How to plan and write a synopsis and thesis

UNIT- IV
HOW TO PLAN AND WRITE A SYNOPSIS
THESIS

Synopsis Writing
Dr. Kirpa Ram
Ph. 9468393474; dr.kirparamjangra@gmail.com

Synopsis (si-nop-seez) is a Greek word derived
from sýnopsis. syn – together, opsis – seeing.
A synopsis is a brief summary or condensed
statement giving a general view of the subject
selected.

What Is synopsis
• A synopsis is a brief summary that gives audiences an idea of what a
composition is about.
• It provides an overview of the storyline or main points and other
defining factors of the work, which may include style, genre, persons
or characters of note, setting, and so on

WHO and WHY Synopsis
1. Any Type of Fiction or Nonfiction Book
2. Academic Papers
3. Journal and Newspaper Articles
4. Films
5. TV Shows
6. Video Games
7. Research project

Why Need Synopsis
• A synopsis or a protocol of a research project is a document
submitted to an authority or an institution for the purpose of
1. Formal registration to universities for the award of a degree or
doctorate.
2. Ethical clearance
3. Peer review
4. Financial assistance from organizations

Constitute and review of Synopsis
Author
PG Student
Guide- Student Relationship
Statistics and Statistical Design
Departmental Senior Faculty
Advice
Synopsis
Interest and Study execution
team Ongoing Research and projects

Structure of a Synopsis
The synopsis is a brief out line (about four A-4 size pages or 1000 words
is the minimum limit) of your future work.
1. Title
2. Need for the Study and hypothesis
3. Aims and objectives
4. Review of literature
5. Materials and Methods
6. Operational Definition
7. Data Collection Procedure & Data Analysis
8. References
9. Official requirements

1. Title
The title of the research project should be brief but informative.
• Should reflect the objectives of the study.
• Selection of all the words- with great care. It should neither be too
short nor too long.
• Sensationalization of the title is best avoided.
• Any name of the institution, the number of cases to be studied should
not be included.
Remember! Title of your study will be read by thousands of people

2. Need for the Study and hypothesis
Need for the Study…
• The problem being studied should be mentioned in
precise and clear terms.
• The problem under study should be relevant to the
present scenario.
• A brief account of its utility at the local or national
level has to be discussed.
• The present status of the problem and the necessity
for taking up the study needs to be mentioned.
• Understanding the problem, aids the researcher in
constructing the research proposal.
• It also allows the person to formulate the hypothesis.
Hypothesis…
• Hypothesis is mentioned as a tentative
prediction or explanation of the relationship
between two or more variables.
• Hypothesis should not be a haphazard guess
but should reflect the knowledge, imagination,
and experience of the investigator.
• Hypothesis can be formulated by
understanding the problem, reviewing the
literature on it, and considering other factors.
• A researcher can state the problem and the
hypothesis in about 200 words covering all the
aspects described above.

3. Aims and objectives
Aim...
• The aim is about what
you hope to do, your
overall intention in the
project.
• Aims are statements of
intent, written in broad
terms.
• Aims set out what you
hope to achieve at the
end of the project.
Objectives...
• Objectives are the steps you are going to take to
answer your research questions or
• A specific list of tasks needed to accomplish the
goals of the project.
• The objectives and aims should be only a few (2-
3).
• Primary objective and secondary objectives
should be clearly and precisely defined.
• Objectives should not include the word 'know' or
'understand'. They do include active verbs such
as 'state', 'explain', 'outline', 'list' or 'describe'.

Objectives should be S.M.A.R.T.:
• Specific – be precise about what you are going to do.
• Measureable –you will know when you have reached your goal.
• Achievable – Don’t attempt too much. A less ambitious but completed
objective is better than an over-ambitious one that you cannot possible
achieve.
• Realistic – do you have the necessary resources to achieve the
objective? For example: time, money, skills, etc?
• Time constrained – determine when each stage needs to be completed.
Is there time in your schedule to allow for unexpected delays?

