Gastrointestinal Disorder Presentation for students
- 1. GI Disorder
- 2. Objectives: • By the end of the session learners will be able to: • Review the anatomy and physiology of gastrointestinal system (GIT) • Discuss the causes, pathophysiology and manifestation of the following GIT disorders • Discuss the diagnostic, medical and surgical management of the mentioned disorders
- 3. • Apply nursing process including assessment, planning, implementation and evaluation of care provided to the clients with GIT disorders • Develop a teaching plan for a client experiencing disorders of the GIT
- 4. Disorders of mouth and esophagus: • Stomatitis • Oral cancer/tumour • Salivary gland disorders • Gastro esophageal reflux disorder • Hiatal hernia • Achalasia • Diverticula • Esophageal cancer/tumor • Disorders of stomach • Gastritis • Ulcer disease • Gastric carcinoma
- 5. • Disorders of small and large intestine: • Irritable bowel syndrome • Hernias • Intestinal obstruction • Hemorrhoids • Colorectal cancer • Appendicitis • Peritonitis • Ulcerative colitis • Chron’s disease • Anorectal abscess • Anal fissure • Anal fistula
- 6. Stomatitis • Stomatitis disease is an inflamed and sore inside of the cheeks, gums, tongue, lips, and palate. Stomatitis can severely affect speech; eating ability, nutri tion, body image, sleep and overall quality of life. The ulceration causes pain, bleeding and infec tion.
- 8. Definition of Stomatitis Disease: • Stomatitis refers to inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth including the inside of the cheeks, gums, tongue, lips and palate.
- 9. Types of Stomatitis Disease There are three types of stomatitis, 1.Kanker Sore (Aphthous Stomatitis), 2.Cold Sore (Fever Blisters), 3.Herpes Stomatitis.
- 10. • Kanker Sore (Aphthous Stomatitis): • Kanker Sore (Aphthous Stomatitis) is a single pit or a cluster of small pits or ulcer in the mouth. Usually kanker sore appears in the cheeks, tongue, or inside the lip. • 2. Cold Sore (Fever Blisters): • Cold Sore (Fever Blisters) is filled with fluid that usually appears on lip or around the lips. • 3. Herpes Stomatitis: • Herpes Stomatitis is a viral infection of the mouth that cause sores and ulcers. Usually in age children between six months to five years aged. Herpes simplex1 (HSV1) virus is the cause of infection.
- 11. Sign and Symptoms of Stomatitis • There are different types of sign and symptoms for stomatitis disease are mentioned in the below: • Blister over gums, palate, check, tongue or lip, • Difficulty of eating, drinking and swallowing, • Drooling, pain and swelling, • Irritation, • Fever, • Red patches, • Oral dysaesthesia, • Burning mouth syndrome.
- 12. Causes of Stomatitis • Bacteria/Virus (Herpes Simplex type-1). • Nutritional deficiency (Vitamin B12, Folic acid, Iron or Zinc). • Sudden weight loss. • Food sensitivities to potatoes, citrus, fruits, strawberries, chocolate, eggs, cheese or nuts. • Inflammatory bowel disease. • HIV/ AIDS & Weak immune system. • Hormonal changes. • Stress and lack of sleep. • Use of certain medications such as Chemotherapy, Diuretics, Anticholinergics, Antihistamines and decongestants, Steroids, Antidepressants. • Allergic reaction. • Accidental injury. • Sharp tooth surface, dental braces or retainers. • Tobacco or irritating foods or chemicals
- 13. Prevention of Stomatitis • Wash hands frequently, • Keep toys, brush clean and don’t share with others, • Don’t share dishes, cups, or eating utensils, • Don’t kiss affected person.
- 14. Test and Diagnosis for Stomatitis Various ways of test and diagnosis system for stomatitis disease are given in the below: • Bacterial or viral swabs culture, • Biopsy, • Blood test.
- 15. Treatment for Stomatitis Disease: • Oral hygiene, • Identify and treat cause, • Use antiviral drug acyclovir, • Coating agents such as bismuth Salicylate, Sucralfate, or other Antacids, • Topical Analgesics, such as Benzydamine Hydrochloride, • In severe pain use Topical Anesthetics, such as Lidocaine viscous (might impair gag reflex for a short period), • Oral or parenteral analgesics such as Tylenol or ibuprofen when not control by above medication, • Apply a paste of Triamcinolone, • Water-soluble lubricants for mouth and lips, • Rinse and expectorate after meals with Inj.Dexamethasone (0.5mg) / 5ml water. • In nutritional deficiency is the cause of Stomatitis take floate (folic acid), vitamin B12.
- 16. Treatment of severe stomatitis sore may includes- • Aphthasol paste (Anti-inflammatory paste), • Lidex gel, • Peridex mouthwash.
- 17. Nursing Care of Clients with Upper Gastrointestinal Disorders • Collaborative Care 1.Direct observation to investigate any problems; determine underlying cause and any coexisting diseases 2.Any undiagnosed oral lesion present for > 1 week and not responding to treatment should be evaluated for malignancy 3.General treatment includes mouthwashes or treatments to cleanse and relieve irritation a.Alcohol bases mouthwashes cause pain and burning b.Sodium bicarbonate mouthwashes are effective without pain 4. Specific treatments according to type of infection a.Fungal (candidiasis): nystatin “swish and swallow” or clotrimazole lozenges • b.Herpetic lesions: topical or oral acyclovir
- 18. Nursing Care of Clients with Upper Gastrointestinal Disorders Nursing Care Plan 1.Pain R/t mucous membrane altered as evidance by painscal 2.Impaired oral mucous membrane R/t alteration in mucouse membrane lining as evidanse by blisters present inside lips, cheeks, and tongue 3.Imbalanced nutrition: less than body requirements r/t low intake as evidance by decreasing weight / <BMI
- 19. • Give cool, noncarbonated, non-acidic drinks, such as water, milk shakes, or diluted apple juice to patient. • Encourage use of a straw to make swallowing easier. • Provide high in protein and vitamins containing diet to promote healing and new tissue growth. • Serve frequent small meals or snacks spaced throughout the Day to maintain fluid balance and nutrition. • Offer cool, bland, easy-to-swallow foods such as frozen pops, ice cream, mashed potatoes, gelatine, or applesauce to patient to avoid tissue trauma and pain. • Encourage client to suck on vitamin C or sugarless candy or chew sugarless gum to stimulate salivation. • Encourage a fluid intake of at least 2500 ml/day unless contraindicated. • Apply topical analgesia over lesion 15 to 20 minutes before meals, or painted on each lesion immediately before mealtime.
- 20. • Give Acyclovir to patient that fights the virus causing the infection. • Give pain killer acetaminophen or ibuprofen for pain as order. • Administer medications, which may include antifungal agent, or topical or systemic analgesics. • Give mouth care and gently brush teeth every day instruct and assist client to perform oral hygiene using a soft bristle toothbrush or sponge-tipped swab. • Discontinue flossing if it causes pain. • Encourage client rinse mouth frequently with warm saline solution, baking soda and water, or Chlorhexidine, Gluconate (Peridex) or mist oral cavity frequently using a spray bottle. • Numbing medicine (Viscous Lidocaine) apply to patient mouth to ease severe pain. • Avoid use of products that contain lemon and glycerine and mouthwashes containing alcohol. • Lubricate client’s lips frequently. • If stomatitis is not severe, encourage client to use artificial saliva to lubricate the oral mucous membrane. • Make sure gets plenty of sleep and rests as much as possible. • Encourage client to chew on ice during chemotherapy infusion, especially if receiving 5-fluorouracil. • Avoid serve hot beverages, salty, spicy and citrus based foods and explain to patient.
