Hybrid islanding detection method based on the rate of change of frequency and load impedance

Bulletin of Electrical Engineering and Informatics
Vol. 10, No. 6, December 2021, pp. 2997~3006
ISSN: 2302-9285, DOI: 10.11591/eei.v10i6.3246 2997
Journal homepage: http://beei.org
Hybrid islanding detection method based on the rate of change
of frequency and load impedance
Hasmaini Mohamad, Zuhaila Mat Yasin, Nur Ashida Salim, Bibi Norasiqin Sheikh Rahimullah,
Kanendra Naidu
School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
Malaysia
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Jun 7, 2021
Revised Aug 24, 2021
Accepted Oct 8, 2021
Interconnection of distributed generation (DG) in distribution system will
result in formation of islands in the event of loss of main supply. This scenario
is harmful to the power system, hence quick detection is critical to halt the
formation of islands. Among the common passive and active detection
methods available, the hybrid detection method is identified as the most
reliable method. This paper proposes a new hybrid method using the
combination of passive and active technique which is the rate of change of
frequency (ROCOF) and load impedance, respectively. The passive method
works when the value of ROCOF exceeds the threshold value which is set at
0.3Hz/s. The active method works when it detects low value of ROCOF and
immediately inject a pre-specified load into the system to increase the
ROCOF value up to its threshold value. Simulation study on different case
studies is carried out on distribution test system to evaluate the performance
of the proposed method. Results show that this method is effective in
detecting any events that could result in islanding.
Keywords:
Distributed generation
Islanding detection
Load impedance
Rate of change of frequency
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Hasmaini Mohamad
School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Email: hasmaini@uitm.edu.my
1. INTRODUCTION
Distributed generation (DG) is a small-scale power generation technology installed in the vicinity of
the end users in order to produce electricity. DGs cover any net metered or commercial-scale generation that
is connected to the grid at the distribution level. DGs are important as they offer many benefits to the power
system such as enhancing the efficiency of electricity supply, reducing distribution and transmission losses
and delivering clean and sustainable power to the customers. However, there is a technical issue called
islanding which occurs when DG continues supplying power to a part of the distribution system eventhough
the connection to the grid is interrupted during catastrophic event.
Islanding can be either intentional or unintentional islanding. Intentional islanding is a properly
planned process to improve the system reliability where DG continuously supply power to critical loads in
the event of power supply failure from the grid. Readiness of an advanced control scheme in ensuring a
smooth changes from grid connected to islanding mode of operation is required. With the controller in place,
the grid can sectionalize itself by allowing the DG to supply the islands’ load until the main power supply is
re-established. On the other hand, unintentional islanding may result in damaging the DG since it operates
without proper control mechanism for islanding [1]. Similarly, this is hazardous for utility workers working
in the distribution system who are unaware that the network is still operational. This situation usually occurs