4. Review of literature
1. It describes the work done by others either at local or international
level on it or similar subject.
2. It helps the researcher to understand the difficulties faced by others
and the corrective steps taken or modifications made by them.
3. Research methodology of the researcher can be structured and
modified after reviewing the literature.
4. The review assists in identifying various variables in the research
project and conceptualizes their relationship.
5. The reviewer can assess the work put in by the researcher and also
assists in assessing the feasibility of the study.

5. Materials and Methods
The research methodology forms the core of the research project.
The methodology should cover the following aspects: –
1. Study design
2. Study settings
3. Sampling
4. Variables
5. Controls
6. Study methods
7. Examinations or investigations
8. Data collection
9. Data analysis
10. Ethical clearance

Study design
I. Mention the name of the appropriate study
design. – Descriptive designs
II. Survey study
III. Observational study
IV. Epidemiological description of disease
occurrence – Observational analytical
designs
V. Prospective study (future)
VI. Retrospective study (past)
VII. Follow-up study – Experimental designs
VIII.Animal studies, Therapeutic clinical trials –
drugs
IX. Follow-up study
X. Study of natural history of a disease
Study settings
1. A mention about the research setting
should be made. This includes
information about the
2. Setting - Name and place where the
research work is to be conducted
3. Duration of Study - How long will the
study take with dates.
4. Sample size - How many patients/ plants
will be included. If there are groups how
many per group?
• Inclusion criteria: On what bases will
patients be inducted in the study
• Exclusion criteria: On what bases will
patients be excluded from the study.

Sampling
• Sampling is selecting a sample of appropriate
size for the study.
• The study population can be population of
cases, population of people, or population of
recipients of certain treatment.
• The sample size should be adequate to apply
all relevant tests of statistical significance.
• The samples should be representative of the
population and should be reliable.
• There are many methods for sampling like
simple random, systemic and stratified
sampling, cluster sampling, etc.
Variables
Variables are the factors that change.
These changes can affect the outcome of
a research project. Thus, it is important to
identify the variables at the planning
stage.
i. They should be quantified with a
measurable unit.
ii. Knowledge of the various variables
in a research project will assist in
refining the objectives.
iii. Usually, objectives of a research will
be to see the effect of independent
variables on dependent variables.

There are four types of variables.
1. Independent variables - These are the variables that can be
manipulated by the researcher and the effects of that are observed on
the other variables.
2. Dependent variables - The changes occur as a result of independent
variables.
3. Intervening variables - These may influence the effect of
independent variables on the dependent variables.
4. Background variables - These are changes that are relevant in the
groups or population under study.

Control
I. Control groups increase the
validity of the research
project.
II. They usually consist of units
of same population but differ
in some respects.
III. Controls are not necessary for
all research projects.
IV. As far as possible they should
be used in all analytical
studies, drug trials, and
intervention programs.
Study Method
Here the researcher will have to describe
the method of data collection, which
may be in the form of:
I. Questionnaire
II. Interviews
III. Medical examination
IV. Laboratory investigations
V. Screening procedures
VI. A sample of the proforma should be
prepared and attached.
VII.The possible cost involved and any
financial assistance received must be
mentioned.

6. Operational Definition
The researcher will have to describe the method of data collection,
which may be in the form of: May be required in some synopses.
• It is definition of a term specifically telling how it will be measured for
e.g.: Morbidity: this encompass a number of aspects viz. prolonged
hospital stay, severe pain, immediate complications, long term
sequelae.
• A research must define how a vague term will be measured.

7. Data Collection Procedure & Data Analysis
Data collection
A brief note on how data are
collected should be included. The
information should be about:
• The organizational setup
• Training to data collecting team
• Logistic support
• Plans for collaboration with
other organization should be
included.
Data Analysis
• Data analysis is an important part of a
research project.
• A good analysis leads to good results.
• The plans for data analysis should be
mentioned under the following heads
– Statistical methods – Computer
program used, and – Data sorting
method.
• A general statement "appropriate
statistical methods will be used."
must be avoided.