- 21. Client with Oral Cancer 1.Background • a. Uncommon (5% of all cancers) but has high rate of morbidity, mortality • b. Highest among males over age 40 • c. Risk factors include smoking and using oral tobacco, drinking alcohol, Paan, Gutka marijuana use, occupational exposure to chemicals, viruses (human papilloma virus)
- 22. Client with Oral Cancer 2. Pathophysiology • a. Squamous cell carcinomas • b. Begin as painless oral ulceration or lesion with irregular, ill-defined borders • c. Lesions start in mucosa and may advance to involve tongue, oropharynx, mandible, maxilla • d. Non-healing lesions should be evaluated for malignancy after one week of treatment
- 23. Client with Oral Cancer 3. Collaborative Care a. Elimination of causative agents b. Determination of malignancy with biopsy c. Determine staging with CT scans and MRI d. Based on age, tumor stage, general health and client’s preference, treatment may include surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy e. Advanced carcinomas may necessitate radical neck dissection with temporary or permanent tracheostomy; Surgeries may be disfiguring f. Plan early for home care post hospitalization, teaching family and client care involved post surgery, refer to American Cancer Society, support groups
- 24. Client with Oral Cancer 4. Nursing Care a. Health promotion: 1. Teach risk of oral cancer associated with all tobacco use and excessive alcohol use 2. Need to seek medical attention for all non-healing oral lesions (may be discovered by dentists); early precancerous oral lesions are very treatable b. Nursing Diagnoses 1. Risk for ineffective airway clearance 2. Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than body requirements 3. Impaired Verbal Communication: establishment of specific communication plan and method should be done prior to any surgery 4. Disturbed Body Image Nursing Management almost same as Stomatitis
- 25. GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE • Some degree of gastro-esophageal reflux (back-flow of gastric or duodenal contents into the esophagus) is normal in both adults and children. • Excessive reflux may occur because of an incompetent lower esophageal sphincter, pyloric stenosis, or a motility disorder. The incidence of reflux seems to increase with aging.
- 26. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) • GERD common, affecting 15 – 20% of adults • 10% persons experience daily heartburn and indigestion • Because of location near other organs symptoms may mimic other illnesses including heart problems
- 27. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) 2. Pathophysiology • a. Gastroesophageal reflux results from transient relaxation or incompetence of lower esophageal sphincter, sphincter, or increased pressure within stomach • b. Factors contributing to gastroesophageal reflux 1.Increased gastric volume (post meals) 2.Position pushing gastric contents close to gastroesophageal juncture (such as bending or lying down) 3.Increased gastric pressure (obesity or tight clothing) 4.Hiatal hernia
- 28. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) c.Normally the peristalsis in esophagus and bicarbonate in salivary secretions neutralize any gastric juices (acidic) that contact the esophagus; during sleep and with gastroesophageal reflux esophageal mucosa is damaged and inflamed; prolonged exposure causes ulceration, friable mucosa, and bleeding; untreated there is scarring and stricture
- 29. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) 3.Signs & Symptoms • pyrosis (burning sensation in the esophagus), • Dyspepsia (Indigestion), • Regurgitation, • Dysphagia Or Odynophagia (Difficulty Swallowing, • Pain On Swallowing), • Hypersalivation, And • Esophagitis.
- 33. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) 4. Complications • a. Esophageal strictures, which can progress to dysphagia • b. Barrett’s esophagus: changes in cells lining esophagus with increased risk for esophageal cancer 5. Collaborative Care • a. Diagnosis may be made from history of symptoms and risks • b. Treatment includes 1.Life style changes 2.Diet modifications 3.Medications
- 34. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) 6. Diagnostic Tests a. Barium swallow (evaluation of esophagus, stomach, small intestine) b. Upper endoscopy: direct visualization; biopsies may be done c. 24-hour ambulatory pH monitoring d. Esophageal manometry, which measure pressures of esophageal sphincter and peristalsis e. Esophageal motility studies
- 35. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) 7.Medications • a. Antacids for mild to moderate symptoms, e.g. Maalox, Mylanta, Gaviscon • b. H2-receptor blockers: decrease acid production; given BID or more often, e.g. cimetidine, ranitidine, famotidine, nizatidine • c. Proton-pump inhibitors: reduce gastric secretions, promote healing of esophageal erosion and relieve symptoms, e.g. omeprazole (prilosec); lansoprazole (Prevacid) initially for 8 weeks; or 3 to 6 months • d. Promotility agent: enhances esophageal clearance and gastric emptying, e.g. metoclopramide (reglan)
- 36. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease 8. Dietary and Lifestyle Management • a. Elimination of acid foods (tomatoes, spicy, citrus foods, coffee) • b. Avoiding food which relax esophageal sphincter or delay gastric emptying (fatty foods, chocolate, peppermint, alcohol) • c. Maintain ideal body weight • d. Eat small meals and stay upright 2 hours post eating; no eating 3 hours prior to going to bed • e. Elevate head of bed on 6 – 8 blocks to decrease reflux • f. No smoking • g. Avoiding bending and wear loose fitting clothing
- 37. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) 9.Surgery indicated for persons not improved by diet and life style changes • a. Laparoscopic procedures to tighten lower esophageal sphincter • b. Open surgical procedure: Nissen fundoplication 10. Nursing Care • a. Pain usually controlled by treatment • b. Assist client to institute home plan
- 38. During the Nissen fundoplication, the upper part of the stomach is wrapped around the LES to strengthen the sphincter, prevent acid reflux, and repair a hiatal hernia.