 ISSN: 2302-9285
Bulletin of Electr Eng & Inf, Vol. 10, No. 6, December 2021 : 2997 – 3006
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when the power is being fed via the DG to the system during loss of main supply form the grid . The
exposure to live system can be fatal to the utility workers [2]. Therefore, DG’s protection scheme has to
detect the islanding situation and immediately disconnect DG from the network. This is referred to as
islanding detection method.
Islanding detection methods for both intentional and unintentional islanding are generally classiﬁed
into local and remote methods. Local method can be further categorized into active and passive methods
while remote method is based on communication between the utility and the DGs [3]. Passive method
identifies islanding by monitoring the parameters such as frequency, voltage, current, active power, reactive
power and harmonic distortion. Many techniques were subsequently introduced with various combination of
parameters and settings such as rate of change of positive and negative sequence component [4], rate of
change of frequency (ROCOF) [5], rate of change of output power [6], rate of change of voltage and changes
in power factors [7], voltage unbalance and total harmonic distortion of current [8] and combinations of four
passive parameters [9]. The very recent research considered load angle and mechanical power parameters
[10], undervoltage block function [11] and sensitivity of different passive parameters [12]. When the
distribution system is islanded, these parameters are significantly affected. Detection relies on the threshold
setting for each parameter which will discriminate islanding and non-islanding type of disturbance. However,
islanding is difficult to detect when there is minimal power mismatch between generation and load in the
islanded system. If the threshold values is too high, islanding might not be detected while if the threshold
values is too low, it could result in false tripping of DG.
The weakness of the passive method can be complemented by active method, which can detect the
occurrences of islanding even under zero power imbalance between generation and load. Active method
identifies a grid failure or islanding by injecting a small signal into the system. This method is applicable for
inverter based DGs. Methods such as active positive feedback islanding detection schemes [13], DC/AC
inverter acting as virtual capacitor [14], frequency dependent ZIP–Exponential static load model [15],
impedance-based analysis of the active frequency drift (AFD) [16], d-axis current injection [17], islanding
detection index based on resistance seen from the SSSG terminal with respect to the angular frequency [18]
and high-frequency signal injection for multiple parallel-connected inverters based DG [19]. These methods
outperforms the passive method but are rather expensive and pose power quality deterioration.
The recent trend of islanding detection using intelligent based and hybrid methods where both
associated with passive and/or active method. Intelligent method is based on the application of artificial
neural network (ANN), fuzzy logic control (FLC), evolutionary programming (EP), decision tree (DT) [20],
adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) [21], and support vector machine (SVM) [22]. These
methods help to classify islanding/non islanding events based on training and testing data obtained from the
simulation/experiment conducted on the test system. Testing on different types of faults based on passive
parameter is rigorously carried out to generate huge amount of data. As a result, the classification is accurate
with a nearly zero non-detection zone (NDZ) and detection is reached in a very short time. However, any
changes made on the test system such as network expansion, will cause the need of a new set training data for
classification process.
Introduction of hybrid islanding detection method [23] can overcome the shortcomings in passive or
active method approach. It combines the advantages of both method to offer more effective result compared
to passive/active method alone. Hybrid method proposed in the literatures considered combination of voltage
unbalance and frequency set point [24], average rate of voltage change and real power shift [25], voltage
unbalance (VU) and high-frequency (HF) impedance [26], dynamic characteristics of synchronous generator
and signal processing technique [27], voltage unbalance and total harmonic distortion (VU/THD) and
bilateral reactive power variation (BRPV) [28], rate of change of exciter voltage (RCEV) and open-close
circuit breaker (OCCB) at a DG connection point [29]. In addition, there is also a new approach of hybrid
method using combination of active, passive and communication technique [30]. Each method has different
detection performance depending on the chosen combination. The active technique is normally adopted when
passive technique alone is unable to detect islanding scenario particularly during minimal power mismatch.
So far, the hybrid method employs the combination of a new type of passive method with an advanced active
method. However, the research work on hybrid method using the ROCOF which is commonly adopted by
utility companies has not been explored in detail. This is important as a comprehensive investigation is
required on the practicality of applying proposed hybrid method to existing islanding detection technique.
This paper proposes a new hybrid method which combines ROCOF as the passive method and
injection of load impedance as the active method. ROCOF is chosen since it is commonly used as the main
protection system in distribution system. ROCOF operates when it detects islanding based on the rate of
changes of frequency that exceeds the threshold limit. The load impedance is injected to the system when it
detects a small value of ROCOF. The injection will increase the value of ROCOF up to the specified limit.
This will ensure that the islanding detection is successful even there is a small power mismatch. The main

