot, low pressure gas which radiate
heat.
Dark absorption lines arise from cool, low pressure gas.
In 1954, Man arrived from Tokyo Airport. He had Passport issued by
a Country named as Taured which did not exist. He had Visa of all
Countries and said his Country is 1000 Years Old. Police locked him in a
High Secure Room and he vanished. Experts said, he came from Parallel
Universe.
The term astronaut comes from Greek words that mean star and
sailor.
Neutron stars are incredibly dense celestial objects that are created
when a massive star undergoes a supernova explosion. These stars
are composed almost entirely of neutrons and have a density of
approximately 10
17
kg/m
3
.
The concept of dark energy is closely related to Einstein’s cosmological
constant. Einstein first introduced the cosmological constant in 1917
as a way to balance out the force of gravity and create a static universe.
However, the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe has
led to the idea that the cosmological constant may actually be a form of
dark energy.
Astronauts in space lose on average 1% of their bone mass a month.
Most of which is excreted in their urine. They literally pee their skeleton
out.
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Earth has a powerful magnetic field − this phenomenon is caused by
nickel-iron core of the planet.
Earth doesn't take 24 hours to rotate on its axis − it's actually 23 hours,
56 minutes and 4 seconds.
There's a 30,000 kilometer hexagonal cloud at Saturn's North Pole.
Conduction→Heat is transmitted by electrons moving in a medium.
Radiation→Heat is transmitted by photons.
Convection→Heat is transmitted by bulk motion of a gas or liquid.
There is a weird star that appears to be shooting giant balls of plasma
into space. Scientists found the bloated red giant while using the Hubble
telescope and described the blobs as cannon balls that are twice the
size of Mars and two times hotter than the sun.
Animals can sense when a solar eclipse is happening. Researchers found
that when the moon passes between the Earth and Sun, cicadas stop
singing, bees get restless, and squirrels run around non-stop during and
for 2 hours after the eclipse.
Solar eclipse → Occur when the Moon passes between Earth and the
Sun − leaving a moving region of shadow on Earth's surface.
Lunar eclipse →Occur when Earth passes between the Sun and the
Moon − casting a shadow on the Moon.
Lunar eclipse can only occur at full moon and solar eclipse can occur
only at new moon.
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Because the Earth's orbit around the sun is not in the same plane as the
Moon's orbit around the Earth − eclipses don't occur every month.
The size of the nucleus is typically around 10
−14
meters, making it
around 100,000 times smaller than the entire atom. The study of
the nucleus and its properties is known as nuclear physics, which
has applications in fields such as energy production, medicine, and
materials science.
Polar orbit is the orbit where satellite goes over the Earth's pole.
The waves on the Electromagnetic spectrum are different than sound
waves because they do not require a medium to travel through.
If a moon gets closer to the planet earth than this, it will get broken
apart by the so-called tidal forces.
A crater is an approximately circular depression in the surface of a
planet − produced by the impact of a meteorite.
The Sun is a nearly perfect sphere, with a diameter of about 1.39 million
kilometers (864,938 miles). The temperature at the core of the Sun
is around 15 million degrees Celsius (27 million degrees Fahrenheit),
where nuclear fusion reactions take place. The Sun plays a crucial role in
the Earth's climate and weather, and also affects space weather and the
Earth's magnetic field.
Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78% N2, 21% O2, 0.9% argon,
and 0.1% other gases. Trace amounts of CO2, methane, water vapor, and
neon are some of the other gases that make up the remaining 0.1%.
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Leptons are elementary particles that belong to the family of
fundamental particles, along with quarks and bosons. Leptons are
mysterious because they do not interact strongly with other particles,
which mean they are not affected by the strong nuclear force that
holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus. Instead, they only
interact through the weak nuclear force and electromagnetism.
Chemical analysis of lunar rocks revealed that these rocks are extremely
similar in composition to Earth rocks.
Many planets have magnetic fields, but the mechanisms that produce
and maintain these fields are not fully understood. For example, the
magnetic field of Mars is much weaker than that of Earth, and scientists
are still trying to understand why.
The fate of the universe is closely tied to the nature of dark energy.
If dark energy continues to accelerate the expansion of the universe, it
could eventually lead to a Big Rip where the universe is torn apart.
However, if the amount of dark energy changes or the repulsive force
weakens, the universe could eventually collapse in on itself in a Big
Crunch.
Protons are stable in the nucleus of an atom and do not decay over time.
They can be accelerated to very high speeds using particle accelerators,
such as the Large Hadron Collider. This technology is used in research
to study the properties of subatomic particles. Protons are important
in nuclear physics, as they are involved in nuclear fusion and fission
reactions. These reactions are used to generate energy in nuclear power
plants and to create nuclear weapons. Protons have a property known as
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a magnetic moment, which means that they behave like tiny magnets.
This property is used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to create
images of the inside of the human body.
According to the NASA, the speed of Earth rotation is gradually slowing
and it's happening at a rate of 1.4 milliseconds per 100 years. We may
think it's not a big deal. But if we add up that small discrepancy every
day for years and years, it can make a very big difference indeed. At this
speed, the day may become 25 hours after 140 million years.
Planet Earth is 93,225,926 miles from the sun. We could go from the
Earth to the moon and back 195 times in that distance.
The Compton effect was discovered by American physicist Arthur
Compton in 1923, and earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927. It
is a key process in the interaction of high-energy photons with matter,
and is used in a variety of applications such as medical imaging, X-ray
diffraction, and nuclear physics research.
Water covers 70% of the Earth's surface. Freshwater is about 2.5% of
that total.
As Earth spins, gravity pushes inward and the centrifugal force pushes
outward. However, due to the Earth's tilt, the forces are not exactly
opposed, creating an imbalance at the equator and a spare tire around
the planet.
The Earth's orbit lasts approximately 365.2 days, and it is for this reason
that every four years it takes an extra day: the February 29 that we have
every leap year.
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The universe is 13.6 billion years old − whereas the Earth is only 4.5
billion years old.
Approximately 107 billion people are believed to have lived on earth, and
an estimated 40% died before the age of 1.
The Earth's day or night cycle is growing longer year-by-year and 620
million years ago, the Earth day was 21.9 hours.
From 2000 BC until 1992 AD, astronomers had only discovered three
new planets. In 2014, NASA's Kepler space telescope team announced
the discovery of over 700 new planets.
Iron meteorites→almost completely made of metal.
Stony-iron meteorites→made of nearly equal amounts of metal and
silicate crystals.
Stony meteorites→made of silicate minerals.
The Earth could eventually have a 1000-hour day in 50 billion years
because the time it takes Earth to spin once on its axis keeps increasing.
The presence of dark matter was first inferred in the 1930s by the Swiss
astronomer Fritz Zwicky. He observed the motions of galaxies within
the Coma Cluster and found that they were moving much faster than
they should be, based on the amount of visible matter in the cluster.
Dark matter is thought to form a halo around galaxies, with the visible
matter (stars, gas, and dust) concentrated in the center. The exact shape
and size of the dark matter halo is still a topic of research.
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If you were on the moon, the Earth wouldn't actually move in the sky.
It would appear to wobble a little because the moon is elliptical but it
would never rise or set.
All the American flags placed on the moon are now white due to
radiation from the sun.
The earth's deepest known point is the size of 24.7 Empire State
Buildings end to end.
Coronal loops are structured arcs of glowing, electrified plasma that
flow along the powerful, curved, magnetic fields above the Sun's surface.
This one is roughly 4 times the size of Earth.
When a peacock feather and a steel ball are dropped together − air
resistance causes the feather to fall more slowly than a steel ball.
Feather experiences a lot of air resistance.
Steel ball experiences a very little air resistance.
Macroscopic world deals with concepts such as temperature, volume
and pressure to describe matter.
Microscopic world deals with concepts such as position, velocity and
mass to describe matter.
Massless bosons→ moves at speed of light, long range.
High mass bosons→ moves at less than speed of light, short range.
Space is shorten in high velocity frames →Lorentz contraction
According to Quantum Mechanics, reality does not exist when you are
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not looking at it. This means that the universe may not exist if there was
no one born to observe it.
According to the No-Boundary proposal, asking what came before the
Big Bang is meaningless like asking what is south of the south pole,
because there is no notion of the time available to refer to. The concept of
time only exists within our universe.
High mass-to-luminosity ratio→ most of the matter is in the form of
dark matter.
Low mass-to-luminosity ratio→ most of the matter is in the form of
baryonic matter, stars and stellar remnants plus gas
Massive neutrino→Exist but very low mass
Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPS)→ Little to no evidence
of their existence
Cosmic strings→Little to no evidence of their existence
Carbon (nonmetallic chemical element in the Group 14 of the periodic
table) is the structural backbone of all the building blocks and material
for life − including proteins and DNA.
Neutrons have no charge, meaning that they are not attracted to or
repelled by other charged particles. This allows them to penetrate deep
into matter without being deflected by the electromagnetic forces that
affect charged particles. They play a crucial role in nuclear reactions, as
they can be absorbed by atomic nuclei to create new, heavier elements.
This process is called neutron capture and is used in nuclear power
plants and nuclear weapons.
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From Albert Einsteinian special theory of relativity, we know that the
speed of light is a maximum transfer of information. So we have no
information for timescales less than the Planck length divided by the
speed of light.
Gravitational constant→Determines strength of gravity.
Strong force coupling constant→Holds particles together in nucleus of
atom.
Electromagnetic coupling constant→ Determines strength of
electromagnetic force that couples electrons to nucleus.
Multiverse (many universes):
Universe with life but no intelligence.
Universe with no atomic bonds.
Universe with weak gravity – no planets.
Universe with high gravity – all black holes.
Universe with no light.
Universe with strong weak force – too much radioactivity.
Universe with weak strong force – no nuclear fusion.
Universe with no matter.
Universe with chemistry that builds and sustains intelligent life.
Electromagnetic coupling constant:
If less than its actual value− no electrons are held in atomic orbit.
If higher than its actual value− no electrons will not bond with other
atoms (no molecules).
Strong force coupling constant:
If less than its actual value− hydrogen would be the only element in the
Universe.
If higher than its actual value− all the elements lighter than the iron
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would be rare.
Gravitational constant:
If less than its actual value − stars would have insufficient pressure
to overcome Coulomb barrier to start thermonuclear fusion (i.e. stars
would not shine).
If higher than its actual value− stars burn too fast, use up fuel before life
has a chance to evolve.
About 1 to 5% of matter in the Universe is made of baryons.
Physicists have performed an experiment that shows how time emerges
from quantum entanglement.
If protons were 0.2% more massive, then they would be unstable and
decay into neutrons. That would put an end to life in the universe
because there would be no atoms.
Earth's average distance to the Sun = 150 million kilometers
If much lesser than this value– oceans boil away, greenhouse effect kicks
in.
If much higher than this value– temperature drops, rapid Glaciation.
absorption→ matter absorbs radiation.
emission→ matter releases radiation.
scattering→ matter and radiation exchange energy.
The most expensive material in the World is Antimatter. It costs about
$62.5 trillion for one gram.
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Dark matter is thought to be responsible for holding galaxies together.
Without the presence of dark matter, galaxies would not have enough
mass to maintain their shape and would fly apart due to the force of
their rotation.
Just 17 grams of antimatter is sufficient enough to fuel a starship or a
trip to Alpha Centauri which is 4.37 light years from the Sun. Sadly it
would take 100 billion years to produce 1 gram of antihydrogen.
Neutrinos are among the most abundant particles in the Universe, and
yet are hard to detect. They're similar to electrons, but they have no
electrical charge and their mass is almost zero, so they interact very little
with normal matter as they stream through the Universe at near light-
speed. Billions of neutrinos are zipping through our body right now.
Hence, they are also called ghost particles.
BIOLOGY TELLS US THAT WE ARE 7% BLOOD.