- 39. Hiatal Hernia 1.Definition • a. Part of stomach protrudes through the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm into thoracic cavity • b. Predisposing factors include: – Increased intra-abdominal pressure – Increased age – Trauma – Congenital weakness – Forced recumbent position
- 40. Hiatal Hernia • c. Most cases are asymptomatic; incidence increases with age • d. Sliding hiatal hernia: gastroesophageal junction and fundus of stomach slide through the esophageal hiatus • e. Paraesophageal hiatal hernia: the gastroesophageal junction is in normal place but part of stomach herniates through esophageal hiatus; hernia can become strangulated; client may develop gastritis with bleeding
- 42. Hiatal Hernia Hiatal Hernia 2. Manifestations: Similar to GERD 3. Diagnostic Tests • a. Barium swallow • b. Upper endoscopy 4. Treatment • a. Similar to GERD: diet and lifestyle changes, medications • b. If medical treatment is not effective or hernia becomes incarcerated, then surgery; usually Nissen fundoplication by thoracic or abdominal approach – Anchoring the lower esophageal sphincter by wrapping a portion of the stomach around it to anchor it in place
- 43. Impaired Esophageal Motility 1. Types a. Achalasia: characterized by impaired peristalsis of smooth muscle of esophagus and impaired relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter b. Diffuse esophageal spasm: nonperistaltic contraction of esophageal smooth muscle 2. Manifestations: Dysphagia and/or chest pain 3. Treatment a. Endoscopically guided injection of botulinum toxin(paralyze) Denervates cholinergic nerves in the distal esophagus to stop spams b. Balloon dilation of lower esophageal sphincter May place stents to keep esophagus open
- 44. Esophageal Cancer 1. Definition: Relatively uncommon malignancy with high mortality rate, usually diagnosed late 2. Pathophysiology • a. Squamous cell carcinoma 1.Most common affecting middle or distal portion of esophagus 2.More common in African Americans than Caucasians 3.Risk factors cigarette smoking and chronic alcohol use • b. Adenocarcinoma 1.Nearly as common as squamous cell affecting distal portion of esophagus 2.More common in Caucasians 3.Associated with Barrett’s esophagus, complication of chronic GERD and achalasia
- 45. Esophageal Cancer 3. Manifestations • a. Progressive dysphagia with pain while swallowing • b. Choking, hoarseness, cough • c. Anorexia, weight loss 4. Collaborative Care: Treatment goals • a. Controlling dysphagia • b. Maintaining nutritional status while treating carcinoma (surgery, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy
- 46. Esophageal Cancer 5. Diagnostic Tests • a. Barium swallow: identify irregular mucosal patterns or narrowing of lumen • b. Esophagoscopy: allow direct visualization of tumor and biopsy • c. Chest xray, CT scans, MRI: determine tumor metastases • d. Complete Blood Count: identify anemia • e. Serum albumin: low levels indicate malnutrition • f. Liver function tests: elevated with liver metastasis
- 47. Esophageal Cancer 6. Treatments: dependent on stage of disease, client’s condition and preference • a. Early (curable) stage: surgical resection of affected portion with anastomosis(connection) of stomach to remaining esophagus; may also include radiation therapy and chemotherapy prior to surgery • b. More advanced carcinoma: treatment is palliative and may include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy to control dysphagia and pain • c. Complications of radiation therapy include perforation(hole), hemorrhage, stricture
- 50. Esophageal Cancer 7. Nursing Care: Health promotion; education regarding risks associated with smoking and excessive alcohol intake 8. Nursing Diagnoses • a. Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than body requirements (may include enteral tube feeding or parenteral nutrition in hospital and home) • b. Anticipatory Grieving (dealing with cancer diagnosis) • c. Risk for Ineffective Airway Clearance (especially during postoperative period if surgery was done)
- 51. Gastritis 1. Definition: Inflammation of stomach lining from irritation of gastric mucosa (normally protected from gastric acid and enzymes by mucosal barrier) 2. Types a. Acute Gastritis 1.Disruption of mucosal barrier; allowing hydrochloric acid and pepsin to have contact with gastric tissue: leads to irritation, inflammation, superficial erosions 2.Gastric mucosa rapidly regenerates; self- limiting disorder
- 52. Gastritis 3. Causes of acute gastritis a. Irritants include aspirin and other NSAIDS, corticosteroids, alcohol, caffeine b. Ingestion of corrosive substances: alkali or acid c. Effects from radiation therapy, certain chemotherapeutic agents 4. Erosive Gastritis: form of acute which is stress-induced, complication of life-threatening condition (Curling’s ulcer with burns); gastric mucosa becomes ischemic and tissue is then injured by acid of stomach 5. Manifestations a. Mild: anorexia, mild epigastric discomfort, belching b. More severe: abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, hematemesis, melena c. Erosive: not associated with pain; bleeding occurs 2 or more days post stress event d. If perforation occurs, signs of peritonitis
- 53. Gastritis 6. Treatment a. NPO status to rest GI tract for 6 – 12 hours, reintroduce clear liquids gradually and progress; intravenous fluid and electrolytes if indicated b. Medications: proton-pump inhibitor or H2-receptor blocker; sucralfate (carafate) acts locally; coats and protects gastric mucosa c. If gastritis from corrosive substance: immediate dilution and removal of substance by gastric lavage (washing out stomach contents via nasogastric tube), no vomiting
- 54. Chronic Gastritis • 1. Progressive disorder beginning with superficial inflammation and leads to atrophy of gastric tissues • 2. Type A: autoimmune component and affecting persons of northern European descent; loss of hydrochloric acid and pepsin secretion; develops pernicious anemia – Parietal cells normally secrete intrinsic factor needed for absorption of B12, when they are destroyed by gastritis pts develop pernicious anemia
- 55. Chronic Gastritis • 3. Type B: more common and occurs with aging; caused by chronic infection of mucosa by Helicobacter pylori; associated with risk of peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer
- 56. Chronic Gastritis 4. Manifestations • a. Vague gastric distress, epigastric heaviness not relieved by antacids • b. Fatigue associated with anemia; symptoms associated with pernicious anemia: paresthesias – Lack of B12 affects nerve transmission 5. Treatment: Type B: eradicate H. pylori infection with combination therapy of two antibiotics (metronidazole (Flagyl) and clarithomycin or tetracycline) and proton–pump inhibitor (Prevacid or Prilosec)
- 57. Chronic Gastritis Collaborative Care • a. Usually managed in community • b. Teach food safety measures to prevent acute gastritis from food contaminated with bacteria • c. Management of acute gastritis with NPO state and then gradual reintroduction of fluids with electrolytes and glucose and advance to solid foods • d. Teaching regarding use of prescribed medications, smoking cessation, treatment of alcohol abuse
- 58. Chronic Gastritis Diagnostic Tests a. Gastric analysis: assess hydrochloric acid secretion (less with chronic gastritis) b. Hemoglobin, hematocrit, red blood cell indices: anemia including pernicious or iron deficiency c. Serum vitamin B12 levels: determine pernicious anemia d. Upper endoscopy: visualize mucosa, identify areas of bleeding, obtain biopsies; may treat areas of bleeding with electro or laser coagulation or sclerosing agent 5. Nursing Diagnoses: a. Deficient Fluid Volume b. Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than body requirements
- 59. Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) Definition and Risk factors a. Break in mucous lining of GI tract comes into contact with gastric juice; affects 10% of US population b. Duodenal ulcers: most common; affect mostly males ages 30 – 55; ulcers found near pyloris c. Gastric ulcers: affect older persons (ages 55 – 70); found on lesser curvature and associated with increased incidence of gastric cancer d. Common in smokers, users of NSAIDS; familial pattern, alcohol, cigarettes
- 60. Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) 2. Pathophysiology a. Ulcers or breaks in mucosa of GI tract occur with 1.H. pylori infection (spread by oral to oral, fecal-oral routes) damages gastric epithelial cells reducing effectiveness of gastric mucus 2.Use of NSAIDS: interrupts prostaglandin synthesis which maintains mucous barrier of gastric mucosa b. Chronic with spontaneous remissions and exacerbations associated with trauma, infection, physical or psychological stress
- 63. Peptic Ulcer Disease • Diagnosis – Endoscopy with cultures • Looking for H. Pylori – Upper GI barium contrast studies – EGD-esophagogastroduodenoscopy – Serum and stool studies
- 64. Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) 3. Manifestations a. Pain is classic symptom: gnawing, burning, aching hunger like in epigastric region possibly radiating to back; occurs when stomach is empty and relieved by food (pain: food: relief pattern) b. Symptoms less clear in older adult; may have poorly localized discomfort, dysphagia, weight loss; presenting symptom may be complication: GI hemorrhage or perforation of stomach or duodenum
- 65. Peptic Ulcer Disease • Treatment – Rest and stress reduction – Nutritional management – Pharmacological management • Antacids (Mylanta) – Neutralizes acids • Proton pump inhibitors (Prilosec, Prevacid) – Block gastric acid secretion
- 66. Peptic Ulcer Disease • Pharmacological management – Histamine blockers (Tagamet, Zantac, Axid) • Blocks gastric acid secretion – Carafate • Forms protective layer over the site – Mucosal barrier enhancers (colloidal bismuth, prostoglandins) • Protect mucosa from injury – Antibiotics (PCN, Amoxicillin, Ampicillin) • Treat H. Pylori infection