Bulletin of Electr Eng & Inf ISSN: 2302-9285 
Hybrid islanding detection method based on the rate of change of frequency … (Hasmaini Mohamad)
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contributions of this studies are: 1) quick islanding detection which is less than 20ms, 2) effective detection
of islanding and non-islanding event, and 3) employs a simple method using standard parameter
measurement. This method is modelled and simulated using PSCAD/EMTDC simulation tools. In order to
evaluate this method, there are seven case studies introduced which are loss of main, fault at adjacent line
(single line to ground fault, line to line to ground fault, and three phase fault) and fault near to DG (single
line to ground fault, line to line to ground fault, and three phase fault). This paper is organized as follows in
which the proposed hybrid detection method and test system are elaborated in section 2, result and discussion
are explained in section 3 and finally conclusion is drawn in section 4.
2. RESEARCH METHOD
The hybrid islanding detection method applied in this study uses ROCOF as a passive method and
the injection of load impedance as the active method. The modelling of the proposed method and test system
are described in the following section.
2.1. Modeling proposed method
Two modules comprising of active and passive method are developed for the proposed hybrid
method as depicted in Figure 1. Passive and active module are located in the DG protection unit and at the
generator bus, respectively.
Figure 1. Principal operation of the proposed method
The development concept of the hybrid method is shown in Figure 2. The passive method module is
used to continuously monitor the ROCOF value which is taken from the speed measurement of DG. The
proposed method detects any islanding event whenever the ROCOF value exceeds the specified threshold. A
tripping signal is subsequently sent to circuit breaker of the DG’s protection system thus prohibiting the DG
from supplying the load. Active method module will only be activated to inject an additional load to the
system whenever it detects ROCOF value less than the threshold value. Details of the islanding detection
process is described in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Block diagram of the proposed method

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The process starts with the determination of frequency from the speed measurement of DG. Then,
derivative component is used to calculate the rate of change of frequency (ROCOF). The active and passive
method are designed specifically for detection purposes considering the ROCOF as the input. The script for
designing the module is written using FORTRAN programming language. The passive module is designed
based on the comparison between the calculated ROCOF value and ROCOF threshold setting. Detection
module will be triggered once the ROCOF value surpass the threshold value. The common setting for
ROCOF threshold is between 0.1Hz/s to 1Hz/s [12]. In this study, the threshold value of 0.3Hz/s is used.
Meanwhile, the output of the active method module will send a signal to inject a load with a value of 330kW
to the system when the magnitude of the calculated ROCOF is less than 0.3Hz/s. The value of the injected
load cannot be too high because it will cause system interference. The value of 330kW is deemed suitable for
the system is determined from several tests conducted for LOM as recorded in Table 1. The value of active
load highly depends on the power imbalance the moment system experiences disturbance. Lower power
imbalance of less than 270MW, would require an injection of a large load value of 540kW. High value of
load is infeasible for islanding detection purposes as it would incur high cost. The load injection for power
imbalance greater than 280MW would result in a steep increase of ROCOF value to more than 0.3Hz/s,
hence triggering islanding detection mechanism and subsequently the DG breaker is tripped.
Figure 3. Flow chart of the proposed islanding detection method
Table 1. Analysis of the islanding detection on different range of ∆P for various load values
Range of ∆P(kW) Load(kW) Detect Islanding Preferable
90–270 150kW ×
330kW ×
540kW ✓ Prefer
280–430 150kW ×
330kW ✓ Prefer
540kW ✓
440–540 150kW ✓ Prefer
330kW ✓
540kW ✓
2.2. Test network
The test system shown in Figure 4 was modelled using PSCAD software. The 7-bus system operates
at 50Hz, 33kV, and includes a 100MVA generator as main supply. As shown in the Figure 4, there are two
step-down transformers of 33/11 kV and 11/3.3 kV rated at 20MVA and 2MVA respectively. The 2MVA