CHEMISTRY TELLS US THAT WE ARE 65% WATER.
PHYSICS TELLS US THAT WE ARE 99.99999999% EMPTY SPACE.
variation + differential reproduction + heredity →natural selection
If two pieces of the same type of metal touch in space, they will bond
and be permanently stuck together. This amazing effect is called cold
welding.
There's a highway in Space called the Interplanetary Superhighway. It
is used to send spacecraft around the solar system with least resistance
using gravity.
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Both photons and neutrinos are created inside the core of the sun. While
photons take tens of thousands of years to reach the edge of the sun,
neutrinos just take 2.3 seconds.
Electrons are extremely small, with a mass of only 9.11 × 10
−31
kilograms. They are so small that their behavior is governed by the
principles of quantum mechanics, which describe the behavior of
particles at the atomic and subatomic level.
Phosphorus is a solid at room temperature but is self-igniting when in
contact with oxygen. It becomes a liquid at 317 Kelvin.
Sulfur is a solid at room temperature and becomes a liquid at 388 Kelvin.
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction:
(Rockets eject material out the back at high speed to
push the body of the rocket forward)
IN 1977, WE RECEIVED A SIGNAL FROM DEEP SPACE THAT LASTED 72
SECONDS. WE STILL DON'T KNOW HOW OR WHERE IT CAME FROM.
String Theory→Proposes higher dimensions at the atomic scale.
Black Hole cosmology→Every Black Hole has a Universe inside it.
Anthropic principle→Our Universe is a result of consciousness.
Occam's Razor→ If our Universe can exist with so many constrains there
might be other universes with relaxed constrains.
Since there is no atmosphere in space, space is completely silent.
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In 3.75 billion years the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies will collide.
There is a volcano on Mars (Olympus Mons) three times the size of
Mount Everest.
It would take 450 million years for a modern spacecraft to reach the
center of our galaxy.
Newton' s First law of motion→Inertia.
Newton' s Second law of motion→Force.
Newton' s Third law of motion→Action and reaction.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics→Thermodynamic equilibrium and
temperature.
First law of thermodynamics→Work, heat and energy.
Second law of thermodynamics→Entropy.
Milky Way has two major spiral arms that start at the central bar of
stars, and slowly taper off. Our Solar system is located in one minor
spiral arm called the Orion arm.
Galaxies come in different sizes, but also different shapes.
The first spiral galaxy we discovered, besides our own, is the Whirlpool
Galaxy (M51).
Viscosity→ Stickiness
Compressibility→ Springiness
Diffusion→Random motion
Convection→ Ordered motion
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Most particles can only travel in the (3 space + 1 time) dimensions.
Gravitons− the 2 spin bosons which propagate a force called gravity −
can travel in the extra dimensions.
The most luminous star visible to the naked eye −34 Cygni− outshines
the Sun by 610,000 times.
Jupiter could contain the other seven planets in just 70 percent of its
volume.
The process of falling into a black hole — getting more and more
stretched out — is known as Spaghettification.
The moon is the reason why we have tides and waves on Earth.
The universe has no centre and is constantly expanding (getting bigger)
every second – making it impossible to reach the edge.
A black hole is created when big stars explode. Its gravitational force is
so strong that nothing can escape from it – luckily the closest black hole
is about 10,000 light-years from Earth.
John Michell was one of the first scientists to propose the existence of
black holes. In 1783, he wrote a paper suggesting that there could be
objects in the universe so massive that their gravity would be strong
enough to prevent anything, including light, from escaping.
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According to the uncertainty principle, it is impossible to know both
the position and velocity of a quantum particle with absolute precision.
The uncertainty principle leads to quantum tunneling, which is the
ability of quantum particles to tunnel through potential barriers that
would be impenetrable according to classical physics.
If we could squeeze the Earth down to the size of a wedding ring, it
would become a black hole. We could even become a black hole, if we
were squished down to the size of an atom.
If we were to orbit a black hole in its photon sphere and look to one
direction, we would see the back of our own head.
Star orbiting the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way
galaxy moves just as predicted by Albert Einstein's general theory of
relativity.
The asteroid impact at Chicxulub ejected sulfur and carbon dioxide
gases that cooled Earth's average surface air temperature by as much as
26°C. This event caused a planetary mass extinction, including that of
non-avian dinosaurs.
Black holes are smaller than we think. The radius of a typical black hole
is only about 30 kilometers. If our sun were to shrink into a black hole, it
would only have a radius of 3 kilometers.
Inertial frame→ one in rest or uniform motion.
In 1915, Einstein's theory of general relativity predicted the existence
of Black Holes first.
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In a vacuum, Electromagnetic radiation moves at a constant speed of
about 299,792,458 meters per second. This speed is known as the speed
of light and is the fastest known speed in the universe.
Most black holes are formed from the collapsed cores of massive stars
that have run out of fuel and can no longer support themselves against
the force of gravity. When two black holes come close to each other,
they can merge to form an even larger black hole. Through this process,
enormous amounts of energy are released as gravitational waves.
About 10
40
years from now, matter in the Universe will be present only
in the form of black holes and subatomic particles separated by huge
distances.
Electrons play a crucial role in electricity, as they are the carriers of
electric charge. When a voltage is applied to a conductor, electrons flow
through it, creating an electric current. Electrons can be shared between
atoms to form chemical bonds, or they can be transferred from one atom
to another in a chemical reaction.
If you could produce asound louder than 1100 dB, you would create a
black hole and ultimately destroy the galaxy.
Magnetar→ one of the most powerful objects in the Cosmos. The biggest
spinning magnet to ever exist. It's the cosmic equivalent of a great white
shark. But it wouldn't eat us, it would just turn all our atoms to dust!
Electrons can emit light when they move from a higher energy state to
a lower energy state. This is the principle behind many types of lighting,
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including fluorescent and LED lights. Electrons play a crucial role in
biological systems, as they are involved in many biological processes,
including photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Why haven't we met Extraterrestrial beings?
We are the only intelligent life in the Cosmos.
Other Intelligent Extraterrestrial beings died in mass extinction events.
We might even be the next!
Other Extraterrestrial beings are too intelligent and we are simply not
worth their time.
Life first began on planet Earth. We are the most advanced beings. They
are too far and out of our reach.
Extinction = Absorption + Scattering
Slow neutron capture→ There is sufficient time for the radioactive
decay to occur before another neutron is captured.
Rapid neutron capture→There is no sufficient time for the radioactive
decay to occur before another neutron is captured.
CHUNKS OF GALAXY ARE BEING PULLED
AWAY INTO COMPLETE DARKNESS IN A
PHENOMENON KNOWN AS 'DARK FLOW'
If reaction products have larger binding energy than reactants, reaction
is exothermic and releases energy (heat).
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A meteor shower is a phenomenon in which many meteors fall through
the atmosphere in a short period of time.
Asteroids are rocky objects that orbit the Sun and are found primarily in
the asteroid belt, a region between Mars and Jupiter. They occasionally
collide with each other, creating fragments that can be scattered
throughout the Solar System and potentially impact Earth. The asteroid
impact that occurred 65 million years ago is believed to have caused the
extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species. Asteroid mining
is a proposed industry that could involve extracting valuable resources,
such as water and metals, from asteroids for use in space exploration
and commerce.
Meteorites are the rocks that survive the fiery descent through Earth's
atmosphere.
Bound-free absorption→The absorption of light during ionization of a
bound electron.
Free-free absorption→ The absorption of light when scattering a free
ion.
Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation: In thermal equilibrium, the
emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptivity.
Sometimes comets are referred to as dirty snowballs or cosmic
snowballs. This is because they are composed mostly of ice, rock, gas
and dust.
60 % of Earth's Population Lives on 30% of Earth's Landmass.
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Earth's Tilt→The Reason For Change In The Seasons.
Quantum fluctuations occur even in the vacuum of empty space, where
there are no particles or fields present. Quantum fluctuations play a
crucial role in many phenomena in physics, including the Casimir effect,
which is a force that arises between two parallel metal plates due to the
fluctuating electromagnetic fields in the vacuum.
For low mass stars, temperature never reaches that required for Carbon
burning.
There are 45 miles of nerves in the body.
Number of bones in arms → 6.
Number of bones in human foot →33.
Number of bones in each wrist → 8.
Number of bones in hand → 27.
Number of bones in each human ear → 3.
Human fingers can detect nano-size objects. This means we not only
have the ability to feel a tiny bump the size of a large molecule, but if our
finger was the size of Earth, we could determine the difference between
a house and a car.
The human brain (when awake) produces enough electricity to power a
40 watt light bulb for 24 hours.
Biology is the only branch of science in which multiplication means the
same thing as division.
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Neutrinos are produced in many different types of nuclear reactions,
including those that occur in stars, nuclear reactors, and cosmic rays.
They have very weak interactions with matter and can pass through
solid objects such as the Earth without being stopped. Hence, they may
be challenging to find them.
Even though our brain is only about 2% of our body's weight, about 3
pounds, it uses 20-30% of the calories we consume.
Sir Issac Newton stuck a sewing needle under his eyeball, pushed it all
the way to the back of his eye socket, and wiggled it around to test his
theory of optics.
An average human produces enough saliva in a lifetime to fill two
swimming pools.
The name virus was coined from the Latin word meaning slimy liquid or
poison.
When eyelashes are disturbed, the nerve at its bases initiates reflex
action to close the eyelids.
The acid in our stomach is strong enough to dissolve razor blades.
A piece of brain tissue the size of a grain of sand contains 100,000
neurons and 1 billion synapses, all talking to one another.
EVERY NUCLEUS IN THE HUMAN
BODY HAS DNA OF 6 FEET LONG.
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Honey is the only food that doesn't rot. A Honeypot can remain edible
for more than 3000 years.
A chicken egg is one giant cell. One chicken egg is about 1000 times
larger than the average cell in your body.
Butterflies taste something not with their mouth but with their feet.
The color of a star is an indication of its temperature, with blue stars
being hotter than red stars. However, the exact relationship between a
star's color and its temperature is still not fully understood.
Time dilation is a fundamental aspect of the theory of relativity, and
has been verified by numerous experiments and observations, including
the famous twin paradox thought experiment. The amount of time
dilation increases as the speed of the moving object approaches the
speed of light. Time dilation has important implications for space
travel, as it means that time would appear to pass more slowly
for astronauts on a high-speed spacecraft or in a region of strong
The average human body contains 10 times more bacterial cells than
human cells.
The number of bacteria in a person's mouth is equal to the number of
people living on earth, or even more.
More than 100000 chemical reactions occur every second in our brain.
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A NEW BORN CHILD RESPIRES 32/MIN
A FIVE YEAR OLD CHILD RESPIRES 26/MIN
A FIFTY YEAR OLD MAN RESPIRES 18/MIN
If even a Small amount of Liquor is put on a Scorpion, it will go mad and
Sting itself. If we pour cold water into a person's ear, his eyes will move
in direction of the opposite ear. If we pour warm water into his ear, his
eyes will move towards that ear. This is used to test for brain damage and
is called 'Caloric Stimulation.'
In 2015, scientists sent flatworms to the International Space Station for
five weeks, to see how space affected their growth. One of the worms
grew a second head. Scientists later amputated the heads, and both
of them grew back, showing that space had permanently changed the
worm.
The longest bone in an adult human is the thighbone, measuring about
18 inches (46 cm). The shortest bone is in the ear and is just 0.1 inches
(0.25 cm) long, which is shorter than a grain of rice.
Universe is 13.7 billion years old
Planet Earth is 4.5 billion years old
Modern humans are 150 thousand years old
Helium has two protons, two neutrons and two electrons. Together,
helium and hydrogen make up 99.9 percent of known matter in the
universe.
Rare Earth hypothesis: Complex extraterrestrial life is improbable and
extremely rare.