8. Ethical Clearance and References
Ethical Clearance
• Wherever necessary, ethical
committee clearance from the
institute should be obtained.
• The certificate must be attached.
• Ethical clearance is required in
all human and animal studies.
References
All references quoted in review
of literature and anywhere else
in the synopsis should be listed
here.
• Vancouver style
• Harvard style
• End note

9. Official requirements and Concluding remarks
Official requirements
A synopsis is incomplete if it does not contain the following
information:
1. Name of the researcher and designation
2. Name and designation of the guide / co- guide.
3. Name and designation of head of department institution
4. Name of the institution
5. Signatures of all with official seal

Concluding remarks….
1. Synopsis writing is an important step in a research project.
2. A good synopsis will give maximum information in minimum
words.
3. A well-conceived synopsis will go a long way in convincing the
reviewer about the ability of the researcher to conduct the project.
4. In cases of need for financial assistance, the request will be
considered favorably.
5. Thus, all research workers should make efforts to prepare a well-
structured synopsis.

How to plan and write a synopsis and thesis

What is a thesis?
• A thesis statement declares what you believe and what
you intend to prove.
• A good thesis statement makes the difference between a
thoughtful research project and a simple retelling of facts.
• In some contexts, the word "thesis" or a cognate is used
for part of a bachelor's or master's course, while
"dissertation" is normally applied to a doctorate, while in
other contexts, the reverse is true.
• The term graduate thesis is sometimes used to refer to
both master's theses and doctoral dissertations.

•A thesis or dissertation is a document
submitted in support of candidature for
an academic degree or professional
qualification presenting the author's
research and findings.

Attributes of a good thesis:
1. It should be contestable, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably
disagree. A strong thesis is provocative; it takes a stand and justifies the discussion you
will present.
2. It tackles a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned.
3. It is specific and focused. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing “everything
about …” Instead of music, think "American jazz in the 1930s" and your argument about
it.
4. It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on evidence. Note: Be flexible. The evidence
may lead you to a conclusion you didn't think you'd reach. It is perfectly okay to change
your thesis!
5. It provides the reader with a map to guide him/her through your work.
6. It anticipates and refutes the counter-arguments
7. It avoids vague language (like "it seems").
8. It avoids the first person. ("I believe," "In my opinion")
9. avoid driving under the influence of alcohol," would be unlikely to evoke any opposition.

So, A strong study should have the following characteristics:
Specific topic + Attitude/Angle/Argument = Thesis
What you plan to argue + How you plan to argue it = Thesis

General Requirements for Doctoral Theses
1. A thesis for the Doctoral degree must constitute original scholarship and
must be a distinct contribution to knowledge.
2. It must show familiarity with previous work in the field and must
demonstrate ability to plan and carry out research, organize results, and
defend the approach and conclusions in a scholarly manner.
3. The research presented must meet current standards of the discipline; as
well, the thesis must clearly demonstrate how the research advances
knowledge in the field.
4. Finally, the thesis must be written in compliance with norms for
academic and scholarly expression and for publication in the public
domain (see section: withholding a thesis from circulation temporarily).
The nature of academic research requires adherence to McGill’s policies on
research ethics and intellectual property, as described below.

Research Ethics
1. Research involving human participants, animal subjects, micro-
organisms, living cells, other biohazards, and/or radioactive
materials must have had the appropriate compliance certification.
2. Copies of any certificates of compliance must be retained by the
supervisor and student in accordance with McGill’s policies on
research ethics.
3. Supervisors indicate on the Nomination of Examiners and Thesis
Submission Form that the thesis research has complied with all
ethical standards.
4. See the Ethics and Compliance webpage for further information
about certification and training requirements.

Intellectual Property
Any issues regarding intellectual property deriving from the research, leading
up to the thesis, or in the completed thesis itself should conform to McGill’s
Policy on Inventions and Software.
• Students, supervisors, and any other collaborators must have written
intellectual property agreements regarding thesis research.
• These agreements must be consistent with the requirements of thesis
examination and availability in the public domain.
• Students must be aware of any limitations or approvals required for
publication of the research, including the examination and publication of a
thesis.
Note: When previously published copyrighted material is presented in a thesis,
the student must obtain signed permissions/waivers from the publisher(s).
Permission must also be obtained from co-authors of manuscripts submitted or
in preparation for inclusion in the thesis; an email to that effect should suffice.