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transformer is placed at the end of the distribution line where DG is located. The DG is modelled as a hydro
turbine generator rated at 2 MVA. The loads connected to the system are static loads.
Figure 4. 7-bus test system
3. RESULT AND ANALYSIS
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed method, three case studies are simulated based
on the 7-bus test system. The three case studies are:
− Case 1: Loss of main
− Case 2: Various fault at line connected to DG (DG Line)
− Case 3: Various fault at line adjacent to DG at line 4-5
The faults considered in this study are single line to ground fault, line to line to ground fault, and three phase
fault. Case 1 which is loss of main, a signal is sent to open breaker A to disconnect the main supply at t = 10
seconds. Case 2, three different types of faults are applied at line connected to DG as indicated in Figure 4.
As for case 3, three different types of faults are applied at adjacent line (line 4-5) as indicated in Figure 4.
Results for the three case studies are tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Breaker trip status for all three cases
Cases Type of Events Breaker B Condition
1 Loss of main TRIP
2 Single line to ground fault TRIP
Line to line to ground fault TRIP
Three phase faults TRIP
3 Single line to ground fault NOT TRIP
Line to line to ground fault NOT TRIP
Three phase faults NOT TRIP
3.1. Loss of main
The system frequency immediately increases in response to the disconnection of main grid from the
distribution network. Based on Figure 5, the frequency of DG increases until it hits 71Hz then gradually
drops to 30Hz. The frequency increment contributes to the increment of the ROCOF value. As can be seen in
Figure 6, the ROCOF reading at t=10 seconds exceeds the ROCOF threshold which has been set at 0.3Hz/s.
As a result, a signal is sent to trip the breaker B. The islanding detection mechanism verifies that loss of main
is islanding scenario and proceeds to trip breaker B causing the DG to shut down. The change of active
power due to the islanding caused the frequency drops and unstable. Only passive method works for this case
since the ROCOF value is greater than the threshold value. The high value of frequency and df/dt is due to a
large power imbalance between generation and load the moment system is disconnected from the main.

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Figure 5. Frequency of DG for loss of main Figure 6. ROCOF measurement for loss of main
3.2. Fault at DG line
As mentioned earlier, three types of faults are simulated which are three phase fault, single line to
ground fault, and line to line to ground fault. The fault is simulated at t=10 seconds with 0.05 seconds of fault
duration. For all type of faults, the reading of ROCOF exceeds the ROCOF’s threshold value which causes
breaker B to trip. Figures 7 and 8 shows the frequency response and ROCOF value respectively when a
three-phase fault is applied to the system. Eventhough the fault duration is very short, huge impact to the
system frequency can be seen following the fault. The response is almost similar to the response due to loss
of main. The hybrid module manages to successfully detect the islanding scenario due to the fault location
location is near to DG which contributes to the high ROCOF value.
Figure 7. Frequency of DG for three phase fault Figure 8. ROCOF measurement for three phase fault
3.3. Fault at adjacent line (line 4-5)
The adjacent line is located at the same bus with the DG line. The fault setting is set similar to case
2. Results show that breaker B does not trip for all three types of faults. The system frequency stays at 50Hz
following the fault as shown in Figure 9 (a). This causes the ROCOF to remain at zero value even after fault
as shown in Figure 9 (b). The fault does not impact the system since it is applied at the load side as it does
not interfere the power flow from power supply to DG.
(a) (b)
Figure 9. These figures are; (a) frequency, (b) ROCOF measurement for three phase faults at adjacent line1
3.4. Comparative analysis
Comparative analysis is carried out to analyse the advantage of having an active method in the
proposed hybrid method. Simulation is performed for case 1 by using two different detection method: 1)
passive method and 2) hybrid method module. The simulation is carried out for a small value of power
mismatch, ∆P. Based on results shown in Figure 10, the reading of ROCOF for passive method does not even