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Abiogenesis: Life arose from nonlife more than 3.5 billion years ago on
Earth.
Biogenesis: Life is derived from the reproduction of other life.
A person's feet has about 500,000 sweat glands and can produce about a
pint of sweat a day.
There are more than a trillion life forms living on our skin.
Today there are eight billion people living on the planet earth.
In other words, there are 100 times more life forms living on our skin
than the number of humans living on the planet!
Only one letter doesn't appear in the periodic table. It's the letter J.
If a human being's DNA were uncoiled, it would stretch 10 billion miles,
from Earth to Pluto and back.
Lithium is the most reactive metal in the entire periodic table.
The taste cells in our taste buds live for only about two weeks.
There are 90 elements on the periodic table that occur in nature. All of
other elements are artificially synthesized in laboratory.
One ampere = one coulomb of electrical charge (6.24150974 × 10
18
electrons) moving through a specific point in one second.
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Solar wind: Stream of electrons and protons with energies usually
between 1.5 and 10 keV ejected from the upper atmosphere of the Sun.
Nuclides with the same mass number were termed isobars.
Nuclides with the same atomic number were termed isotopes.
Nuclides with the same neutron number were termed isotones.
Geomorphology: The study of landforms, their classification, origin,
development and history.
Perhaps Benjamin Franklin's most well-known experiment, which
contributed to the creation of the lightning rod and the understanding
of positive and negative charges, was flying a kite in a storm.
A photon may turn into an electron-positron pair if its energyhυexceeds
the rest-mass energy of the pair (hυ 2mec
2
).
Our Sun has a mass of approximately
2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms,
there are about 300,000,000,000 stars in our Milky
Way galaxy, and there are between 50,000,000,000 and
1,000,000,000,000 galaxies in the observable Universe.
If the Earth's crust were significantly thicker, plate tectonic recycling
could not take place.
The atmosphere inTitan, Saturn's Moon, is so thick and the gravity so
low, that humans could fly through it by flapping wings attached to
their arms.
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Earth mass and size:If smaller than its actual value − its magnetic field
would be weaker, allowing the solar wind to strip away our atmosphere
held in place by the earth's gravity, slowly transforming our planet into
a dead, barren world much like planet Mars.
The sky always appears dark on the moon because it doesn't have an
atmosphere. On Earth, the sky is blue because molecules in the air
scatter blue light from the sun.
In some cases lightning can go upward into space. It was spotted near
the island of Naru in the Pacific Ocean.
Comets are icy objects that orbit the Sun and are known for their bright
tails and periodic appearances in the night sky. They were once believed
to be omens of disaster or upheaval, and their appearance was often seen
as a sign of impending doom. The famous Halley's Comet is a short-
period comet that orbits the Sun every 76 years and was last visible from
Earth in 1986. It is named after the astronomer Edmond Halley, who
accurately predicted its return.
Accretion disks are commonly observed around black holes, which are
some of the most massive and dense objects in the universe. The intense
gravity of a black hole can draw in matter from nearby stars or gas
clouds, forming a disk around the black hole. The study of accretion
disks has helped astronomers to understand the processes of star
formation and the behavior of black holes.
The octopus is incredibly intelligent life form. It is the only invertebrate
that is capable of emotion, empathy, cognitive function, self-awareness,
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personality, and even relationships with humans. Some speculate
that, without humans, octopi would eventually take our place as the
dominate life form on Earth.
Mars atmosphere is filled with 96% of CO2and just 2% O2.
Satellites can travel at 18000 miles per hour that means that in a day a
satellite can go around the earth 14 times. There are over 2500 satellites
orbiting earth at this moment.
When we see a halo around the sun, or moon, it means that rain or storm
is coming.
Some stars are known as variable stars, meaning that their brightness
changes over time. The reasons for these variations are not fully
understood, but they may be due to changes in the star's internal
structure or the presence of companion stars in a binary system.
The concept of zero point energy was first proposed by Albert Einstein
and Otto Stern in 1913. Zero point energy is a fundamental aspect
of the quantum mechanical description of the universe, and it has
been observed in numerous experiments. One of the most famous
experiments that demonstrated the existence of zero point energy is the
Casimir effect, which shows that two metal plates placed in a vacuum,
will be attracted to each other due to the presence of zero point energy.
When magnetic ferrofluid comes in contact with a magnetic object,
it becomes a moving sculpture that reflects the shape of the object's
magnetic field.
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On average, gravity on a neutron star is 2 billion times stronger
than gravity on Earth. In fact, it's strong enough to significantly bend
radiation from the star in a process known as gravitational lensing,
allowing astronomers to see some of the back side of the star.
The word atom means undivided.
The boiling point is the temperature at which a substance changes from
a liquid to gas.
Protons have a mass of approximately 1.0073 atomic mass units.
This makes them much heavier than electrons, which have a mass of
approximately 0.0005 atomic mass units. The number of protons in an
atom's nucleus determines what element it is. For example, all atoms
with six protons are carbon, while atoms with eight protons are oxygen.
Fusion reactions can take place only at very high temperature of
the order of 10
7
to 10
9
Kelvin. Hence, fusion reactions are termed
thermonuclear reactions.
If we were to fill a bucket the size of the Sun with water and pour it on
the Sun, it wouldn't extinguish it. Instead, it will add to the Sun's mass
and increase its Hydrogen and Oxygen reserves − creating a bigger blue-
white star 13 times the original size, and would fry nearby planets.
Empty space is not truly empty, as it still contains energy and
virtual particles that appear and disappear continuously. The existence
of virtual particles in empty space is a consequence of quantum
mechanics, which predicts that even in a vacuum, particles and anti-
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particles can spontaneously appear and annihilate each other. The study
of empty space has led to important advances in our understanding of
fundamental physics, such as the development of quantum field theory
and the prediction of the Higgs boson.
An average human emits about 150 anti-electrons (positrons) per hour.
These positrons come from the decay of potassium-40 isotope present in
your body. At this rate, we need about 10
21
years to produce just 1 gram
of positrons.
The earth is not the center of the Universe.
The twin paradox was first proposed by Paul Langevin in 1911, before
the development of special relativity. In the twin paradox, one twin
remains on Earth while the other twin travels away from Earth at high
speeds and then returns. Due to time dilation, the traveling twin appears
to age more slowly than the twin who remained on Earth. The twin
paradox has important implications for space travel, as it suggests that
astronauts traveling at high speeds could experience significant time
dilation compared to people on Earth.
The Big Bang theory, which is the prevailing scientific explanation for
the origin of the universe, suggests that everything started from a single
point of infinite density and temperature. So, the entire universe was
once the size of a single atom.
The cornea is the only organ in the entire human body that has no blood
supply. It gets oxygen directly from the air.
The arrow of time is a concept that describes the direction of time's flow,
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from the past to the future, and is related to the increase in entropy over
time.
The photoelectric effect was first observed in the late 19th century
by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz. It was further studied and
explained by the physicist Albert Einstein in 1905, as part of his
theory of the quantum nature of light. The photoelectric effect played
a key role in the development of quantum mechanics, as it provided
experimental evidence for the idea that energy is quantized in discrete
units, rather than being continuous.
Hydrogen is an explosive gas. Oxygen supports combustion. Still when
these are combined it is water which is used to put out fires.
There are 2,271 Satellites currently in orbit! Russia has the most
satellites currently in orbit, with 1,324 followed by the U.S.A. with 658.
There is a giant cloud of alcohol in the Milky Way galaxy that could fill
400 trillion trillion pints of beer. So, if you ever run out of alcohol on a
long space journey, you know where to go.
Wormholes were first proposed by Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen in
1935 as a solution to the equations of general relativity. They are often
referred to as Einstein-Rosen bridges after the two scientists who
first proposed their existence. Wormholes are often depicted in science
fiction as a means of faster-than-light travel, allowing spacecraft to
travel vast distances across the universe in a short amount of time.
The Kessler effect is the theory that a single destructive event in
low earth orbit could create a cascade where satellites break up into
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tiny fragments taking out other satellites, breaking up into smaller
fragments and so on.
The Solar System is thought to have originated from the Solar Nebula, a
cloud of gas and dust, some 5 billion years ago.
The elements that make up our bodies, such as carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen, were created in the hearts of stars billions of years ago. So, in a
sense, we are all children of the cosmos.
These are some of the fascinating scientific facts that
everyone should be aware of. We refer to the totality of
all objects that exist in space as the universe. It contains
countless stars, galaxies, black holes, vast gas clouds, and a
variety of other amazing objects. For many of us, it has always
been an intriguing place. It is full of strange and exotic objects,
such as black holes, quasars, and pulsars. Some of these objects
are so bizarre that they almost seem like something out of
science fiction. We are all enthralled by the components of our
universe, from its acceleration and expansion to dark matter
and energy, and we have always been curious about its various
mysteries. The cosmos is so enigmatic, yet we continually
learning more about it, so it's always interesting to learn
anything new about it. These amazing universe facts will help
you understand how insignificant we are all in the scheme
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of things. The universe is a vast and fascinating place, filled
with incredible wonders and mysteries that continue to baffle
scientists and amaze ordinary people.
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
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Galileo showing the Duke of Venice how to use the telescope
The E=mc² equation from Albert Einstein's 1912
Manuscript on the Special Theory of Relativity

CHAPTER 5
The Hall of Shame: How Bad Science
can cause Real Harm in Real Life
Although Nature needs thousands or millions of years to create a
new species, man needs only a few dozen years to destroy one.
−Victor Scheffer
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
T
here are no qualms in accepting the fact that
− in the past −things were different from what
they are now. Even though science transformed
extensively from our personal laptops, tablets, and phones to
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advanced machinery, it is yet a continuing effort to discover
and increase human knowledge and understanding. Science is
ubiquitous and has made very rapid progress and completely
transformed outwardly the manner of our living— allowing
us to develop new technologies, solve practical problems, and
make informed decisions— both individually and collectively.
New medications, therapies, and medical advancements made
possible by science have helped people all over the world
live longer and healthier lives. Improved crop yields as a
result of agricultural science advancements have helped feed
the world's expanding population. Technology improvements
in communication technologies have made it possible for
us to quickly communicate with individuals all around the
world. In its pursuit of excellence, it has lead to pollution,
environmental crisis, greater violence, sorrow, tension, new
pathogenic diseases, chemical and biological war to name
a few. The advancement of technology and automation in
many industries has led to job losses and social unrest. Some
technological advancements, such as the widespread use of
electronic devices, have been linked to health risks such as eye
strain, insomnia, and addiction. On the one hand, Science (a
system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method and
research) has been a boon to mankind and on the other hand, it
has also proved to be a cause of great distress or annoyance.
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We humans, who began as a mineral and then emerged into
plant life and into the animal state and then to beingaggressive
mortal beings who fought a survival struggle in caveman
days, to get more food, territory or partner with whom to
reproduce, now are glued to the TV set, marveling at the
adventures of science and their dazzling array of futuristic
technology from teleportation to telekinesis: rocket ships, fax
machines, supercomputers, a worldwide communications
network, gas-powered automobiles and high-speed elevated
trains. The science has opened up an entirely new world for us.
And our lives have become easier and more comfortable.
Advances in technology, such as smartphones, computers,
and the internet, have made our lives more convenient and
connected. We can now shop online, work from home, and
communicate with people all over the world with ease. Science
has led to the development of faster and more efficient modes
of transportation, such as cars, planes, and trains. These
advancements have made travel more comfortable, affordable,
and accessible. Science has enabled us to harness new sources
of energy, such as solar and wind power. This has led to a more
sustainable and environmentally friendly way of producing
energy, making our lives more comfortable while minimizing
the impact on the planet. With the help of science we have
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estimated about 8,000 chemotherapeutic exogenous
nonnutritive chemical substances which when taken in the
solid form by the mouth enter the digestive tract and there
they are transformed into a solution and passed on to the liver
where they are chemically altered and finally released into the
blood stream. And through blood they reach the site of action
and binds reversibly to the target cell surface receptors to
produce their pharmacological effect. And after their
pharmacological effect they slowly detaches from the receptor.