Thesis Components
1. Thesis structure
2. Crosscutting Issues
3. Editing Your Thesis

1. Thesis structure
1. Title page
2. Abstract
3. Table of Contents
4. List of Figures
5. List of Tables
6. Introduction
7. Methods
8. Results
9. Discussion
10.Conclusions
11.Recommendations
12.Acknowledgments
13.References
14.Appendices

1. Title page
Effect of drought stress on stem reserve mobilization
in wheat (Triticum aestivum)
A dissertation report submitted
For the degree of
Master of Science
in
Botany
Supervisor- Submitted by-
Dr. Kirpa Ram
Assistant Professor (Botany)
BM University, Asthal Bohar (Rohtak)
Savita
M.Sc. / PhD
Roll No. 172121
Department of Botany
BABA MASTNATH UNIVERSITY
Asthal Bohar, Rohtak-124001
Year 2019
Title (including subtitle), author, institution,
department, date of delivery, research mentor(s)
and advisor, their instututions and email adresses
2. Abstract
• A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is
important. It then goes on to give a summary of your major
results, preferably couched in numbers with error limits.
• The final sentences explain the major implications of your
work.
• A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative.
• Length should be ~ 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.
• Absrtracts generally do not have citations.
Information in title should not be repeated.
• Be explicit.
 Use numbers where appropriate.
 Answers to these questions should be found in the abstract:
1. What did you do?
2. Why did you do it? What question were you trying to
answer?
3. How did you do it? State methods.
4. What did you learn? State major results.
5. Why does it matter? Point out at least one significant
implication.

3. Table of Contents
• list all headings and
subheadings with page
numbers, indent subheadings
• it will look something like
this:
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1-5
CHAPTER 2 Review of Literature 6-12
CHAPTER 3 Materials and Methods 13-16
CHAPTER 4 Results 17-24
CHAPTER 5 Discussion 25-28
CHAPTER 6 Summary and Conclusion 29-30
Bibliography 31-37

4, 5. List of Figures/ Table
List of Figures
• List page numbers of all figures.
The list should include a short
title for each figure but not the
whole caption.
List of Tables
• List page numbers of all tables.
The list should include a short
title for each table but not the
whole caption
List of table
Table No. Title Page No
Table 1. Effect of drought on days to heading, days to anthesis and
days to physiological maturity of wheat genotypes
18
Table 2. Effect of drought on plant height (cm) of wheat genotypes 20
Table 3. Effect of drought on number of spikelets per spike of
wheat genotypes
21
Table 4. Effect of drought on spike length (cm) of wheat genotypes 21
Table 5. Effect of drought on number of productive tillers per plant
of wheat genotypes
22
Table 6. Effect of drought on biomass (g) per plant of wheat
genotypes
22
Table 7. Effect of drought on number of grains per spike of wheat
genotypes
22
Table 8. Effect of drought on grains weight (g) per spike of wheat
genotypes
23
Table 9. Effect of drought on grains yield (g) per plants of wheat
genotypes
23
Table 10. Effect of drought on 1000 grain weight (g) of wheat
genotypes
24
List of Figure
Figure No. Title Page No
Fig 1. Effect of drought on relative water content (%) of wheat
genotypes
19
Fig 2. Effect of drought on stem reserve mobilization of wheat
genotypes
20

6. Introduction
You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of the
paper says.
Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction.
• This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to motivate
your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an important/interesting
scientific problem that your paper either solves or addresses. You
should draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest of the
paper.
• The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous research
in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or ideas first, and
should also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant
work. You should then go on to explain why more work was necessary
(your work, of course.)