- 67. Peptic Ulcer Disease • NG suction • Surgical intervention – Minimally invasive gastrectomy • Partial gastric removal with laproscopic surgery – Bilroth I and II • Removal of portions of the stomach – Vagotomy • Cutting of the vagus nerve to decrease acid secretion – Pyloroplasty • Widens the pyloric sphincter
- 68. Billroth I
- 69. Billroth II
- 70. Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) 4. Complications • a.Hemorrhage: frequent in older adult: hematemesis, melena, hematochezia (blood in stool); weakness, fatigue, dizziness, orthostatic hypotension and anemia; with significant bleed loss may develop hypovolemic shock • b.Obstruction: gastric outlet (pyloric sphincter) obstruction: edema surrounding ulcer blocks GI tract from muscle spasm or scar tissue 1.Gradual process 2.Symptoms: feelings of epigastric fullness, nausea, worsened ulcer symptoms
- 71. Peptic Ulcer Disease • c.Perforation: ulcer erodes through mucosal wall and gastric or duodenal contents enter peritoneum leading to peritonitis; chemical at first (inflammatory) and then bacterial in 6 to 12 hours 1.Time of ulceration: severe upper abdominal pain radiating throughout abdomen and possibly to shoulder 2.Abdomen becomes rigid, boardlike with absent bowel sounds; symptoms of shock 3.Older adults may present with mental confusion and non-specific symptoms
- 72. Upper GI Bleed • Mortality approx 10% • Predisposing factors include: drugs, esophageal varacies(swollen veins), esophagitis, PUD, gastritis and carcinoma
- 73. Upper GI Bleed • Signs and Symptoms – Coffee ground vomitus – Black, tarry stools – Melena – Decreased B/P – Vertigo – Drop in Hct, Hgb – Confusion – Syncope(loss of concioussness)
- 74. Upper GI Bleed • Diagnosis – History – Blood, stool, vomitus studies – Endoscopy
- 75. Upper GI Bleed • Treatments – Volume replacement • Crystalloids- normal saline • Blood transfusions – NG lavage – EGD • Endoscopic treatment of bleeding ulcer • Sclerotheraphy-injecting bleeding ulcer with necrotizing agent to stop bleeding
- 76. Upper GI Bleed • Treatments – Sengstaken-Blakemore tube • Used with bleeding esophageal varacies – Surgical intervention • Removal of part of the stomach
- 78. Cancer of Stomach 1. Incidence • a. Worldwide common cancer, but less common in US • b. Incidence highest among Hispanics, African Americans, Asian Americans, males twice as often as females • c. Older adults of lower socioeconomic groups higher risk 2. Pathophysiology • a. Adenocarcinoma most common form involving mucus-producing cells of stomach in distal portion • b. Begins as localized lesion (in situ) progresses to mucosa; spreads to lymph nodes and metastasizes early in disease to liver, lungs, ovaries, peritoneum
- 79. Colon Cancer
- 80. Cancer of Stomach 3. Risk Factors • a. H. pylori infection • b. Genetic predisposition • c. Chronic gastritis, pernicious anemia, gastric polyps • d. Achlorhydria (lack of hydrochloric acid) • e. Diet high in smoked foods and nitrates 4. Manifestations • a. Disease often advanced with metastasis when diagnosed • b. Early symptoms are vague: early satiety, anorexia, indigestion, vomiting, pain after meals not responding to antacids • c. Later symptoms weight loss, cachexia (wasted away appearance), abdominal mass, stool positive for occult blood
- 81. Cancer of Stomach 5. Collaborative Care a. Support client through testing b. Assist client to maintain adequate nutrition 6. Diagnostic Tests a.CBC indicates anemia b.Upper GI series, ultrasound identifies a mass c.Upper endoscopy: visualization and tissue biopsy of lesion
- 82. Cancer of Stomach 7. Treatment • a. Surgery, if diagnosis made prior to metastasis 1.Partial gastrectomy with anastomosis to duodenum: Bilroth I or gastroduodenostomy 2.Partial gastrectomy with anastomosis to jejunum: Bilroth II or gastrojejunostomy 3.Total gastrectomy (if cancer diffuse but limited to stomach) with esophagojejunostomy
- 83. Cancer of Stomach b. Complications associated with gastric surgery • 1. Dumping Syndrome a.Occurs with partial gastrectomy; hypertonic, undigested chyme bolus rapidly enters small intestine and pulls fluid into intestine causing decrease in circulating blood volume and increased intestinal peristalsis and motility b.Manifestations 5 – 30 minutes after meal: nausea with possible vomiting, epigastric pain and cramping, borborygmi, and diarrhea; client becomes tachycardic, hypotensive, dizzy, flushed, diaphoretic c.Manifestations 2 – 3 hours after meal: symptoms of hypoglycemia in response to excessive release of insulin that occurred from rise in blood glucose when chyme entered intestine
- 84. Cancer of Stomach d. Treatment: dietary pattern to delay gastric emptying and allow smaller amounts of chyme to enter intestine • 1. Liquids and solids taken separately • 2. Increased amounts of fat and protein • 3. Carbohydrates, especially simple sugars, reduced • 4. Client to rest recumbent or semi-recumbent 30 – 60 minutes after eating • 5. Anticholinergics, sedatives, antispasmodic medications may be added • 6. Limit amount of food taken at one time
- 85. Cancer of the Stomach • Common post-op complications – Pneumonia – Anastomotic leak – Hemorrhage – Relux aspiration – Sepsis – Reflux gastritis – Paralytic ileus – Bowel obstruction – Wound infection – Dumping syndrome
- 86. Cancer of Stomach • Nutritional problems related to rapid entry of food into the bowel and the shortage of intrinsic factor • 1 Anemia: iron deficiency and/or pernicious • 2 Folic acid deficiency • 3. Poor absorption of calcium, vitamin D c. Radiation and/or chemotherapy to control metastasic spread d. Palliative treatment including surgery, chemotherapy; client may have gastrostomy or jejunostomy tube inserted 7. Nursing Diagnoses • a. Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than body requirement: consult dietician since client at risk for protein-calorie malnutrition • b. Anticipatory Grieving
- 87. Nursing Care of Clients with Bowel Disorders Factors affecting bodily function of elimination A. GI tract • 1. Food intake • 2. Bacterial flora in bowel B. Indirect • 1. Psychologic stress • 2. Voluntary postponement of defecation C. Normal bowel elimination pattern • 1. Varies with the individual • 2. 2 – 3 times daily to 3 stools per week
- 88. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) (spastic bowel, functional colitis) Definition • a. Functional GI tract disorder without identifiable cause characterized by abdominal pain and constipation, diarrhea, or both • b. Affects up to 20% of persons in Western civilization; more common in females
- 89. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) (spastic bowel, functional colitis) Pathophysiology • a. Appears there is altered CNS regulation of motor and sensory functions of bowel 1.Increased bowel activity in response to food intake, hormones, stress 2.Increased sensations of chyme movement through gut 3.Hypersecretion of colonic mucus • b. Lower visceral pain threshold causing abdominal pain and bloating with normal levels of gas • c. Some linkage of depression and anxiety
- 90. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) (spastic bowel, functional colitis) Manifestations • a. Abdominal pain relieved by defecation; may be colicky, occurring in spasms, dull or continuous • b. Altered bowel habits including frequency, hard or watery stool, straining or urgency with stooling, incomplete evacuation, passage of mucus; abdominal bloating, excess gas • c. Nausea, vomiting, anorexia, fatigue, headache, anxiety • d. Tenderness over sigmoid colon upon palpation 4. Collaborative Care • a. Management of distressing symptoms • b. Elimination of precipitating factors, stress reduction
- 91. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) (spastic bowel, functional colitis) 5. Diagnostic Tests: to find a cause for client’s abdominal pain, changes in feces elimination • a.Stool examination for occult blood, ova and parasites, culture • b.CBC with differential, Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR): to determine if anemia, bacterial infection, or inflammatory process • c.Sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy 1.Visualize bowel mucosa, measure intraluminal pressures, obtain biopsies if indicated 2.Findings with IBS: normal appearance increased mucus, intraluminal pressures, marked spasms, possible hyperemia without lesions • d.Small bowel series (Upper GI series with small bowel-follow through) and barium enema: examination of entire GI tract; IBS: increased motility
- 92. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) (spastic bowel, functional colitis) Medications • a. Purpose: to manage symptoms • b. Bulk-forming laxatives: reduce bowel spasm, normalize bowel movement in number and form • c. Anticholinergic drugs (dicyclomine (Bentyl), hyoscyamine) to inhibit bowel motility and prevent spasms; given before meals • d. Antidiarrheal medications (loperamide (Imodium), diphenoxylate (Lomotil): prevent diarrhea prophylactically • e. Antidepressant medications • f. Research: medications altering serotonin receptors in GI tract to stimulate peristalsis of the GI tract
- 93. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) (spastic bowel, functional colitis) Dietary Management • a. Often benefit from additional dietary fiber: adds bulk and water content to stool reducing diarrhea and constipation • b. Some benefit from elimination of lactose, fructose, sorbitol • c. Limiting intake of gas-forming foods, caffeinated beverages 8. Nursing Care • a. Contact in health environments outside acute care • b. Home care focus on improving symptoms with changes of diet, stress management, medications; seek medical attention if serious changes occur
- 94. Diarrhea • Diarrhea, an alteration in normal bowel function commonly seen in acute care settings. (more then 03 stools per day in adults, more then 06 in children) • Diarrhea has many causes. When someone is hospitalized, dietary changes, medication, and several types of bacterial and viral infections can trigger the problem.