And then they are sent to the liver. And there they are
transformed into a more water soluble compound called
metabolite and released from the body through urine, sweat,
saliva, and excretory products. However, the long term use of
chemotherapeutic drugs for diseases like cancer, diabetes
leads to side effects. And the side effects —including nausea,
loss of hair, loss of strength, permanent organ damage to the
heart, lung, liver, kidneys, or reproductive system etc.— are so
severe that some patients rather die of disease than subjecting
themselves to this torture. And smallpox (an acute contagious
disease caused by the variola virus, a member of the
orthopoxvirus family) was a leading cause of death in 18th
century, and the inexorable spread of the disease reliably
recorded the death rate of some hundred thousand people. And
the death toll surpassed 5000 people a day. Yet Edward Jenner,
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an English physician, noticed something special occurring in
his small village. People who were exposed to cowpox did not
get smallpox when they were exposed to the disease.
Concluding that cowpox could save people from smallpox,
Edward purposely infected a young boy who lived in his village
first with cowpox, then with smallpox. Fortunately, Edward's
hypothesis worked well. He had successfully demonstrated
the world’s first vaccine and eradicated the disease. And
vaccines which once saved humanity from the smallpox
(which was a leading cause of death in 18th-century England),
now have associated with the outbreaks of diseases like
pertussis (whooping cough) which have begun showing up in
the United States in the past forty years.
TOP 5 DRUGS WITH REPORTED SIDE EFFECTS
(Withdrawn from market in September 2004)
Drug: Byetta
Used for: Type 2 diabetes
Side effect: Increase of blood glucose level
Drug: Humira
Used for: Rheumatoid arthritis
Side effect: Injection site pain
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Drug: Chantix
Used for: Smoking cessation
Side effect: Nausea
Drug: Tysabri
Used for: Multiple sclerosis
Side effect: Fatigue
Drug: Vioxx*
Used for: Arthritis
Side effect: Heart attack
In 1930s, Paul Hermann Muller a research chemist at the firm
of Geigyin Basel, with the help of science introduced the first
modern insecticide (DDT: dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane)
and it won him the1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and
Medicine for its credit of saving thousands of human lives in
World War II by killing typhus carrying lice and malaria
carrying mosquitoes, dramatically reducing Malaria and
Yellow Fever around the world. But in the late 1960s DDT
which was a world saver was no longer in public favor – it was
blamed moderately hazardous and carcinogenic. And most
applications of DDT were banned in the U.S. and many other
countries. However, DDT is still legally manufactured in the
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U.S., but only sold to foreign countries. At a time when
Napoleon was almost disturbing whole of Europe due to his
aggressive policies and designs and most of the world was at
war – the science gave birth to the many inventions which
included changes in the textile industry, the iron industry, the
transportation and communication industry, and consumer
goods. Though it gave birth in England, yet its inventions
spread all over the world in a reasonably period. The
inventions transformed human lives and made the world a
better place. And rapid industrialization was a consequence of
new inventions and demand for expansion of large industrial
cities led to the large scale exploitation of agricultural land.
And socio-economic growth was peaking, as industries were
booming, and agricultural lands were decreasing, as the world
enjoyed the fruits of the rapid industrialization. As a result of
this, the world's population was growing at an exponential
rate and the world's food supply was not in the pace of the
population’s increase. And this resulted in widespread famine
in many parts of the world, such as England, and as starvation
was rampant. In that time line, science suppressed that
situation by producing more ammonia through the Haber
Bosch Process (more ammonia, more fertilizers. more
fertilizers, more food production and thus prevented
widespread famine). But at the same time, science which
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solved the world's hunger problems also led to the production
of megatons of TNT (trinitrotoluene) and other explosives
which were dropped on all the cities leading to the death of
some hundred million people. Certain scientific developments,
like the usage of fossil fuels and the release of pollutants into
the air and water, have resulted in environmental harm and
degradation. Rapid industrialization which once raised the
economic and living standard of the people has now become a
major global issue. The full impact of an industrial fuel
economy has led to the global warming (i.e., the increase of
Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of too much
carbon dioxide emissions from industrial centers which acts
as a blanket, trap heat and warm the planet). And as a result,
Greenland's ice shelves have started to shrink permanently,
disrupting the world’s weather by altering the flow of ocean
and air currents around the planet. And violent swings in the
climate have started to appear in the form of floods, droughts,
snow storms and hurricanes. And industries are the main
sources of sulfur dioxide emission and automobiles for
nitrogen oxides. And the oxides of nitrogen and sulfur
combine with the moisture in the atmosphere to form acids.
And these acids reach the Earth as rain, snow, or fog and react
with minerals in the soil and release deadly toxins and affect a
variety of plants and animals on the earth. And these acids
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damage buildings, historic monuments, and statues,
especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble,
that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. For example,
acid rain has reacted with the marble (calcium carbonate) of
Taj Mahal (an ivory white marble mausoleum on the south
bank of the Yamuna river in the Indian city of Agra) causing
immense damage to this wonderful structure (i.e., Taj is
changing color). And science once introduced refrigerators for
prolonging storage of food but now refrigerators are the active
sources of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) which interact with the
UV light during which chlorine is separated. And this chlorine
in turn destroys a significant amount of the ozone in the high
atmosphere admitting an intense dose of harmful ultraviolet
radiation. And the increased ultraviolet flux produces the
related health effects such as skin cancer, cataracts, and
immune suppression and produces a permanent change in the
nucleotide sequence and lead to changes in the molecules the
cell produce, which modify and ultimately affect the process of
photosynthesis and destroy green plants. And the massive
extinction of green plants may lead to famine and immense
death of all living species including man. Fertilizers which
once provided a sufficient amount of the essential nitrates to
plants to synthesize chlorophyll and increase crop growth to
feed the growing population and satisfy the demand for food,
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has now blamed for causing hypertrophication i.e., fertilizers
left unused in soil are carried away by rain water into lakes and
rivers, and then to coastal estuaries and bays. And the overload
of fertilizers induces explosive growth of algal blooms, which
prevents light from getting into the water and thereby
preventing the aquatic plants from photosynthesizing, a
process which provides oxygen in the water to animals that
need it, like fish and crabs. So, in addition to the lack of oxygen
from photosynthesis, when algal blooms die they decompose
and they are acted upon by microorganisms. And this
decomposition process consumes oxygen, which reduces the
concentration of dissolved oxygen. And the depleted oxygen
levels in turn lead to fish kills and a range of other effects
promoting the loss of species biodiversity. And the large scale
exploitation of forests for industrialization and residential
purposes has not only led to the loss of biodiversity but has led
the diseases like AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
caused by a virus called HIV (Human immunodeficiency
virus) which alters the immune system, making victim much
more vulnerable to infections and diseases) to transmit from
forests to cities. At the dawn of the early century, the entire
world was thoroughly wedded to fossil fuels in the form of oil,
natural gas, and coal to satisfy the demand for energy. And as a
result, fossil fuels were becoming increasingly rare and were
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slowly dooming to extinction. In that period, science (upon
the work of Marie Curie and Albert Einstein) introduced
nuclear fission reaction (the process by which a heavy nucleus
breaks down into two or more smaller nuclei, releasing energy.
For example: if we hit a uranium-235 nucleus with a neutron,
it split into a krypton nucleus, a barium nucleus, three
neutrons, and energy) as an alternate to the world's energy
supply and therefore prevented the world economy from
coming to a grinding halt. But at the same time science
introduced nuclear fission reaction to produce thousands of
nuclear weapons, which were dropped on all the cities in
World War II amounted to some two million tons, two
megatons, of TNT, which flattened heavily reinforced
buildings many kilometers away, the firestorm, the gamma
rays and the thermal neutrons, which effectively fried the
people. A school girl who survived the nuclear attack on
Hiroshima, the event that ended the Second World War, wrote
this first-hand account:
Through a darkness like the bottom of hell, I could hear the voices of the
other students calling for their mothers. And at the base of the bridge,
inside a big cistern that had been dug out there, was a mother weeping,
holding above her head a naked baby that was burned red all over its body.
And another mother was crying and sobbing as she gave her burned breast
to her baby. In the cistern the students stood with only their heads above
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the water, and their two hands, which they clasped as they imploringly
cried and screamed, calling for their parents. But every single person who
passed was wounded, all of them, and there was no one, there was no one to
turn to for help. And the singed hair on the heads of the people was frizzled
and whitish and covered with dust. They did not appear to be human, not
creatures of this world.
Nuclear breakthroughs have now turned out to be the biggest
existential threat to human survival. Nuclear waste is banking
up at every single nuclear site. And as a result, every nation is
suffering from a massive case of nuclear constipation (that
Causes Intractable Chronic Constipation in Children). Ninety-
one percent of world adults and 60 percent of teens own this
device that has revolutionized the most indispensable
accessories of professional and social life. Science once
introduced this device for wireless communication but now
they are pointed to as a possible cause of everything from
infertility to cancer to other health issues. And in a study
conducted at the University of London, researchers sampled
390 cell phones to measure for levels of pathogenic bacteria.
The results of the study showed that 92 percent of the cell
phones sampled had heavily colonized by high quantities of
various types of disease-prone bacteria with high resistances
to commonly used antibiotics (around 25,000 bacteria per
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square inch) and the results concluded that their ability to
transmit diseases of which the mobile phones are no
exception. Several technological discoveries raise ethical
concerns, such as the use of genetic engineering to modify
human embryos or the creation of artificial intelligence that
could potentially surpass human intelligence and control.
Advances in technology have also raised concerns about
privacy and data security, as personal information is collected
and stored by companies and governments. The fluoridation
of water at optimal levels has been shown to be highly
beneficial to the development of tooth enamel and prevention
of dental cavities since the late 1800s. And studies showed that
children who drink water fluoridated at optimal levels can
experience 20 to 40 percentless tooth decay. But now
fluoridation of water has termed to cause lower IQ, memory
loss, cancer, kidney stones and kidney failures – faster than
any other chemical. Science once introduced irradiation to
prevent food poisoning by destroying molds, bacteria (such as
one – celled animal 'Amoeba ' – that have as much information
in their DNA as 1,000 Encyclopedia Britannicas – which is
almost unbelievably minute form of life which, after being cut
into six separate parts, is able to produce six complete bodies to
carry on as though nothing had happened),yeast and virus
(the smallest living things which cannot reproduce itself
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unaided and therefore it is lifeless in the true sense. But when
placed in the plasma of a living cell and, in forty eight minutes
it can reproduce itself four hundred times) and control
microbial infestation. But now it has been blamed to cause the
loss of nutrients, for example vitamin E levels can be reduced
by 25% after irradiation and vitamin C by 5-10% and damage
food by breaking up molecules and creating free radicals. And
these free radicals combine with existing chemicals (like
preservatives) in the food to produce deadly toxins. This has
caused some food manufacturers to limit or avoid the process
and bills have even been introduced to ban irradiated foods in
public cafeterias or to require irradiated food to carry
sensational warning labels. Advances in technology lead to
job losses or displacement of workers. It occurs when
machines or automation replace human labor in a particular
industry or task, leading to a reduction in employment
opportunities for workers. With the increasing use of
automation, artificial intelligence, and robotics in industries
such as manufacturing, transportation, and retail, there is
growing concern that technological unemployment could
become a major problem. Some experts predict that
automation could lead to widespread job losses in the coming
years, particularly in sectors where routine tasks are common.