Contents in the introductory section of your paper?
1. A statement of the goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken,
or why the paper was written. Do not repeat the abstract.
2. Sufficient background information to allow the reader to
understand the context and significance of the question you are
trying to address.
3. Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are
building. Sufficient references such that a reader could, by going to
the library, achieve a sophisticated understanding of the context and
significance of the question.

4. The introduction should be focused on the thesis question(s). All
cited work should be directly relevent to the goals of the thesis. This
is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on a
subject.
5. Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included.
6. A verbal "road map" or verbal "table of contents" guiding the reader
to what lies ahead.
7. Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff") ends and your
contribution ("new stuff") begins?
Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original
work and interpretation/analysis by you. Break up the introduction
section into logical segments by using subheads.

INTRODUCTION
Common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the earliest cereals ever domesticated and
is currently one of the major sources of food and feed in the world. Wheat is adapted to diverse
climatic zones including drought prone areas (Monneveux et al., 2012). Changes in global climate
and expansion of wheat production to less optimum production zones are causing severe cop losses
annually (Olmstead and Rhode, 2010; Tanaka et al., 2015). Water stress is one of the grand
challenges limiting crop growth and productivity in various parts of the world (Zhao and Dai,
2015). The unabated expansion of global warming and erratic rainfall pattern remain to be threats
for global food security (Wheeler and Von Braun, 2013). Drought stress reduces grain yield largely
depends on the developmental stages during which stress is experienced (Dolferus, 2014). Drought
stress that occurs after anthesis can significantly affect grain filling, thus leading to reduced grain
size (Sanjari Pireivatlou and Yazdansepas, 2010), whereas stress that is experienced before or at
anthesis mainly affects the grain number (Liu et al., 2015).
Wheat is one of the important staple food crops supplying 20% of calories globally (Lobell
and Gourdji, 2012; Shiferaw et al., 2013). Currently, two major wheat species, hexaploid bread
wheat (Triticum aestivum; 2n = 6x = 42) and tetraploid durum wheat (Triticum durum; 2n = 4x =
28), are commercially important. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
has estimated 739.9 million tons of wheat production in 2017
(http://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/csdb/en/). Global wheat yields have increased at a mere
1.0% per year in the past two decades (Manes et al., 2012). Wheat crop is sensitive to heat and
drought stresses mainly at the flowering and grain development stages, which negatively impact
the yield and grain quality (lower 1,000 grain weight and change in protein quality). Annual
production variability estimated at ~40% was mainly due to heat waves and drought situations in
major wheat producing belts throughout the world (Zampieri et al., 2017). Demand for wheat is
estimated to increase by 60% by 2050, but production might go down by 29% as a result of climate
change imposed environmental stresses (Manickavelu et al., 2012). These predictions indicate that
improving abiotic stress tolerance in wheat is paramount for global food security in the near future.
Continued wheat genetic improvement is thus critically important as it has direct impact on
economic development, food security, and international grain trade.
evidence that stay-green phenotypes with delayed leaf senescence can improve their
performance under drought conditions (Lopes and Reynolds, 2012).
The mobilization of seed reserves during germination varies with the amount of reserves
and the species. Starch was present in the highest amount, and its degradation was highest among
the various seed reserves used during germination of Oryza sativa (Palmiano and Juliano, 1972),
Sorghum bicolor (Elmaki et al., 1999), and Avena sativa (Xu et al., 2011) seeds. Protein was
mainly mobilized and used during germination of the legume species Dalbergia nigra (Ataíde et
al., 2013). Seeds of Helianthus annuus (Erbaş et al., 2016) and Sterculia urens (Satyanarayana et
al., 2011) have high protein and oil content, which decreased dramatically during germination of
these two species. Therefore, we hypothesized that the seed reserve present in the highest amount
is the one that is most heavily utilized during germination. Additionally, the various metabolic
processes that occur during germination sense strict start at different times for individual seeds.
Consequently, it is difficult to determine the boundary between germination and seedling growth
for a seed population, as seeds do not complete the germination process synchronously (Gallardo
et al., 2001). In this context, it is worth noting that seeds are known to be extremely heterogeneous
in biochemical terms (Bourgne et al., 2000). Thus, in our study we divided the seed germination
process of six species into different stages, including imbibition, 1% germination, 50%
germination, highest germination and finally the seedling stage to investigate seed reserve
mobilization. Keeping in view the above facts, the present work was planned wheat genotypes
with the following objectives:
i. To study the effect of drought on reserve mobilization of bread wheat.
ii. To assess the effects of drought on yield related attributes wheat.
First
Page
Last
Page