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reach the threshold value since ∆P is small. However, with the proposed hybrid method which combines
passive and active method, the injection of load impedance from active method pushes the reading of
ROCOF to reach the threshold value. As a result, the proposed method able to detect islanding for a small
value of power imbalance as recorded in Table 3. This proves that the hybrid detection method gives better
performance than passive method in detecting islanding event. Moreover, non-detection zone (NDZ), which
is one of the most important criteria for islanding detection method is also assessed in identifying the area
that both methods fail to detect islanding scenario. Rigorous testing is carried out to identify an accurate NDZ
for both methods. The NDZ shown in Figure 11 obviously differentiate the accuracy of detection for both
methods where the hybrid method has a smaller NDZ compared to the passive method. The result indicates
that more islanding events can be detected by hybrid method compared to passive method, thus increasing
the islanding detection reliability. In terms of detection time, the proposed hybrid method would detect
islanding event in 35 ms and 70 ms for passive and hybrid method respectively. This indicates that the
proposed method is better compared to other methods listed in Table 4. However, in real world application,
the time taken may vary accordingly depending on the signal and communication delay.
Figure 10. Comparison of ROCOF between hybrid method and passive method
Table 3. Result of loss of main with hybrid and passive method
Cases Breaker B Condition
Loss of main Hybrid Method TRIP
Passive Method NOT TRIP
Figure 11. NDZ for ROCOF and hybrid methods
Table 4. Comparative analysis on islanding detection time
Detection Method Detection time (ms)
Undervoltage block function [11] 136.2
Voltage Unbalance and Total Harmonic Distortion of Current [8] 129
Rate of Change of Exciter Voltage with Circuit Breaker Switching Strategy [29] 100 (passive)
300 (hybrid)
Proposed method 35 (passive)
70 (hybrid)

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4. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a hybrid islanding detection method by using the rate of change of frequency
(ROCOF) and the injection of load impedance. Several case studies have been simulated on the test
distribution system to assess the effectiveness of the proposed method. Results proved that the method
effectively detected all event that could result in islanding. Comparison studies including the NDZ
assessment with the passive method further validated the islanding detection performance of the hybrid
method.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the Ministry of Higher Education and Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Malaysia under FRGS research grant (Grant Code: 600-IRMI/FRGS 5/3(090/2019)).
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Hasmaini Mohamad received the B.Eng., M.Eng., and Ph.D. degrees from the University of
Malaya, in 1999, 2004, and 2013, respectively. She started her career as a lecturer in Universiti
Teknologi MARA in 2003 where currently she is an Associate Professor at the School of
Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering. Apart from that, she has published more than
50 journal papers including high impact ISI journals and 20 conference papers. Her major
research interest includes islanding operation of distributed generation, hydro generation, load
sharing technique, and load shedding scheme.
Zuhaila Mat Yasin graduated from Universiti Sains Malaysia with honours degree in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering in 1998. She obtained her MSc degree in 2008 and PhD
degree in 2015 from Universiti Teknologi MARA. She is currently a senior lecturer at
Universiti Teknologi MARA. Her research interest includes power system operation,
optimization, distributed generation, Artificial Intelligence and smart grid system.

 ISSN: 2302-9285
3006
Nur Ashida Salim received her PhD in Electrical Engineering from Universiti Teknologi
MARA in 2015, Master in Engineering (Power System & Electrical Energy) from Universiti
Malaya in 2006 and Bachelor in Electrical Engineering (Hons.) from Universiti Teknologi
MARA in 2003. She is currently an Associate Professor at the School of Electrical
Engineering, College of Engineering Universiti Teknologi MARA. Her research includes
power system reliability, power system planning, power system stability, power system asset
management and other related areas. To date, she has published more than 40 journal articles
and many proceeding papers.
Bibi Norasiqin Sheikh Rahimullah obtained her MSC in Electrical Power Engineering from
University of Strathclyde, UK in 1992. She is currently attached with College of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia as an Associate Professor. She
has authored and co-authored various proceeding and journal papers in electrical engineering
and education field.
Kanendra Naidu received the master’s and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the
University of Malaya, in 2011 and 2015, respectively. He is currently a Senior Lecturer with
the Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam. His research interest includes electrical
engineering specializing in the implementation of artificial intelligence in power systems. He
also has strong working experience in a variety of evolutionary and swarm-based optimization
techniques, graph theory, wavelet transform, and artificial neural networks.

Hybrid islanding detection method based on the rate of change of frequency and load impedance

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Hybrid islanding detection method based on the rate of change of frequency and load impedance