While technological unemployment is a real concern, it is
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important to note that advances in technology also create new
job opportunities in other industries. For example, the growth
of the internet and e-commerce has led to the creation of new
jobs in areas such as digital marketing, software
development, and cybersecurity. And the rapid advancement
of science combined with human aggression and aim for
global supremacy has led even the smaller nations to
weaponize anthrax spores and other viruses for maximum
death and destruction. And thus the entire planet is gripped
with fear that one day a terrorist group may pay to gain access
to weaponized H5N1 flu and other viruses. And the enormous
automation, capacity of artificial intelligence and their ability
to interact like humans has caused the humans to be replaced
by artificial intelligence. But now artificial intelligence is
taking off on its own, and redesigning itself at an ever
increasing rate. And this has turned out to be the biggest
existential threat to human survival (i.e., one day artificial
intelligence may plan for a war against humanity). Highly
toxic gases, poisons, defoliants, and every technological state
are planning for it to disable or destroy people or their
domestic animals, to damage their crops, and/or to deteriorate
their supplies, threaten every citizen, not just of a nation, but
of the world. While it is true that technology and science have
brought about many positive changes in society, including
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improved healthcare, transportation, and communication, it
is also true that these advancements have had unintended
negative consequences, including an increase in certain types
of crime. Advances in technology have made it easier for
criminals to carry out cybercrime, identity theft, and other
forms of financial fraud. Social media and the internet have
also made it easier for criminals to target and victimize
vulnerable populations, including children and the elderly. At
the same time, advances in science and technology have also
improved the ability of law enforcement agencies to
investigate and prevent crimes. For example, DNA analysis
and forensic science have revolutionized the way crimes are
solved, and new technologies such as facial recognition and
predictive analytics are helping law enforcement agencies to
prevent crimes before they occur. It is important to note that
the relationship between technology and crime is complex
and multifaceted. While technology can be both a cause and a
solution to crime, it is ultimately up to society to address the
underlying social and economic factors that contribute to
criminal behavior, including poverty, inequality, and social
exclusion. While science has brought about many positive
advancements and benefits to humanity, it is also true that
some of its applications can have negative effects.
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ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
191
The First nuclear bomb was originally ignited during the
Manhattan Project's Trinity test on July 16, 1945.

CONCLUSION
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
What makes the universe what it is? To address this question,
which appears to be as old as human civilization itself, ancient
civilisations all around the world recounted creation tales. The
question is not just relevant to cosmology; in fact, it offers
potential avenues for deciphering the underlying physics
of our universe. Despite some significant achievements, not
all problems have been resolved. The whole form of the
laws of nature is not yet well understood. Without this
knowledge, we are unsure of how far we can advance in
our quest to comprehend the universe's future. Will it keep
growing indefinitely? Is inflation a natural law? Or will the
universe eventually collapse? Theoretical developments and
new observational findings are pouring in quickly.
Despite the billions of galaxies and stars in the universe,
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most of the universe is actually empty space. In fact, more
than 99% of the observable universe is empty space, with
galaxies and stars making up less than 1% of the total volume.
Massive stars end their lives by the supernova explosion and
the remnants become incredibly dense objects (black holes)
in the universe. While we have observed many black holes,
there are still many questions about how they form, how they
evolve over time, and how they interact with the surrounding
matter. The universe is a curious place, brimming with
wonder and magnificence as well as a myriad of questions left
unanswered and unexplained mysteries. Cosmology is a very
dynamic and intriguing field that involves the scientific study
of the big-scale characteristics of the universe as a whole. New
understandings of the huge universe emerged at the beginning
of the 20th century. The answers to the ages-old queries
are nearing completion through observations of outer space.
What brings us here? What is our origin? Are space and time
fundamental or emergent? Is there a beginning to the cosmos,
or is it eternal? Despite the challenges, continued research and
advancements in observational techniques and theoretical
models are gradually shedding light on these mysteries and
expanding our understanding of the universe.
The laws of physics: Life, the universe and everything… If
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the rules of physics had been a little distinct, life as know
it would not have been evolved into literally something.We
can estimate the age of the cosmos by tying its various
components, such as planetary systems, stars, galaxies, and
all other types of matter and energy, to the timeline of its
expansion using Albert Einstein's general relativity theory.
Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity do not work
together. What about: Before the Big Bang? Neither theory
can predict what happened. The unification of so called
weak nuclear forces with the Maxwell equations is what
known as the electroweak theory. And the electroweak theory
and quantum chromodynamics together constitutes the so
called Standard Model of particle physics, which describes
everything except gravity. Even hundreds of years later,
the desire to comprehend the interconnected nature of the
universe and how we fit within it is still intense. In some
ways, the universe does prove to be much bigger and more
magnificent than our progenitors could have ever imagined,
which makes puzzles about its beginnings and design much
more appealing to research.
The fate of the universe depends on the balance between
the expansion of the universe and the gravitational forces
that are pulling matter together. While current observations
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suggest that the universe will continue to expand indefinitely,
there are still questions about what will happen in the very
distant future, such as whether the universe will continue to
expand at an accelerating rate or eventually collapse in on
itself. We believe that there is more of the universe—more
planets, stars, constellations, galaxies, and everything else—
beyond the observable universe's boundary. But we don't know
how big the cosmos is, because it's not observable. Trying to
understand what is visible to us while pondering the nature of
the cosmos. We are interested in discovering a comprehensive
theory of everything that encompasses gravity, quantum
mechanics, and all other physical interactions. If we succeed in
this, we will truly comprehend the universe and our place in it.
The question, What occurred before the big bang? may now
have an answer. This ground-breaking discovery might be the
achievement of Albert Einstein's long-held desire for a Theory
of Everything, which would combine the laws of the universe
into a definitive explanation for all known forces in the
cosmos. It provides answers to our most pressing inquiries: Is
time merely a figment of the imagination? What is space and
time composed of? Where does matter come from? And what
laws govern our universe? What produced those laws? It’s just
a set of rules and equations. What is it that breathed fire into
the cosmos and made us exist to justify something rather
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than nothing, why it is that we and the universe exist?
Planets are some of the most fascinating objects in our solar
system and beyond. The composition and behavior of
planetary atmospheres are still not fully understood. For
example, the clouds on Venus are composed of sulfuric acid,
which is not well understood, and the atmospheric conditions
on gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn are still being studied. In
a few hundred billion years, practically all galaxies will be
invisible to us due to the Hubble expansion. The Milky Way
will eventually exhaust its supply of new gas needed to
generate stars. In trillions of years, the galaxies will fade away,
leaving behind a thin soup of elementary particles that will
eventually cool to absolute zero. Gravity pulls everything in,
but a mysterious force called dark energy tries to push it all
back together again. The ultimate of the universe relies on
which force will win the desire to succeed. Questions abound
in cosmology. There is always something new to learn in
cosmology, even if it's just answering a question we've never
thought to ask before. This is what keeps cosmology so
exciting and intriguing. Its compelling explanations
encourage us to visualize a completely unexplored realm that
lies beyond our constantly shifting perception of reality. While
we have made great strides in understanding the universe,
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there is still much that we do not know. For example, we do not
yet have a complete understanding of the nature of black
holes, the origins of cosmic rays, or the nature of the first stars
and galaxies. Cosmology is limited by our ability to observe
the universe. We are limited by the quality of our telescopes
and instruments, and by the fact that we can only observe the
universe from one vantage point (Earth). This means that
there may be important phenomena or objects in the universe
that we have yet to discover. There are several reasons why
some people believe that we should colonize space. First, it
could potentially serve as a backup plan for the survival of
humanity in case of a catastrophic event, such as an asteroid
impact or a major nuclear war. Additionally, it could offer new
resources, such as rare minerals or energy sources that could
be used to sustain and improve life on Earth. Space
colonization could also lead to scientific discoveries and
technological advancements that could benefit humanity in
numerous ways. However, there are also significant challenges
associated with space colonization. It would require a
tremendous amount of resources, including funding,
technology, and human labor. It would also present significant
environmental and logistical challenges, as the harsh
conditions of space make it difficult to sustain life and
infrastructure. Furthermore, it could raise ethical questions
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about the allocation of resources and the potential impact on
other life forms in space. Overall, the decision to colonize
space is a complex one that requires careful consideration of
the potential benefits and challenges. Ultimately, it is up to
individuals, organizations, and governments to decide
whether or not it is worth pursuing. Stars are mysterious
objects that continue to captivate astronomers and researchers
around the world. They are born in massive clouds of gas and
dust known as stellar nurseries. These clouds can be several
light-years across and contain enough material to form
thousands of stars. However, the exact process by which stars
form from these clouds is not fully understood. The exact
details of how stars die are still not fully understood.
Depending on their mass, stars can end their lives in a variety
of ways, including exploding as supernovae, collapsing into
neutron stars or black holes, or simply cooling down and
fading away. As we continue to study and explore the universe,
it is likely that we will uncover even more mysteries about
these fascinating celestial bodies.
Something unknown is running behind every atom we don't know what…
No one knows who tuned the music of dancing mysteries or what powered
the Big Bang.
It's completely a Baffling Mystery.
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The fact that we are only an advanced strain of talking
monkeys purely concerned with survival have been able to get
this close to an understanding of our universe is a big victory
for our continuing quest. Despite all that we have learned
about the universe, the majority of it remains unknown and
mysterious. We have yet to understand the true nature of dark
matter and dark energy, and there is much more to discover
about the structure and evolution of the universe. Overall, the
universe is full of mysteries that scientists are still working
to understand. Through ongoing research and exploration, we
may be able to unlock some of the universe's deepest secrets
and better understand our place within it.
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Dark matter (blue) in galaxies, dissociated from plasma (pink)

GLOSSARY
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Absolute zero: The lowest possible temperature T, at which
substances contain no heat energy Q.
Acceleration: The rate at which the speed of an object is
changing and it is given by the equation a = dv/dt.
Anthropic principle: We see the universe the way it is because
if it were different we would not be here to observe it through
a gigantic telescopes pointing deep into the immense sky –
merely stating that the constants of nature must be tuned to
allow for intelligence (otherwise we would not be here). Some
believe that this is the sign of a cosmic creator. Others believe
that this is a sign of the multiverse.
Antiparticle: Each type of matter particle has a corresponding
antiparticle – first predicted to exist by P. A. M. Dirac. When a
particle collides with its antiparticle, they annihilate, leaving
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only pure energy in the form of discrete bundle (or quantum)
of electromagnetic (or light) energy called photons.
Astrochemistry: The scientific discipline that investigates
the chemical interactions between the gas and dust found
between stars. It involves the study of the chemical reactions
that occur in space, as well as the analysis of the spectra of
stars, planets, and other celestial bodies to determine their
composition. Astrochemistry is an interdisciplinary field that
combines principles and techniques from chemistry, physics,
and astronomy to study the chemical makeup and processes of
objects in the universe.
Atom: The basic unit of ordinary matter, made up of
a tiny nucleus (consisting of positively charged protons
and electrically neutral neutrons – which obey the strong
interactions) surrounded by orbiting negatively charged
weakly interacting particles called the electrons. The atom is
the basic unit of matter, and scientists have developed several
theories to explain its structure and behavior over time. Here
are some of the major theories of the atom:
Democritus' Theory: Democritus, a Greek philosopher, was one of the
first to propose the idea of the atom. He believed that all matter was
made up of tiny, indivisible particles that he called atoms.
Dalton's Theory: In the early 19th century, John Dalton proposed a
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theory that built upon Democritus' ideas. Dalton's theory stated that
atoms were indivisible and that each element was made up of a unique
type of atom. He also proposed that atoms combine in specific ratios to
form compounds.
Thomson's Theory: Sir Joseph John Thomson made the discovery of
the electron, a negatively charged subatomic particle, in 1897. He
proposed a model of the atom that had a positive charge throughout
with negatively charged electrons dispersed within it, much like plums
within a pudding. The plum pudding model was the name given to this
model.