- 95. Diarrhea Types: Major mechanisms of diarrhea – Osmotic diarrhea due to presence of nonabsorbable solutes in the bowel. The solutes draw excess water into the intestine, resulting in high-volume diarrhea. – Secretory diarrhea occurs when a dysfunction of the crypt epithelial cells of the intestine wall causes the small bowel to secrete excess electrolytes and water. – Motility diarrhea interferes with interaction between the luminal contents and absorptive cells in the gastrointestinal tract. Motility increases and the patient develops diarrhea.
- 96. Diarrhea Causes: – Certain Medication: (Lexative Misuse, Antibiotics) – Tube feeding – Metabolic, endocrine disorders. – Viral : Rota Virus – Bacterial: Shigelosis – Radiotherapy – Chemo – Contaminated water, unhygienic food
- 97. Diarrhea • Clinical Menifistation: – Watery stool more then 03 stools per day in adults, more then 06 in children – Abdominal cramps, Distention – Anorexia & thurst – Painful spasmodic contraction of anus – Mucus and pus – Fever
- 98. Diarrhea • Complication – Cardiac dysrithmia – Electrolytes imbalance – Less Urinary output 30ml / hour – Muscles weakness – Hypotension – Renal failure – Death • Diagnosis – Stool examination (parasite, blood, fat, bacterial toxin) – Blood CP – S. electrolytes – Ch. Profile – Endoscopy – Barium enema
- 99. Diarrhea • Medical Management: • Primary: Controlling Symptoms • Prevention complication/ treating underlying cause • ORS, in severe cases resuscitate IV Isotonic fluid therapy • Anti-diarrheal/antimotility agents : loperamide (Imodium) and diphenoxylate (Lomotil) • Probiotics: Entrogermina • Antibiotic therapy: If shigellosis, traveler's diarrhea, or immunosuppression, Ciprofloxacin (Cipro), rifaximin (Xifaxan), and erythromycin • Metronidazole is appropriate to treat parasitic diarrhea caused by Giardia.
- 100. Diarrhea • Nursing Management – Hand hygien before and after eating, defecation – Controlling diarrhea: Encourage bed rest, low intake high fiber diet/bulk forming agent, high fluid intake. restrict fat (intake boil water) – KYB diet (semi solid diet) – ORS – Reduce anxiety – IV maintain with prescribed fluids.
- 101. Peritonitis Definition • a. Inflammation of peritoneum, lining that covers wall (parietal peritoneum) and organs (visceral peritoneum) of abdominal cavity • b. Enteric bacteria enter the peritoneal cavity through a break of intact GI tract (e.g. perforated ulcer, ruptured appendix)
- 102. Peritonitis • Causes include: – Ruptured appendix – Perforated bowel secondary to PUD – Diverticulitis – Gangrenous gall bladder – Ulcerative colitis – Trauma – Peritoneal dialysis
- 103. Peritonitis Pathophysiology • a. Peritonitis results from contamination of normal sterile peritoneal cavity with infections or chemical irritant • b. Release of bile or gastric juices initially causes chemical peritonitis; infection occurs when bacteria enter the space • c. Bacterial peritonitis usually caused by these bacteria (normal bowel flora): Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas • d. Inflammatory process causes fluid shift into peritoneal space (third spacing); leading to hypovolemia, then septicemia
- 104. Peritonitis 3. Manifestations • a. Depends on severity and extent of infection, age and health of client • b. Presents with “acute abdomen” 1.Abrupt onset of diffuse, severe abdominal pain 2.Pain may localize near site of infection (may have rebound tenderness) 3.Intensifies with movement • c. Entire abdomen is tender with boardlike guarding or rigidity of abdominal muscle
- 105. Peritonitis • d. Decreased peristalsis leading to paralytic ileus; bowel sounds are diminished or absent with progressive abdominal distention; pooling of GI secretions lead to nausea and vomiting • e. Systemically: fever, malaise, tachycardia and tachypnea, restlessness, disorientation, oliguria with dehydration and shock • f. Older or immunosuppressed client may have 1.Few of classic signs 2.Increased confusion and restlessness 3.Decreased urinary output 4.Vague abdominal complaints 5.At risk for delayed diagnosis and higher mortality rates
- 106. Peritonitis 4. Complications • a. May be life-threatening; mortality rate overall 40% • b. Abscess • c. Fibrous adhesions • d. Septicemia, septic shock; fluid loss into abdominal cavity leads to hypovolemic shock 5. Collaborative Care • a. Diagnosis and identifying and treating cause • b. Prevention of complications
- 107. Peritonitis 6. Diagnostic Tests • a. WBC with differential: elevated WBC to 20,000; shift to left • b. Blood cultures: identify bacteria in blood • c. Liver and renal function studies, serum electrolytes: evaluate effects of peritonitis • d. Abdominal xrays: detect intestinal distension, air-fluid levels, free air under diaphragm (sign of GI perforation) • e. Diagnostic paracentesis 7. Medications • a. Antibiotics 1.Broad-spectrum before definitive culture results identifying specific organism(s) causing infection 2.Specific antibiotic(s) treating causative pathogens • b. Analgesics
- 108. Peritonitis 8. Surgery • a. Laparotomy to treat cause (close perforation, removed inflamed tissue) • b. Peritoneal Lavage: washing out peritoneal cavity with copious amounts of warm isotonic fluid during surgery to dilute residual bacterial and remove gross contaminants • c. Often have drain in place and/or incision left unsutured to continue drainage
- 109. Peritonitis 9. Treatment • a. Intravenous fluids and electrolytes to maintain vascular volume and electrolyte balance • b. Bed rest in Fowler’s position to localize infection and promote lung ventilation • c. Intestinal decompression with nasogastric tube or intestinal tube connected to suction • 1. Relieves abdominal distension secondary to paralytic ileus • 2. NPO with intravenous fluids while having nasogastric suction
- 110. Peritonitis 10. Nursing Diagnoses • a. Pain • b. Deficient Fluid Volume: often on hourly output; nasogastric drainage is considered when ordering intravenous fluids • c. Ineffective Protection • d. Anxiety 11. Home Care • a. Client may have prolonged hospitalization • b. Home care often includes • 1. Wound care • 2. Home health referral • 3. Home intravenous antibiotics
- 111. Client with Inflammatory Bowel Disease Client with Inflammatory Bowel Disease Definition • a. Includes 2 separate but closely related conditions: ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease; both have similar geographic distribution and genetic component • b. Etiology is unknown but runs in families; may be related to infectious agent and altered immune responses • c. Peak incidence occurs between the ages of 15 – 35; second peak 60 – 80 • d. Chronic disease with recurrent exacerbations
- 113. Ulcerative Colitis Pathophysiology • 1. Inflammatory process usually confined to rectum and sigmoid colon • 2. Inflammation leads to mucosal hemorrhages and abscess formation, which leads to necrosis and sloughing of bowel mucosa • 3. Mucosa becomes red, friable, and ulcerated; bleeding is common • 4. Chronic inflammation leads to atrophy, narrowing, and shortening of colon
- 114. Ulcerative Colitis Manifestations • 1. Diarrhea with stool containing blood and mucus; 10 – 20 bloody stools per day leading to anemia, hypovolemia, malnutrition • 2. Fecal urgency, tenesmus(feeling of incomplete defecation). LLQ cramping • 3. Fatigue, anorexia, weakness