Literature review?
• In short, a dissertation literature review provides a critical assessment
of the sources (literature) you have gathered and read surrounding
your subject area, and then identifies a “gap” in that literature that
your research will attempt to address.
How do you write a dissertation literature review?
1. Identify sources
2. Read your sources
3. Consider gaps in the research

Use sample literature reviews
Have a look at sample dissertation literature reviews in your subject area and read
them thoroughly to familiarise yourself with existing key debates and themes.
Keep it simple
Keep your topic as narrowed down as possible. Remember that there are hundreds –
or in some instances, thousands – of sources or perspectives concerning any subject
area or topic.
Make sure your sources are as current as possible
If you are reviewing scientific work, it’s essential your sources are as current as
possible given the advancements in the field over the years.
Consider the organisation of your work
In a dissertation literature review, organising your work goes beyond having an
introduction, body and conclusion.
Write the paragraphs of the body
Once you have settled on the approach to writing your body, you must now write
each of its paragraphs in a way that is in keeping with academic conventions.
Now you’re well prepared to start putting fingers to keyboard. Consider the
following pointers:

7. Methods
What belongs in the "methods" section of a scientific paper?
• Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your
results.
• Information needed by another researcher to replicate your
experiment.
• Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
• Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.
• Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.
• Desciption of your analystical methods, including reference to any
specialized statistical software.

The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats:
1. Could one accurately replicate the study (for example, all of the optional and
adjustable parameters on any sensors or instruments that were used to acquire the
data)?
2. Could another researcher accurately find and reoccupy the sampling stations or
track lines?
3. Is there enough information provided about any instruments used so that a
functionally equivalent instrument could be used to repeat the experiment?
4. If the data are in the public domain, could another researcher lay his or her hands
on the identical data set?
5. Could one replicate any laboratory analyses that were used?
6. Could one replicate any statistical analyses?
7. Could another researcher approximately replicate the key algorithms of any
computer software?
Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of where to
find more complete descriptions of procedures.
Do not include descriptions of results.

MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present investigation was aimed at the “Effect of drought stress on stem reserve
mobilization in wheat (Triticum aestivum)”. The experiment was conducted in the pot house and
laboratory of the Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Baba Mastnath University, Rohtak.
MATERIAL
Plant Material
Seeds of following four wheat genotypes were procured from Wheat and Barley Section
of Department Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS HAU.
Genotypes
1. AKAW 3717 2. C-396 3. DHTW-60 4. KUNDAN
METHODS
Raising of crop
The crop was raised in normal and drought. Drought was created by withholding the
irrigation at anthesis.
No of Pot : 24 (4 genotype × 3 replication × 2 environment )
Experimental
Design
: CRD (Complete Randomized Block Design)
Replication : Three
Sowing Time : 17 November, 2019
Treatment : Control (Irrigated)
Drought (withhold irrigation)
OBSERVATIONS RECORDED
The data was recorded on three plants per genotype.
PHENOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
1. Days to heading: It was calculated as days taken from sowing to emergence of 75 %
spikes in a pot.
2. Days to anthesis: It was calculated as days taken from sowing to appearance of 75
% anthesis in pot.
YIELD AND YIELD ATTRIBUTES
1. Plant height (cm): The plant height of three plants from each genotype per
replication was recorded at maturity, as the length measured from its base up to the
apex of plant excluding awns in cm and average was recorded.
2. Number of spikelets per spike: The total number of spikelets/spike was counted
at maturity from five main spikes of each genotype per replication.
3. Spike length (cm): The spike length was recorded in cm at maturity in the main
spike from five randomly chosen plants of each genotype per replication excluding
awns and average was worked out.
4. No. of productive tillers per plant: Fully developed spikes bearing tillers per plant
were counted at maturity and average was recorded.
5. Biomass (g) per plant: Plants were cut from the base of stem at maturity and
weight of plants was taken using spring balance in grams and average was taken.
6. Number of grains per spike: Total numbers of grains in five spikes in each
replication were counted at the time of harvest and average of five was recorded.
7. Grain weight (g) per spike: The weight of total grains per spike from five spikes
in each replication was taken in grams and average of five was recorded.
8. Grain yield (g) per plant: Grain yield was recorded after harvesting and threshing
the plants in per meter square. The threshed grains were cleaned and yield was
recorded in gram.
9. 1000 grain weight (g): Weight of randomly chosen clean and filled 1000 grains
was measured in grams from each replication using electronic balance and average
was recorded.
Statistical analysis
The data was analyzed by analysis of variance for the complete randomized block design
(CRBD) using OPSTAT software available on www. http// hau. ernet.in home page (Sheoran et
al. 1998) where each observation was replicated thrice and CD at 5 % was calculated.