Rutherford's Theory: In 1911, Ernest Rutherford performed the famous
gold foil experiment, which led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.
Rutherford proposed a model of the atom in which electrons orbited a
small, dense nucleus that contained most of the mass of the atom.
Bohr's Theory: In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a new model of the atom
that incorporated the newly discovered electron orbits. In this model,
electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels, and they can move
between these levels by absorbing or emitting energy in the form of
light.
Modern Quantum Mechanical Theory: The current theory of the atom
is based on quantum mechanics, which describes the behavior of
particles on a very small scale. This theory takes into account the wave-
like nature of electrons and describes them as existing in a cloud of
probability around the nucleus, rather than in specific orbits.
These theories have been refined and expanded upon over
time, as new discoveries and technologies have allowed
scientists to better understand the structure and behavior of
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the atom.
Axion: A hypothetical elementary particle postulated by the
Peccei–Quinn theory in 1977 to explain why charge parity
(CP) invariance holds in the strong interactions but not in the
weak interactions.
Asteroid: An asteroid is a small, rocky object that orbits
the Sun. Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt, a
region between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. However, some
asteroids have orbits that bring them closer to Earth, and
these are of particular interest to astronomers. Asteroids range
in size from a few meters to several hundred kilometers in
diameter, with the largest known asteroid, Ceres, measuring
about 940 km in diameter. They are believed to be remnants
from the early solar system, left over after the formation of
the planets. Asteroids are composed of rock and metal, and
some may contain valuable minerals such as iron, nickel,
and platinum. Some asteroids also contain water and other
volatile compounds, making them potential targets for future
space exploration and resource extraction. Asteroids can pose
a potential threat to Earth if they collide with our planet.
While the likelihood of a major impact is small, such an event
could have catastrophic consequences. Efforts are underway
to identify and track near-Earth asteroids, and plans are being
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developed to deflect any asteroids that may pose a threat to
Earth. Asteroids have been the subject of scientific study for
many years, and numerous spacecraft missions have been sent
to study asteroids up close. These missions have provided
valuable insights into the origins and evolution of the solar
system, as well as the potential for future space exploration
and resource utilization.
Astronomy: Astronomy is the study of celestial objects
and phenomena beyond the Earth's atmosphere, including
stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other
objects in space. Astronomers use a variety of tools and
techniques, including telescopes, satellites, and computer
simulations, to observe and analyze these objects and
phenomena. Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences,
with roots dating back to ancient civilizations such as
the Babylonians, Greeks, and Chinese. In modern times,
astronomy has advanced rapidly, with new technologies and
discoveries leading to a deeper understanding of the universe.
One of the primary goals of astronomy is to understand
the structure, evolution, and origins of the universe. This
includes studying the properties and behavior of individual
celestial objects, as well as investigating the larger-scale
structure of the universe, including its galaxies, clusters, and
superclusters. Astronomy also has practical applications, such
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as in navigation, timekeeping, and communication. It has
also led to important technological advancements, including
the development of space exploration vehicles, satellite
technology, and imaging technology used in fields such as
medicine and manufacturing. The study of astronomy is a
collaborative effort involving scientists and researchers from
a variety of disciplines, including physics, mathematics, and
engineering. Astronomical discoveries continue to shape our
understanding of the universe and inspire new questions and
avenues of research.
Big Bang: The singularity at the beginning of the universe.
The titanic explosion that created the universe, sending the
galaxies hurtling in all directions. When the universe was
created, the temperature was extremely hot, and the density
of material was enormous i.e., infinite. The big bang took
place 13.7 billion years ago, according to the WMAP satellite.
The afterglow of the big bang is seen today as the cosmic
background microwave radiation (of temperature 2.7 degrees
above absolute zero). There are three experimental proofs
of the big bang: the redshift of the galaxies, the cosmic
background microwave radiation, and nucleosynethsis of the
elements.
Big crunch: The singularity at the end of the universe i.e., The
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final collapse of the universe. If the density of matter is large
enough (Omega – The parameter that measures the average
density of matter in the universe – being larger than 1), then
there is enough matter in the universe to reverse the original
expansion and cause the universe to recollapse. Temperatures
rise to infinity at the instant of the big crunch.
Big freeze: The end of the universe when it reaches near
absolute zero. The big freeze is probably the final state
of our universe, because the sum of Omega and Lambda
(Cosmological constant) is believed to be 1.0, and hence the
universe is in a state of inflation. There is not enough matter
and energy to reverse the original expansion of the universe,
so it will probably expand forever.
Big Bang nucleosynthesis: The production of deuterium,
Helium-3 and Helium-4 (the latter to about 25% mass
fraction) in the first 500 to 1000 sec of the early universe.
These light isotopes, plus measurable amounts of lithium-7
and trace amounts of elements B, Be, are the result of
non-equilibrium nuclear reactions as the universe cooled
to about 108
K. Heavier isotopes were produced in stellar
nucleosynthesis.
Black hole: A region of space-time from which nothing, not
even light, can escape, because gravity is so strong and escape
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velocity equals the speed of light. Because the speed of light is
the ultimate velocity in the universe, this means that nothing
can escape a black hole, once an object has crossed the event
horizon. Black holes can be of various sizes. Galactic black
holes, lurking in the center of galaxies and quasars, can weight
millions to billions of solar masses. Stellar black holes are the
remnant of a dying star, perhaps originally up to forty times
the mass of our Sun. Both of these black holes have been
identified with our instruments. Mini–black holes may also
exist, as predicted by theory, but they have not yet been seen in
the laboratory conditions.
Black Hole Escape Velocity: It is widely held by astrophysicists
and astronomers that a black hole has an escape velocity c (or
c, the speed of light in Vacuum).
Zero point Energy: an intrinsic and unavoidable part of
quantum physics. The ZPE has been studied, both theoretically
and experimentally, since the discovery of quantum
mechanics in the 1920s and there can be no doubt that the ZPE
is a real physical effect.
Casimir effect: The attractive pressure between two flat,
parallel metal plates placed very near to each other in a
vacuum. The pressure is due to a reduction in the usual
number of virtual particles in the space between the plates.
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This tiny effect has been measured in the laboratory. The
Casimir effect may be used as the energy to drive a time
machine or wormhole, if its energy is large enough.
Chandrasekhar limit: The Chandrasekhar limit is a physical
limit on the maximum mass that a stable white dwarf star
can have. It is named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar,
an Indian astrophysicist who discovered the limit in 1930.
A white dwarf is a small, dense star that forms after a star
exhausts all of its nuclear fuel and sheds its outer layers.
The mass of a white dwarf is typically about 0.6 times the
mass of the sun, and it is supported against gravitational
collapse by electron degeneracy pressure. This means that the
pressure exerted by electrons, which cannot occupy the same
energy state due to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, is sufficient
to counteract the force of gravity. However, as a white
dwarf's mass increases, so does its density and gravitational
force. When a white dwarf exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit
of about 1.4 times the mass of the sun, the electron
degeneracy pressure is no longer sufficient to support the
star against gravitational collapse. The star will then begin to
collapse, leading to a catastrophic event known as a Type Ia
supernova. The Chandrasekhar limit is an important concept
in astrophysics, as it helps to explain the properties and
behavior of white dwarf stars and the role they play in the
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universe. In particular, Type Ia supernovae, which are thought
to be caused by the explosion of a white dwarf that exceeds the
Chandrasekhar limit, are used as standard candles to measure
the distances to galaxies and to study the expansion of the
universe.
Conservation of energy: The law of science that states that
energy (or its equivalent in mass) can neither be created
nor destroyed i.e., they never change with time. For example,
the conservation of matter and energy posits that the total
amount of matter and energy in the universe is a constant.
Coordinates: Numbers that specify the position of a point in 4
dimensional space-time.
Cosmogony: The examination of celestial bodies, such as the
solar system, stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters.
Cosmological constant: A mathematical parameter (which
measures the amount of dark energy in the universe)
introduced by Albert Einstein to give space-time an inbuilt
tendency to expand. At present, the data supports density
parameter + cosmological constant = 1, which fits the
prediction of inflation for a flat universe. Cosmological
constant, which was once thought to be zero, is now known to
determine the ultimate destiny of the universe.
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Cherenkov radiation: Produced by charged particles when
they pass through an optically transparent medium at speeds
greater than the speed of light in that medium.
Cosmology: The study of the universe as a whole.Cosmology
is the scientific study of the origin, evolution, and structure
of the universe as a whole. It is an interdisciplinary field that
combines principles from physics, astronomy, and philosophy
to understand the fundamental properties and behavior of the
universe. One of the key goals of cosmology is to understand
the large-scale structure and properties of the universe. This
includes the distribution of matter and energy, the formation
and evolution of galaxies and other large structures, and the
overall geometry and expansion of the universe. Cosmologists
use a range of observational and theoretical tools to study
the universe, including telescopes and other instruments
to observe celestial objects and phenomena, computer
simulations to model the behavior of matter and energy
on cosmic scales, and mathematical models and theories to
explain the underlying physics of the universe. Some of the
key concepts and theories in cosmology include the Big Bang
theory, which describes the origin and early evolution of the
universe, dark matter and dark energy, which are believed
to make up the majority of the mass-energy content of
the universe, and cosmic inflation, which proposes that the
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universe underwent a brief period of exponential expansion
shortly after the Big Bang. Cosmology is a rapidly evolving
field, with new discoveries and insights continually expanding
our understanding of the universe and its properties. Some
of the key open questions in cosmology include the nature of
dark matter and dark energy, the possibility of a multiverse,
and the ultimate fate of the universe.
COBE: The Cosmic Observer Background Explorer (COBE)
satellite was a NASA mission launched in 1989 with the goal of
studying the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB),
which is the residual heat left over from the Big Bang. The
COBE satellite was designed to measure the CMB's temperature
and spectral distribution with unprecedented accuracy,
providing critical information about the early universe. One
of the key objectives of the COBE mission was to test the
predictions of the Big Bang theory, which postulates that the
universe began in a state of extremely high temperature and
density and has been expanding and cooling ever since. The
CMB is thought to be a direct remnant of this early period,
and its properties can provide insight into the nature of the
universe at its earliest stages. The COBE mission made several
important discoveries, including the detection of temperature
variations in the CMB that were consistent with the
predictions of the Big Bang theory, providing strong support
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for this model of the universe's origin. The mission also
detected a faint background radiation that was later identified
as infrared radiation from dust in the Milky Way galaxy, and
it discovered several sources of cosmic infrared radiation that
were previously unknown. The COBE mission was a major
milestone in cosmology, providing key data and insights into
the early universe and helping to establish the standard model
of cosmology. The mission's success paved the way for future
missions and experiments, such as the Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) and the Planck mission, which
have further refined our understanding of the CMB and the
early universe.
Collisional excitation: Excitation of an atom can occur when 2
atoms collide.
Constellation: A collection of stars that together form an
abstract image in the sky.
Cosmic rays: High energy protons that have their origin in the
solar wind produced by the sun.
Comet: A comet is a small celestial body that orbits the Sun and
consists of a nucleus, a coma, and a tail. Comets are typically
composed of rock, dust, and frozen gases such as water,
carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia. They are believed to
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have formed in the outer regions of the solar system and are
thought to be remnants from the early formation of the solar
system. Comets are visible from Earth as bright, fuzzy objects
with tails that can stretch across the sky. They have fascinated
humans for thousands of years and have been associated
with many cultural beliefs and superstitions. In recent
times, comets have been studied extensively by astronomers
using telescopes, spacecraft, and flybys, providing valuable
information about the composition and origins of the solar
system.
Celestial Sphere: An imaginary sphere in which the planets
and stars seem to be positioned around the Earth.
Cepheid: A kind of pulsating variable star whose luminance
can be calculated from the period of its variation: Long
pulsation period Cepheids are larger and more luminous than
short pulsation period Cepheids.