- 115. Ulcerative Colitis Complications • 1. Hemorrhage: can be massive with severe attacks • 2. Toxic mega colon: usually involves transverse colon which dilates and lacks peristalsis (manifestations: fever, tachycardia, hypotension, dehydration, change in stools, abdominal cramping) • 3. Colon perforation: rare but leads to peritonitis and 15% mortality rate • 4. Increased risk for colorectal cancer (20 – 30 times); need yearly colonoscopies • 5. Abscess, fistula formation • 6. Bowel obstruction • 7. Extra intestinal complications – Arthritis – Ocular disorders – Cholelithiasis
- 116. Ulcerative Colitis • Diet therapy – Goal to prevent hyperactive bowel activity – Severe symptoms • NPO • TPN – Less severe • Vivonex – Elemental formula absorbed in the upper bowel – Decreases bowel stimulation
- 117. Ulcerative Colitis • Diet therapy – Significant symptoms • Low fiber diet • Reduce or eliminate lactose containing foods • Avoid caffeinated beverages, pepper, alcohol, smoking
- 118. Ulcerative Colitis Ostomy • 1. Surgically created opening between intestine and abdominal wall that allows passage of fecal material • 2. Stoma is the surface opening which has an appliance applied to retain stool and is emptied at intervals • 3. Name of ostomy depends on location of stoma • 4. Ileostomy: opening in ileum; may be permanent with total proctocolectomy or temporary (loop ileostomy) • 5. Ileostomies: always have liquid stool which can be corrosive to skin since contains digestive enzymes • 6. Continent (or Kock’s) ileostomy: has intra-abdominal reservoir with nipple valve formation to allow catheter insertion to drain out stool
- 119. Ulcerative Colitis • Surgical Management – 25% of patients require a colectomy – Total proctocolectomy with a permanent ileostomy • Colon, rectum, anus removed • Closure of anus • Stoma in right lower quadrant – In selected patients an ileoanal anastamosis or ileal reservoir to preserve the anal sphincter • J-shaped pouch is created internally from the end of the ileum to collect fecal material • Pouch is then connected to the distal rectum
- 120. Proctocolectomy
- 121. Ulcerative Colitis • Surgical management – Total colectomy with a continent ileostomy • Kock’s ileostomy • Intra-abdominal pouch where stool is stored untile client drains it with a catheter
- 122. Kocks pouch
- 123. Ulcerative Colitis • Surgical management – Total colectomy with ileoanal anastamosis – Ileoanal reservoir or J pouch – Removes colon and rectum and sutrues ileum into the anal canal
- 124. Ulcerative Colitis Home Care • a. Inflammatory bowel disease is chronic and day-to-day care lies with client • b. Teaching to control symptoms, adequate nutrition, if client has ostomy: care and resources for supplies, support group and home care referral
- 125. Ulcerative Colitis • Treatment – Medications similar to treatment for Crohn’s disease
- 126. Ulcerative Colitis Nursing Care: Focus is effective management of disease with avoidance of complications Nursing Diagnoses • a. Diarrhea • b. Disturbed Body Image; diarrhea may control all aspects of life; client has surgery with ostomy • c. Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than body requirement • d. Risk for Impaired Tissue Integrity: Malnutrition and healing post surgery • e. Risk for sexual dysfunction, related to diarrhea or ostomy
- 127. Crohn’s Disease (regional enteritis) Pathophysiology 1. Can affect any portion of GI tract, but terminal ileum and ascending colon are more commonly involved 2. Inflammatory aphthoid lesion (shallow ulceration) of mucosa and submuscosa develops into ulcers and fissures that involve entire bowel wall 3. Fibrotic changes occur leading to local obstruction, abscess formation and fistula formation 4. Fistulas develop between loops of bowel (enteroenteric fistulas); bowel and bladder (enterovesical fistulas); bowel and skin (enterocutaneous fistulas) 5. Absorption problem develops leading to protein loss and anemia
- 129. Crohn’s disease
- 131. Crohn’s Disease (regional enteritis) Manifestations • 1. Often continuous or episodic diarrhea; liquid or semi-formed; abdominal pain and tenderness in RLQ relieved by defecation • 2. Fever, fatigue, malaise, weight loss, anemia • 3. Fissures, fistulas, abscesses
- 132. Crohn’s Disease (regional enteritis) Complications • 1. Intestinal obstruction: caused by repeated inflammation and scarring causing fibrosis and stricture • 2. Fistulas lead to abscess formation; recurrent urinary tract infection if bladder involved • 3. Perforation of bowel may occur with peritonitis • 4. Massive hemorrhage • 5. Increased risk of bowel cancer (5 – 6 times)
- 133. Crohn’s Disease (regional enteritis) Collaborative Care • a. Establish diagnosis • b. Supportive treatment • c. Many clients need surgery Diagnostic Tests • a. Colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy: determine area and pattern of involvement, tissue biopsies; small risk of perforation • b. Upper GI series with small bowel follow-through, barium enema • c. Stool examination and stool cultures to rule out infections • d. CBC: shows anemia, leukocytosis from inflammation and abscess formation • e. Serum albumin, folic acid: lower due to malabsorption
- 134. Crohn’s Disease (regional enteritis) Medications: goal is to stop acute attacks quickly and reduce incidence of relapse • a. Sulfasalazine (Azulfidine): salicylate compound that inhibits prostaglandin production to reduce inflammation • b. Corticosteroids: reduce inflammation and induce remission; with ulcerative colitis may be given as enema; intravenous steroids are given with severe exacerbations • c. Immunosuppressive agents (azathioprine (Imuran), cyclosporine) for clients who do not respond to steroid therapy alone – Used in combination with steroid treatment and may help decrease the amount of steroid use
- 135. Crohn’s Disease • d. New therapies including immune response modifiers, anti-inflammatory cyctokines • e. Metronidazole (Flagyl) or Ciprofloxacin (Cipro) – For the fistulas that develop • f. Anti-diarrheal medications
- 136. Crohn’s Disease (regional enteritis) Dietary Management • a. Individualized according to client; eliminate irritating foods • b. Dietary fiber contraindicated if client has strictures • c. With acute exacerbations, client may be made NPO and given enteral or total parenteral nutrition (TPN) Surgery: performed when necessitated by complications or failure of other measures removal of diseased portion of the bowel
- 137. Crohn’s Disease a.Crohn’s disease • 1. Bowel obstruction leading cause; may have bowel resection and repair for obstruction, perforation, fistula, abscess • 2. Disease process tends to recur in area remaining after resection
- 138. Neoplastic Disorders Neoplastic Disorders Background • 1. Large intestine and rectum most common GI site affected by cancer • 2. Colon cancer is second leading cause of death from cancer in U.S. B.Client with Polyps 1. Definition • a. Polyp is mass of tissue arising from bowel wall and protruding into lumen • b. Most often occur in sigmoid and rectum • c. 30% of people over 50 have polyps
- 139. Neoplastic Disorders Neoplastic Disorders Pathophysiology • a. Most polyps are adenomas, benign but considered premalignant; < 1% become malignant but all colorectal cancers arise from these polyps • b. Polyp types include tubular, villous, or tubularvillous • c. Familial polyposis is uncommon autosomal dominant genetic disorder with hundreds of adenomatous polyps throughout large intestine; untreated, near 100% malignancy by age 40