8. Results
• The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and
graphs.
• Indicate information on range of variation.
• Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results - save that for
the discussion.
• Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw
their own inferences and construct their own explanations.
• Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis.
• Break up your results into logical segments by using subheadings
Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of paragraphs. It is
far better to say "X had significant positive relationship with Y (linear regression
p<0.01, r^2=0.79)" then to start with a less informative like "There is a significant
relationship between X and Y". Describe the nature of the findings; do not just tell
the reader whether or not they are significant.

PRESENTATION OF DATA
• Present the findings of the study in the
order of the specific problem as stated in
the statement of the Problem.
• Present the data in these forms:
Tabular
Textual
Graphical (optional)

ANALYSIS OF DATA
• Data may be analyzed quantitatively or
qualitatively depending on the level of
measurement and the number of
dimensions and variables of the study.
• Analyze in depth to give meaning to the
data presented in the data presented in
the table. Avoid table reading.
• State statistical descriptions in
declarative sentences, e.g. in the studies
involving:

INTERPRETATION OF DATA
• Establish interconnection between and among
data
• Check for indicators whether hypothesis/es is/are
supported or not by findings.
• Link the present findings with the previous
literature.
• Use parallel observations with contemporary
events to give credence presented in the
introduction.
The varying scales of data interpretation:
• Nominal Scale: non-numeric categories that cannot be ranked or compared quantitatively. Variables are
exclusive and exhaustive.
• Ordinal Scale: exclusive categories that are exclusive and exhaustive but with a logical order. Quality
ratings and agreement ratings are examples of ordinal scales (i.e., good, very good, fair, etc., OR agree,
strongly agree, disagree, etc.).
• Interval: a measurement scale where data is grouped into categories with orderly and equal distances
between the categories. There is always an arbitrary zero point.
• Ratio: contains features of all three.

9. Discussion
The discussion chapter is where you delve into the meaning, importance and relevance of
your results. It should focus on explaining and evaluating what you found, showing how it
relates to your literature review and research questions, and making an argument in
support of your overall conclusion. There are many different ways to write this section,
but you can focus your discussion around four key elements:
 Interpretations: what do the results mean?
 Implications: why do the results matter?
 Limitations: what can’t the results tell us?
 Recommendations: what practical actions or scientific studies should follow?
There is often overlap between the discussion and conclusion, and in some dissertations
these two sections are included in a single chapter. Occasionally, the results and
discussion will be combined into one chapter. If you’re unsure of the best structure for
your research, look at sample dissertations in your field or consult your supervisor.