Crater: A bowl-shaped depression left behind by an asteroid or
meteorite impact.
Dark matter: Invisible Matter usually found in a huge halo
around galaxies, clusters, and possibly between clusters, that
cannot be observed directly but can be detected by its
gravitational effect and they does not interact with light. As
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much as 90 percent of the mass of the universe may be in the
form of dark matter and they makes up 23 percent of the total
matter or energy content of the universe. According to string
theory, dark matter may be made of subatomic particles, such
as the neutralino, which represent higher vibrations of the
superstring.
Duality: A correspondence between apparently different
theories that lead to the same physical results.
Double Asteroid: Two asteroids that orbit one another and are
kept together by the gravity between them. Known as a binary
asteroid as well.
Double Beta Decay: A nuclear transition in which an initial
nucleus (Z, A), with atomic number Z and mass number
A decays to (Z+2, A) emitting two electrons and two
antineutrinos in the process.
Einstein-Rosen bridge: The Einstein-Rosen Bridge, also
known as a wormhole, is a hypothetical solution to the
equations of general relativity proposed by Albert Einstein
and Nathan Rosen in 1935. It is a shortcut between two
separate points in space-time that could, in theory, allow for
faster-than-light travel or even time travel. In the simplest
terms, a wormhole can be visualized as a tunnel or bridge
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that connects two points in space-time. The two ends of the
wormhole are known as the mouth, and they can be separated
by vast distances in space or time. According to the theory, an
object or person entering one mouth of the wormhole would
emerge at the other mouth, potentially in a different location
or time. While the concept of wormholes is theoretically
possible according to the laws of general relativity, there are
significant obstacles to their formation and stability. One of
the key challenges is the extreme curvature of space-time
that would be required to form a stable wormhole, which
would require the presence of exotic matter with negative
energy density. Although there is no direct evidence for the
existence of wormholes, they are a subject of active research
and speculation in both theoretical physics and science fiction.
Some scientists believe that wormholes could provide a
possible solution to the challenge of interstellar travel, while
others view them as a fascinating and exotic feature of the
universe that can help us better understand the nature of
space-time and gravity.
Electric charge: A property of a particle by which it may repel
(or attract) other particles that have a charge of similar (or
opposite) sign.
Electromagnetic force: The force of electricity and magnetism
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that arises between particles with electric charge; the second
strongest of the four fundamental forces –which obeys
Maxwell's equations.
Electron: A negatively charged subatomic particle with
negative electric charge that orbits the nucleus of an atom
and determines the chemical properties of the atom. The
threshold temperature of the electron is:
T = m0c2
/ kB
and so once the universe has cooled below this temperature
the electrons and antielectrons each other and the electron
become a very rare object − compared to photons.
Electroweak unification energy: The energy (around
100 GeV) above which the distinction between the
electromagnetic force and the weak force disappears.
Elementary particle: A particle that, it is believed
fundamental building block of Nature, cannot be subdivided
and are not composed of other simpler particles.
Extraterrestrial: A term used to describe anything that is not
Earth-born.
Event: A point in space-time, specified by its time and place.
Extragalactic: A term that means outside of or away from our
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galaxy.
Event horizon: The boundary of a black hole. The point of no
return, often called the horizon.
Exclusion principle: The idea that two identical spin-1/2
particles cannot have (within the limits set by the
uncertainty principle) both the same position and the
same velocity. This means that two electrons cannot occupy
precisely the same point with the same properties, so that
there is a net force pushing the electrons apart (in addition to
electrostatic repulsion).
Field: Something that exists throughout 4 dimensional fabric
of space -time, as opposed to a particle that exists at only one
point at a time.
Flare Star: A Faint red star whose brightness appears to
fluctuate due to explosions on its surface.
Frequency: For a wave, the number of complete cycles per
second.
The different frequencies of light
appear as different colors.
Light waves are similar to water waves. Both are characterized
by their wavelength, speed and frequency (or period).
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If not for a force called gravity, we would
all go zinging off into outer space.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance between
successive peaks or troughs.
Gamma rays: Electromagnetic rays of very short wavelength,
produced in radio-active decay or by collisions of elementary
particles.
Greenhouse Effect: A rise in temperature brought on when
outgoing thermal energy from the sun is blocked by the
atmosphere but incoming solar radiation is not. Two of the
main gases causing this phenomenon are carbon dioxide and
water vapor.
General relativity: Einstein's theory of gravity based on the
idea that the laws of science should be the same for all
observers, no matter how they are moving. It explains the
force of gravity in terms of the curvature of a four dimensional
space-time; so that the curvature of space-time gives the
illusion that there is a force of attraction called gravity. It
has been verified experimentally to better than 99.7 percent
accuracy and predicts the existence of black holes and the
expanding universe. The theory, however, break down at the
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center of a black hole or the instant of creation, where the
theory predicts nonsense. To explain these phenomena, one
must resort to a theory of subatomic physics.
Geodesic: The shortest (or longest) path between two points.
Gravitational redshift: A shift to longer wavelengths of
spectral lines in the radiation emitted by a body in a
Grand unification energy: The energy above which, it is
believed, the electromagnetic force, weak force, and strong
force become indistinguishable from each other.
Grand unified theory (GUT): A theory which unifies the
electromagnetic, strong, and weak forces (but not gravity).
The proton is not stable in these theories and can decay
into positrons. GUT theories are inherently unstable (unless
one adds super symmetry). GUT theories also lack gravity.
(Adding gravity to GUT theories makes them diverge with
infinities.)
Gravitational lensing: The big galaxy cluster at the center of
the image acts like the lens of a telescope. Any light from a
distant object would converge as it passes around the galaxy.
When we gaze at the distant galaxy, we see a ring like pattern
called Einstein ring, an optical illusion caused by general
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relativity.
Kuiper belt: A region of the Solar System extending from the
orbit of Neptune (at 30 AU) to approximately 50 AU from the
Sun (consists mainly of small bodies or remnants from the
Solar System's formation).
Imaginary time: Time measured using imaginary numbers.
Inflation: The theory which states that the universe
underwent an incredible amount of superliminal expansion at
the instant of its birth i.e., A distance of one nanometer was
enlarged to a quarter of a billion light-years.
Inertia: Resistance to change in velocity and it increases with
the mass of the object.
Hyperspace: Dimensions higher than four.
Light cone: A surface in space-time that marks out the possible
directions for light rays passing through a given event.
Light year: The distance light travels in one year, or
approximately 5.88 trillion miles (9.46 trillion kilometers).
LIGO: The Laser Interferometry Gravitational-Wave
Observatory, based in Washington state and Louisiana,which
is the world’s largest gravity wave detector.
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LISA: The Laser Interferometry Space Antenna- which is a
series of three space satellites using laser beams to measure
gravity waves. It is sensitive enough to confirm or disprove the
inflationary theory and possibly even string theory.
Magnetic field: The field responsible for magnetic forces,
now incorporated along with the electric field, into the
electromagnetic field.
Muon: A subatomic particle identical to the electron but with
a much larger mass. It belongs to the second redundant
generation of particles found in the Standard Model.
Mass: The quantity of matter in a body; its inertia, or
resistance to acceleration.
Microwave background radiation: The remnant radiation
(with a temperature of about 2.7 degrees K) from the glowing
of the hot early universe (big bang), now so greatly red-shifted
that it appears not as light but as microwaves (radio waves
with a wavelength of a few centimeters). Tiny deviations in
this background radiation give scientists valuable data that
can verify or rule out many cosmological theories.
Mesons: Hadronic subatomic particles composed of an equal
number of quarks and antiquarks which do not exist in
ordinary matter but have been observed in the laboratory and
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cosmic rays.
Naked singularity: A space-time singularity without an event
horizon.
Neutrino: An extremely light (possibly massless) subatomic
particle that react very weakly with other particles and may
penetrate several light-years of lead without ever interacting
with anything and is affected only by the weak force and
gravity. Sun emits 2 ×1038
neutrinos per second but only 30
neutrinos are interacting in a person per year.
Neutron: A neutral subatomic particle, very similar to the
proton, which accounts for roughly half the particles in an
atomic nucleus.
Neutron → proton + electron + antineutrino
At the quark and lepton level:
Down quark → up quark + electron + antineutrino
Neutron star: A cold collapsed star consisting of a solid mass
of neutrons — which is usually about 10 to 15 miles across
— supported by the exclusion principle repulsion between
neutrons. If the mass of the neutron stars exceeds (3-4 solar
masses) i.e., if the number of neutrons becomes ≥ 5.9 ×
1057
, then the degenerate neutron pressure will not be large
enough to overcome the gravitational contraction and the star
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collapses into the next stage called black holes. Gamma ray
bursts may happen when a neutron star falls into another
neutron star or black hole. The resulting explosion sends out
particles and radiation all over the spectrum.
Nuclear star cluster (NSC): A compact and dense
concentration of stars located at the center of a galaxy.
No boundary condition: The idea that the universe is finite
but has no boundary (rooted in the Euclidean formalism) to
account for the initial conditions in the big bang.
Open universes are spatially infinite in extent and will expand forever.
Closed universes are spatially finite in extent and will re-
collapse eventually and have a density 3H
2
/8πG.
Nebular model: The sun and planets formed from a cloud of
gas and dust that collapsed because of gravity.
Nuclear fusion: The process by which two nuclei collide and
coalesce to form a single, heavier nucleus.
Nucleus: The tiny core of an atom, which is roughly 10 −13
cm
across, consisting only of protons and neutrons, held together
by the strong force.
Non-contact force: A force which acts on an object without
coming physically in contact with it. All four known
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fundamental interactions are non-contact forces.
Particle accelerator: A machine — based in Geneva,
Switzerland — that, using electromagnets, can accelerate
moving charged particles, giving them more energy.
Phase: For a wave, the position in its cycle at a specified time: a
measure of whether it is at a crest, a trough, or somewhere in
between.
Photon: A quantum of light (which was first proposed by
Einstein to explain the photoelectric effect—that is, the fact
that shining light on a metal results in the ejection of
electrons).
Planck's quantum principle: The idea that light (or any other
classical waves) can be emitted or absorbed only in discrete
quanta, whose energy E is inversely proportional to their
wavelength λ (i.e., E = hc/λ).
Positron: The (positively charged) antiparticle of the electron.
Positron is captured by antiproton and an atom of
antihydrogen is formed.
Primordial black hole: A primordial black hole is a
hypothetical type of black hole that is believed to have formed
in the early universe, shortly after the Big Bang. Unlike
black holes that form from the collapse of massive stars,
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primordial black holes are thought to have formed directly
from the density fluctuations that existed in the very early
universe. The precise conditions required for the formation of
primordial black holes are not well understood, but they are
believed to have formed during a period of rapid expansion
known as cosmic inflation, which occurred in the first
fraction of a second after the Big Bang. During this period,
density fluctuations in the early universe would have been
amplified, leading to the formation of regions of extremely
high density that could have collapsed to form black holes.
Primordial black holes are thought to have a wide range of
masses, from less than a gram to several hundred times the
mass of the sun. They are also believed to be extremely rare,
with only a small number expected to exist in the Milky
Way galaxy. Despite their rarity, primordial black holes are
of interest to physicists and astronomers because they could
potentially provide insights into the nature of dark matter,
which is believed to make up a significant fraction of the
mass of the universe. Some theories suggest that primordial
black holes could account for some or all of the dark matter
in the universe, although this remains a subject of active
research and debate. While there is no direct evidence for
the existence of primordial black holes, scientists are actively
searching for them using a variety of observational and
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theoretical techniques, including gravitational lensing, cosmic
microwave background radiation, and gravitational wave
detectors.
Negative energy: Energy that is less than zero.
Proton: A positively charged subatomic particle, very similar
to the neutron, that accounts for roughly half the particles
in the nucleus of most atoms. They are stable, but Grand
Unification theory predicts that they may decay over a long
period of time.