- 140. Client with Polyps Manifestations • a. Most asymptomatic • b. Intermittent painless rectal bleeding is most common presenting symptom Collaborative Care • a. Diagnosis is based on colonoscopy • b. Most reliable since allows inspection of entire colon with biopsy or polypectomy if indicated • c. Repeat every 3 years since polyps recur
- 141. Client with Polyps Nursing Care • a. All clients advised to have screening colonoscopy at age 50 and every 5 years thereafter (polyps need 5 years of growth for significant malignancy) • b. Bowel preparation ordered prior to colonoscopy with cathartics and/or enemas
- 142. Polyps
- 143. Client with Colorectal Cancer Definition • a. Third most common cancer diagnosed • b. Affects sexes equally • c. Five-year survival rate is 90%, with early diagnosis and treatment Risk Factors • a. Family history • b. Inflammatory bowel disease • c. Diet high in fat, calories, protein
- 144. Client with Colorectal Cancer Pathophysiology • a. Most malignancies begin as adenomatous polyps and arise in rectum and sigmoid • b. Spread by direct extension to involve entire bowel circumference and adjacent organs • c. Metastasize to regional lymph nodes via lymphatic and circulatory systems to liver, lungs, brain, bones, and kidneys Manifestations • a. Often produces no symptoms until it is advanced • b. Presenting manifestation is bleeding; also change in bowel habits (diarrhea or constipation); pain, anorexia, weight loss, palpable abdominal or rectal mass; anemia
- 145. Colon Cancer
- 146. Client with Colorectal Cancer Complications • a. Bowel obstruction • b. Perforation of bowel by tumor, peritonitis • c. Direct extension of cancer to adjacent organs; reoccurrences within 4 years Collaborative Care: Focus is on early detection and intervention Screening • a. Digital exam beginning at age 40, annually • b. Fecal occult blood testing beginning at age 50, annually • c. Colonoscopies or sigmoidoscopies beginning at age 50, every 3 – 5 years
- 147. Client with Colorectal Cancer Diagnostic Tests • a. CBC: anemia from blood loss, tumor growth • b. Fecal occult blood (guiac or Hemoccult testing): all colorectal cancers bleed intermittently • c. Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA): not used as screening test, but is a tumor marker and used to estimate prognosis, monitor treatment, detect reoccurrence may be elevated in 70% of people with CRC • d. Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy; tissue biopsy of suspicious lesions, polyps • e. Chest xray, CTscans, MRI, ultrasounds: to determine tumor depth, organ involvement, metastasis
- 148. Client with Colorectal Cancer • Pre-op care – Consult with ET nurse if ostomy is planned – Bowel prep with GoLytely – NPO – NG
- 149. Client with Colorectal Cancer Surgery • a. Surgical resection of tumor, adjacent colon, and regional lymph nodes is treatment of choice • b. Whenever possible anal sphincter is preserved and colostomy avoided; anastomosis of remaining bowel is performed • c. Tumors of rectum are treated with abdominoperineal resection (A-P resection) in which sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus are removed through abdominal and perineal incisions and permanent colostomy created
- 150. Client with Colorectal Cancer Colostomy 1. Ostomy made in colon if obstruction from tumor • a. Temporary measure to promote healing of anastomoses • b. Permanent means for fecal evacuation if distal colon and rectum removed 2. Named for area of colon is which formed • a. Sigmoid colostomy: used with A-P resection formed on LLQ • b. Double-barrel colostomy: 2 stomas: proximal for feces diversion; distal is mucous fistula • c. Transverse loop colostomy: emergency procedure; loop suspended over a bridge; temporary • d. Hartman procedure: Distal portion is left in place and oversewn; only proximal colostomy is brought to abdomen as stoma; temporary; colon reconnected at later time when client ready for surgical repair
- 151. Client with Colorectal Cancer • Post-op care – Pain – NG tube – Wound management • Stoma – Should be pink and moist – Drk red or black indicates ischemic necrosis – Look for excessive bleeding – Observe for possible separation of suture securing stoma to abdominal wall
- 152. Client with Colorectal Cancer • Post-op care – Evaluate stool after 2-4 days postop • Ascending stoma (right side) – Liquid stool • Transverse stoma – Pasty • Descending stoma – Normal, solid stool
- 153. Client with Colorectal Cancer Radiation Therapy • a. Used as adjunct with surgery; rectal cancer has high rate of regional recurrence if tumor outside bowel wall or in regional lymph nodes • b. Used preoperatively to shrink tumor • C. Provides local control of disease, does not improve survival rates Chemotherapy: Used postoperatively with radiation therapy to reduce rate of rectal tumor recurrence and prolong survival
- 154. Client with Colorectal Cancer Nursing Care • a. Prevention is primary issue • b. Client teaching • 1. Diet: decrease amount of fat, refined sugar, red meat; increase amount of fiber; diet high in fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes • 2. Screening recommendations • 3. Seek medical attention for bleeding and warning signs of cancer • 4. Risk may be lowered by aspirin or NSAID use Nursing Diagnoses for post-operative colorectal client • a. Pain • b. Imbalanced Nutrition: Less than body requirements • c. Anticipatory Grieving • d. Alteration in Body Image • e. Risk for Sexual Dysfunction
- 155. Client with Colorectal Cancer Home Care • a. Referral for home care • b. Referral to support groups for cancer or ostomy • c. Referral to hospice as needed for advanced disease
- 156. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Definition • a. May be partial or complete obstruction • b. Failure of intestinal contents to move through the bowel lumen; most common site is small intestine • c. With obstruction, gas and fluid accumulate proximal to and within obstructed segment causing bowel distention • d. Bowel distention, vomiting, third-spacing leads to hypovolemia, hypokalemia, renal insufficiency, shock
- 157. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Pathophysiology a. Mechanical 1. Problems outside intestines: adhesions (bands of scar tissue), hernias 2. Problems within intestines: tumors, IBD 3. Obstruction of intestinal lumen (partial or complete) • a. Intussusception: telescoping bowel • b. Volvulus: twisted bowel • c. Foreign bodies • d. Strictures
- 158. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Functional 1. Failure of peristalsis to move intestinal contents: adynamic ileus (paralytic ileus, ileus) due to neurologic or muscular impairment 2. Accounts for most bowel obstructions 3. Causes include • a. Post gastrointestinal surgery • b. Tissue anoxia or peritoneal irritation from hemorrhage, peritonitis, or perforation • c. Hypokalemia • d. Medications: narcotics, anticholinergic drugs, antidiarrheal medications • e. Spinal cord injuries, uremia, alterations in electrolytes
- 159. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Manifestations Small Bowel Obstruction a. Vary depend on level of obstruction and speed of development b. Cramping or colicky abdominal pain, intermittent, intensifying c. Vomiting • 1. Proximal intestinal distention stimulates vomiting center • 2. Distal obstruction vomiting may become feculent d. Bowel sounds • 1. Early in course of mechanical obstruction: borborygmi and high-pitched tinkling, may have visible peristaltic waves • 2. Later silent; with paralytic ileus, diminished or absent bowel sounds throughout e. Signs of dehydration