The common mistakes people make when writing their discussion
1. Simply repeating their results section, with little reference to existing literature.
2. Making conclusions that cannot be made from their data — you need to be able to
differentiate between strong and weak results (do not exaggerate your findings).
3. Focusing too much on the limitations of the study, which can make readers question the
relevance of the work. In contrast, some can completely forget to acknowledge the
limitations of their study.
4. Repeating what was already said in the introduction without linking it to the results.
5. Providing no conclusions.
6. Introducing topics that were not covered by the study’s results/findings.
7. To avoid these mistakes, bear in mind that in your discussion section you are expected to
interpret and explain your results, link them to other studies, answer your research
question(s) and evaluate your study. You can consider following this sequence:
(1) refer to your research question;
(2) provide the answer;
(3) justify it with relevant results;
(4) link your work to the work of others.

10. Summary & Conclusions
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
• This describes the problem, research
design, and the findings (answer to
the questions raised). The
recommended format is the
paragraph form instead of the
enumeration form.
• For each of the problems, present:
The salient findings,
The results of the hypothesis tested
CONCLUSIONS
 These are brief, generalized statements in
answer to the general and each of the specific
sub-problems.
 These contain generalized in relation to the
population. These are general inferences
applicable to a wider and similar population.
 Flexibility is considered in making of
conclusions. It is not a must to state
conclusions on a one-to-one correspondence
with the problems and the findings as all
variables can be subsume in one paragraph.
 Conclusions may be used as generalizations
from a micro to a macro-level or vice versa
(ZOOM LENS approach).

11. Recommendations
Recommendations are used to call for action or solutions to the problems
you have investigated in your research paper. Your recommendations
highlight specific solutions and measures to be implemented based on the
findings of your research.
• Here are a few guidelines to enable you to write a good recommendation
for your research paper.
1. They should be based on the findings and conclusion of the study.
2. Recommendations may be specific or general or both. They may
include suggestions for further studies.
3. They should be in non-technical language.
4. They should be feasible, workable, flexible, doable, adaptable.

12. Acknowledgments
The dissertation acknowledgements section is where you thank those who have helped
and supported you during the research and writing process. This includes both
professional and personal acknowledgements.
How to write acknowledgements
1. You can use the following examples of common sentences in acknowledgements to
get started:
2. I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Nirala Singh, for his guidance through
each stage of the process.
3. I would like to acknowledge Professor Dr. Pyarelal for inspiring my interest in the
development of innovative technologies.
4. My research partner and friends, Sonu, Monu, Teena and Meena was instrumental
in defining the path of my research. For this, I am extremely grateful.
5. If you are really stuck, simply begin each sentence with “I would like to thank…”,
and elaborate on how each person or group contributed.
You do not need to write any sort of conclusion or summary at the end. You can end the
acknowledgements with your last thank you.

13. References
The Bibliography or List of References appears after the Body of the Document. It is
a complete listing of all cited resources used to create your document. Even though
Journal Model authors may have individual Reference sections for each article, this
complete Reference list of all citations must appear at the end of the entire manuscript.
The basics of a Reference List entry for an unpublished thesis:
1. Author. The surname is followed by first initials.
2. Year.
3. Title (in single inverted commas).
4. Level of Thesis.
5. University.
6. City.
Example of unpublished thesis:
Kyei-Nimakoh, M 2017, ‘Management and referral of obstetric
complications: a study in the upper east region of Ghana’, PhD
thesis, Victoria University, Melbourne.

14. Appendices
Appendices serve as a space for materials that help clarify your research, but do not belong in the
main text. It is not required to include an Appendix. Include one or more if you need to.
Items that might be included:
1. Letters receiving permission to reproduce or adapt images, instruments for research, or other
copyrighted materials.
2. Copies of IRB’s.
3. Survey questionnaires that you have created.
4. Tables, figures, or instruments that do not belong in the main text.
5. Talk to your advisor if you have material that you are not certain about. They should be able to
provide guidance about what should be included in an Appendix. Also, consult your chosen style
guide about and appropriate content and formatting considerations.
CHECKLIST FOR APPENDIX
I. Contains a copy of the IRB (if one was required for research).
II. Contains copies of any copyright permissions if any were needed.
III. Tables and figures are labeled appropriately according to style guide.
IV. If there are more than one Appendices they should be labeled A, B, C...

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