Pulsar: A rotating neutron star that emits regular pulses of
radio waves.
Quantum: The indivisible unit in which waves may be emitted
or absorbed.
Quark: A subatomic particle that makes up the proton and
neutron and feels the strong force. Three quarks make up a
proton or neutron, and a quark and antiquark pair makes up a
meson.
Quantum chromodynamics (QCD): The theory that
describes the interactions of quarks and gluons. Quantum
Chromodynamics (QCD) is a branch of theoretical physics
that seeks to understand the behavior of subatomic particles
known as quarks and gluons, which are the building blocks
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of protons, neutrons, and other particles known as hadrons.
QCD is a part of the Standard Model of particle physics and
describes the strong force, one of the four fundamental forces
of nature. The strong force is responsible for holding atomic
nuclei together and is stronger than the electromagnetic force
that governs the behavior of charged particles. In QCD, quarks
are considered to be fundamental particles that come in six
different flavors (up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom),
while gluons are particles that mediate the strong force
between quarks. The theory describes how quarks interact
with each other through the exchange of gluons, and how
these interactions lead to the formation of bound states such
as protons and neutrons. One of the key features of QCD
is that it exhibits a phenomenon known as confinement,
which means that quarks and gluons cannot exist as isolated
particles but must always be confined within hadrons. This
explains why individual quarks have never been observed in
isolation and why it is not possible to break a proton or
neutron into its constituent quarks. QCD is a highly complex
and mathematically challenging theory, and its predictions
are often difficult to test experimentally. However, it has been
extremely successful in describing the behavior of subatomic
particles in a wide range of experimental settings, and it is
considered to be one of the most successful and fundamental
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theories in physics today.
Quantum Electrodynamics (QED): QED is a branch
of theoretical physics that studies the behavior of
electromagnetic interactions between charged particles in the
quantum regime. It is a quantum field theory that describes
the interactions between matter and the electromagnetic
field, which is mediated by particles known as photons.
QED is a part of the Standard Model of particle physics
and is considered to be one of the most well-established
and accurate physical theories ever developed. It describes
the behavior of charged particles in terms of quantum
mechanical principles, such as wave-particle duality, and
predicts the probability of interactions between particles in
terms of Feynman diagrams. In QED, the fundamental objects
of study are electrons and photons, which interact through
a series of exchanges. The theory describes how electrons
emit and absorb photons, and how photons mediate the
electromagnetic interactions between charged particles. The
interactions between charged particles are described by a
mathematical framework called quantum electrodynamics
perturbation theory, which allows physicists to calculate the
probability of specific interactions. One of the key predictions
of QED is the Lamb shift, which is a small but measurable
shift in the energy levels of electrons in a hydrogen atom
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due to their interactions with the electromagnetic field. The
prediction of the Lamb shift was one of the first successful
predictions of QED and provided strong evidence for the
validity of the theory. QED has been extremely successful in
predicting the behavior of electromagnetic interactions in a
wide range of experimental settings, and its predictions have
been confirmed with extraordinary precision by a variety of
experimental techniques, such as spectroscopy and scattering
experiments. The theory has also led to the development of
important technologies such as lasers and transistors.
Quantum mechanics: The theory developed from wave
equations, Planck's quantum principle and Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle. No deviation from quantum mechanics
has ever been found in the laboratory. Its most advanced
version today is called quantum field theory, which combines
special relativity and quantum mechanics. A fully quantum
mechanical theory of gravity, however, is exceedingly difficult.
Quasar: Quasi-stellar object. They are huge galaxies that were
formed shortly after the gigantic explosion called the big bang.
Quantum foam: Tiny, foam like distortions of 4 dimensional
fabric of space-time at the level of the Planck length.
Quintessence: A theory that allows the cosmological constant
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Λ to vary with time.
Radioactivity: The spontaneous breakdown of one type
of atomic nucleus into another. Radioactivity refers to
the process by which certain unstable atomic nuclei
spontaneously decay, emitting particles and energy in the
form of radiation. The three main types of radiation emitted
by radioactive decay are alpha particles, beta particles, and
gamma rays. Two protons and two neutrons make up alpha
particles, which are positively charged. They have a short
range and can be stopped by a sheet of paper or the outer
layer of skin. Beta particles are high-energy electrons or
positrons (the antimatter counterpart of electrons) that are
emitted by some types of radioactive nuclei. They have a
greater range than alpha particles and can penetrate several
millimeters into the body, but can be stopped by thicker
materials such as wood or aluminum. Gamma rays are high-
energy photons (particles of light) that are emitted by the most
energetic forms of radioactive decay. They have the greatest
range and can penetrate through several centimeters of dense
material, but can be stopped by several meters of concrete or
several feet of soil. Radioactivity can occur naturally or as a
result of human activities, such as nuclear power generation,
nuclear weapons testing, and medical radiation. Exposure to
high levels of radiation can have harmful effects on living
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organisms, including genetic damage and increased risk of
cancer. However, radiation can also have beneficial uses, such
as in cancer treatment and medical imaging. The principles
of radioactivity have also contributed to our understanding of
the structure and behavior of atoms and have led to important
developments in fields such as nuclear physics, nuclear
engineering, and radiation protection.
Red shift: The reddening or decrease in frequency of light
from a star that is moving away from us, due to the Doppler
effect.
Singularity: A point in space-time at which the space-time
curvature becomes infinite – which represent a breakdown
of general relativity, forcing the introduction of a quantum
theory of gravity.
Singularity theorem: A theorem that states that the universe
must have started with a singularity.
Space-time: The four-dimensional space whose points are
events.
Ptolemaic Model → Earth centered model of the universe.
Copernican Model → Sun centered model of the universe.
Spatial dimension: Any of the three dimensions that are space
like – that is, any except the time dimension.
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Special relativity: Einstein's 1905 theory based on the idea
that the laws of science should be the same for all observers,
no matter how they are moving, in the absence of gravitational
phenomena. Consequences include: time slows down, mass
increases, and distances shrink the faster you move. Also,
matter and energy are related via E = mc2
. One consequence of
special relativity is the atomic bomb.
Stars moving away → Red shift
Stars moving toward → Blue shift
Greater the shift → faster the speed
Spectrum: The different colors or component frequencies that
make up a wave. By analyzing the spectrum of starlight, one
can determine that stars are mainly made of hydrogen and
helium.
Supersymmetry: The theory predicts that every fermion
particle should have a boson equivalent (e.g. a quark will have
a squark) and that every boson should have an equivalent
fermion (e.g. photon and photino).
Supercooling: The process of lowering the temperature of a
liquid or a gas below its freezing point without it becoming a
solid.
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Spin: An internal property of elementary particles.
Stationary state: One that is not changing with time.
Spectrum: The range of colors that visible white light is
composed of. When visible light travels through a prism, a
spectrum is created.
Supernova: Catastrophic stellar explosion in which so much
energy (nearly of the order of 1042
J) is released that the
explosion alone can outshine for weeks an entire galaxy of
billions of stars.
Type I supernova explosion: Explosion of a smaller star that is being fed
fuel from a companion star.
Type II supernova explosion: Explosion of a massive star that has run
out of nuclear fuel.
String theory: A theory of physics based on tiny vibrating
strings, such that each particle is described as a wave on a
string. It is the only theory that can combine gravity with the
quantum theory, making it the leading candidate for a theory
of everything.
Different vibrations → Different particles
String combinations → Particle interactions
A sterile neutrino is one that is not
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paired up with one of the three charged
leptons (electron, muon and tau) in the
standard model of particle physics.
Strong force: The strongest of the four fundamental forces,
with the shortest range of all. It holds the quarks together
within protons and neutrons, and holds the protons and
neutrons together to form atoms.
Spectroscopy: The process of analyzing an object's visible
light spectrum to learn about its composition, temperature,
density, and mobility.
Steady state theory: The theory which states that the universe
had no beginning but constantly generates new matter as it
expands, keeping the same density.
Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect: Scattering of cosmic microwave
background radiation photons by rapidly moving electrons in
the hot gas in clusters of galaxies.
Umbra: The region in the shadow produced by an eclipse that
is completely dark.
Uncertainty principle: The principle, formulated by
Heisenberg, that one can never be exactly sure of both the
position and the velocity of a particle; the more accurately one
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knows the one, the less accurately one can know the other.
Δx Δp ≥ h /4π
ΔE Δt ≥ h /4π
Virtual particle: In quantum mechanics, a particle that briefly
dart in and out of the vacuum but can never be directly
detected, but whose existence does have measurable effects.
They violate known conservation laws but only for a short
period of time, via the uncertainty principle.
Thomson's model → The atom is composed of electrons surrounded by
a soup of positive charge to balance the electrons' negative charges.
Rutherford model → The negatively charged electrons surround the
nucleus of an atom.
Wave-particle duality: The concept in quantum mechanics
that there is no distinction between waves and particles;
particles may sometimes behave like waves, and waves like
particles.
Wavelength: For a wave, the distance between two adjacent
troughs or two adjacent crests.
Weak force: The second weakest of the four fundamental
forces – which is carried by the W and Z bosons that makes
possible nuclear decay. It affects all matter particles, but not
force carrying particles.
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Weight: The force exerted on a body by a gravitational field. It
is proportional to, but not the same as, its mass.
White dwarf: A stable cold star consisting of lower elements
such as oxygen, lithium, carbon, and so forth, supported by the
exclusion principle repulsion between electrons.
Wormhole: A passageway between two universes or a thin
tube of space-time connecting distant regions of the universe.
Wormholes might also link to parallel or baby universes and
could provide the possibility of time travel.
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
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Artist's impression of an asteroid impact on Earth

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
Without the amazing work of some renowned cosmologists and physicists,
their creativity, and their inventiveness in the field of cosmology, this book
would not have been accomplished. I would like to use this opportunity
to thank my scientific colleagues for their unwavering support during the
COVID crisis and for giving me access to all the resources I needed to finish
this book. I want to express my gratitude to my family for their support and
encouragement as I wrote this book, especially to my mother, who has been
a tremendous source of inspiration in my life. I owe a lot of gratitude to my
mother for teaching me how to be perseverant and strong in life. Finally, I
want to emphasize how crucial patience is when writing a book or taking
on any other project in life.

Black Hole Entropy equation
This is the equation that Stephen Hawking
wanted to be printed on his tombstone.
Stephen Hawking experiences zero gravity while flying in a
modified Boeing 727 operated by Zero Gravity Corp. (Zero G)

ONE FINAL THOUGHT
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
If you feel that this information has been useful to you, please
take a moment to share it with your friends on LinkedIn,
Facebook and Twitter. Think about leaving a quick review on
Amazon if you think this book has given you insight into
the grand narrative of the cosmos from a fresh, inspired
perspective and you have learnt something valuable.
Cosmology is a study area that combines the astronomy and
physics in an endeavour to comprehend the physical universe
as a cohesive whole. It is both incredibly fun and fascinating.
I want to spread my passion to as many individuals as I can. I
also hope that this isn't the end of your quest for solutions to
the mysteries that have plagued mankind since its beginning.
How did the cosmos start, and how will it wrap up? Why
is the universe accelerating its expansion and what is dark
energy? What are Superstrings? How can we calculate the
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universe's size and age? What role does humanity have in the
universe's 14 billion year history? What role does humanity
play in the history of this planet? How does humanity
participate in the complex chain of life here on Earth?
Thank you!
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
240

The UNIVERSE, The Music of Dancing Mysteries: from theBig Bang To Black Holes.
Through our perceptions, universe shapes itself.
Through our thoughts, universe is delivering its glories.
We are medium through which universe becomes conscious of its existence.

From the Beginning of Space and Time: Modern Science and the Mystic Universe

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From the Beginning of Space and Time: Modern Science and the Mystic Universe