- 160. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Complications • a. Hypovolemia and hypovolemic shock can result in multiple organ dysfunction (acute renal failure, impaired ventilation, death) • b. Strangulated bowel can result in gangrene, perforation, peritonitis, possible septic shock • c. Delay in surgical intervention leads to higher mortality rate
- 161. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Large Bowel Obstruction • a. Only accounts for 15% of obstructions • b. Causes include cancer of bowel, volvulus, diverticular disease, inflammatory disorders, fecal impaction • c. Manifestations: deep, cramping pain; severe, continuous pain signals bowel ischemia and possible perforation; localized tenderness or palpable mass may be noted
- 162. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Collaborative Care • a. Relieving pressure and obstruction • b. Supportive care Diagnostic Tests a. Abdominal Xrays and CT scans with contrast media • 1. Show distended loops of intestine with fluid and /or gas in small intestine, confirm mechanical obstruction; indicates free air under diaphragm • 2. If CT with contrast media meglumine diatrizoate (Gastrografin), check for allergy to iodine, need BUN and Creatinine to determine renal function b. Laboratory testing to evaluate for presence of infection and electrolyte imbalance: WBC, Serum amylase, osmolality, electrolytes, arterial blood gases c. Barium enema or colonoscopy/sigmoidoscopy to identify large bowel obstruction Gastrointestinal Decompression • a. Treatment with nasogastric or long intestinal tube provides bowel rest and removal of air and fluid • b. Successfully relieves many partial small bowel obstructions
- 163. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Surgery • a. Treatment for complete mechanical obstructions, strangulated or incarcerated obstructions of small bowel, persistent incomplete mechanical obstructions • b. Preoperative care • 1. Insertion of nasogastric tube to relieve vomiting, abdominal distention, and to prevent aspiration of intestinal contents • 2. Restore fluid and electrolyte balance; correct acid and alkaline imbalances • 3. Laparotomy: inspection of intestine and removal of infarcted or gangrenous tissue • 4. Removal of cause of obstruction: adhesions, tumors, foreign bodies, gangrenous portion of intestines and anastomosis or creation of colostomy depending on individual case
- 164. Client with Intestinal Obstruction Nursing Care • a. Prevention includes healthy diet, fluid intake • b. Exercise, especially in clients with recurrent small bowel obstructions Nursing Diagnoses • a. Deficient Fluid Volume • b. Ineffective Tissue Perfusion, gastrointestinal • c. Ineffective Breathing Pattern Home Care • a. Home care referral as indicated • b. Teaching about signs of recurrent obstruction and seeking medical attention
- 165. Client with Diverticular Disease Definition • a. Diverticula are saclike projections of mucosa through muscular layer of colon mainly in sigmoid colon • b. Incidence increases with age; less than a third of persons with diverticulosis develop symptoms Risk Factors • a. Cultural changes in western world with diet of highly refined and fiber-deficient foods • b. Decreased activity levels • c. Postponement of defecation
- 166. Client with Diverticular Disease Pathophysiology • a. Diverticulosis is the presence of diverticula which form due to increased pressure within bowel lumen causing bowel mucosa to herniate through defects in colon wall, causing outpouchings • b. Muscle in bowel wall thickens narrowing bowel lumen and increasing intraluminal pressure • c. Complications of diverticulosis include hemorrhage and diverticulitis, the inflammation of the diverticular sac
- 167. Clients with Diverticular Disease • d. Diverticulitis: diverticulum in sigmoid colon irritated with undigested food and bacteria forming a hard mass (fecalith) that impairs blood supply leading to perforation • e. With microscopic perforation, inflammation is localized; more extensive perforation may lead to peritonitis or abscess formation
- 168. Diverticulits
- 169. Diverticulitis
- 170. Client with Diverticular Disease Manifestations • a. Pain, left-sided, mild to moderate and cramping or steady • b. Constipation or frequency of defecation • c. May also have nausea, vomiting, low-grade fever, abdominal distention, tenderness and palpable LLQ mass • d. Older adult may have vague abdominal pain Complications • a. Peritonitis • b. Abscess formation • c. Bowel obstruction • d. Fistula formation • e. Hemorrhage
- 171. Client with Diverticular Disease Collaborative Care: Focus is on management of symptoms and complications Diagnostic Tests • a. Abdominal Xray: detection of free air with perforation, location of abscess, fistula • b. Barium enema contraindicated in early diverticulitis due to risk of barium leakage into peritoneal cavity, but will confirm diverticulosis • c. Abdominal CT scan, sigmoidoscopy or colonscopy used in diagnosis of diverticulosis • d. WBC count with differential: leukocytosis with shift to left in diverticulitis • e. Hemocult or guiac testing: determine presence of occult blood
- 172. Client with Diverticular Disease Medications • a. Broad spectrum antibiotics against gram negative and anaerobic bacteria to treat acute diverticulitis, oral or intravenous route depending on severity of symptoms – Flagyl plus Bactrim or Cipro • b. Analgesics for pain (non-narcotic) • c. Fluids to correct dehydration • d. Stool softener but not cathartic may be prescribed (nothing to increase pressure within bowel) • e. Anticholinergics to decrease intestinal hypermotility
- 173. Clients with Diverticular Disease Dietary Management • a. Diet modification may decrease risk of complications • b. High-fiber diet (bran, commercial bulk- forming products such as psyllium seed (Metamucil) or methycelluose) • c. Some clients advised against foods with small seeds which could obstruct diverticula
- 174. Client with Diverticular Disease Treatment for acute episode of diverticulitis • a. Client initially NPO with intravenous fluids (possibly TPN) • b. As symptoms subside reintroduce food: clear liquid diet, to soft, low-roughage diet psyillium seed products to soften stool and increase bulk • c. High fiber diet is resumed after full recovery Surgery • a. Surgical intervention indicated for clients with generalized peritonitis or abscess that does not respond to treatment • b. With acute infection, 2 stage Hartman procedure done with temporary colostomy; re-anastomosis performed 2 – 3 months later
- 175. Client with Diverticular Disease Nursing Care: Health promotion includes teaching high-fiber foods in diet generally, may be contraindicated for persons with known conditions Nursing Diagnoses • a. Impaired Tissue Integrity, gastrointestinal • b. Pain • c. Anxiety, related to unknown outcome of treatment, possible surgery Home Care • a. Teaching regarding prescribed diet, fluid intake, medications • b. Referral for home health care agency, if new colostomy client
Editor's Notes
- #4: Achalasia is a serious condition that affects your esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter (LES) is a muscular ring that closes off the esophagus from the stomach. If you have achalasia, your LES fails to open up during swallowing, which it's supposed to do. This leads to a backup of food within your esophagus.