3. 3
If you are given the following circuit, are
If you are given the following circuit, are
there any other alternative(s) to determine
there any other alternative(s) to determine
the voltage across 2
the voltage across 2
resistor?
resistor?
What are they? And how?
Can you work it out by inspection?
4.1 Motivation (1)
4.1 Motivation (1)
4. 4
4.2 Linearity Property (1)
4.2 Linearity Property (1)
It is the property of an element describing a linear relationship
between cause and effect.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or
directly proportional) to its input.
Homogeneity (scaling) property
v = i R → k v = k i R
Additive property
v1 = i1 R and v2 = i2 R
→ v = (i1 + i2) R = v1 + v2
5. 5
4.2 Linearity Property (2)
4.2 Linearity Property (2)
Example 1
By assume Io = 1 A, use linearity to find the actual value of Io in the
circuit shown below.
*Refer to in-class illustration, text book, answer Io = 3A
6. 6
4.3 Superposition Theorem (1)
4.3 Superposition Theorem (1)
It states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltage across (or currents
through) that element due to EACH independent
source acting alone.
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze
a linear circuit with more than one independent
source by calculating the contribution of each
independent source separately.
7. 7
We consider the effects of 8A and 20V one
by one, then add the two effects together
for final vo.
4.3 Superposition Theorem (2)
4.3 Superposition Theorem (2)
8. 8
4.3 Superposition Theorem (3)
4.3 Superposition Theorem (3)
Steps to apply superposition principle
1. Turn off all independent sources except one
source. Find the output (voltage or current)
due to that active source using nodal or
mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding
algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
9. 9
4.3 Superposition Theorem (4)
4.3 Superposition Theorem (4)
Two things have to be keep in mind:
1. When we say turn off all other independent
sources:
Independent voltage sources are replaced
by 0 V (short circuit) and
Independent current sources are replaced
by 0 A (open circuit).
2. Dependent sources are left intact because
they are controlled by circuit variables.
10. 10
4.3 Superposition Theorem (5)
4.3 Superposition Theorem (5)
Example 2
Use the superposition theorem to find
v in the circuit shown below.
3A is discarded
by open-circuit
6V is discarded
by short-circuit
*Refer to in-class illustration, text book, answer v = 10V
11. 11
4.3 Superposition Theorem (6)
4.3 Superposition Theorem (6)
Example 3
Use superposition to find vx in
the circuit below.
*Refer to in-class illustration, text book, answer Vx = 12.5V
2A is discarded by
open-circuit
20 v1
4
10 V
+
(a)
0.1v1
4
2 A
(b)
20
0.1v2
v2
10V is discarded
by open-circuit
Dependant source
keep unchanged
12. 12
4.4 Source Transformation (1)
4.4 Source Transformation (1)
• An equivalent circuit is one whose v-i
characteristics are identical with the
original circuit.
• It is the process of replacing a voltage
source vS in series with a resistor R by a
current source iS in parallel with a resistor
R, or vice versa.
13. 13
4.4 Source Transformation (2)
4.4 Source Transformation (2)
(a) Independent source transform
(b) Dependent source transform
•The arrow of the
current source is
directed toward
the positive
terminal of the
voltage source.
•The source
transformation is
not possible when
R = 0 for voltage
source and R = ∞
for current source.
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
14. 14
4.4 Source Transformation (3)
4.4 Source Transformation (3)
Example 4
Find io in the circuit shown below using source transformation.
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, answer io = 1.78A
15. 15
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (1)
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (1)
It states that a linear two-terminal
circuit (Fig. a) can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit (Fig. b) consisting
of a voltage source VTH in series with
a resistor RTH,
where
• VTH is the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals.
• RTH is the input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
16. 16
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (2)
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (2)
Example 5
Using Thevenin’s theorem,
find the equivalent circuit to
the left of the terminals in
the circuit shown below.
Hence find i.
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, answer VTH = 6V, RTH = 3, i = 1.5A
6
4
(a)
RTh
6
2A
6
4
(b)
6 2A
+
VTh
17. 17
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (3)
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem (3)
Example 6
Find the Thevenin equivalent
circuit of the circuit shown
below to the left of the
terminals.
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, answer VTH = 5.33V, RTH = 3
6 V
5 Ix
4
+
(a)
1.5Ix
i1
i2
i1 i2
3
o
+
VTh
b
a
1.5Ix 1 V
+
3
0.5I
x
5
(b)
a
b
4
Ix
i
18. 18
4.6 Norton’s Theorem (1)
4.6 Norton’s Theorem (1)
It states that a linear two-terminal circuit
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
of a current source IN in parallel with a
resistor RN,
Where
• IN is the short circuit current through
the terminals.
• RN is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
The Thevenin’s and Norton equivalent circuits are
related by a source transformation.
19. 19
4.6 Norton’s Theorem (2)
4.6 Norton’s Theorem (2)
Example 7
Find the Norton equivalent
circuit of the circuit shown
below.
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, RN = 1, IN = 10A.
2
(a)
6
2vx
+
+
vx
+
vx
1V
+
ix
i
2
(b)
6 10 A
2vx
+
+
vx
Isc
20. 20
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer (1)
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer (1)
L
Th
TH
L
R
V
P
R
R
4
2
max
If the entire circuit is replaced by
its Thevenin equivalent except for
the load, the power delivered to
the load is:
The power transfer profile with
different RL
For maximum power dissipated
in RL, Pmax, for a given RTH,
and VTH,
L
L
Th
Th
L R
R
R
V
R
i
P
2
2
21. 21
Example 8
Determine the value of RL that will
draw the maximum power from
the rest of the circuit shown below.
Calculate the maximum power.
2
4
1 V
+
(a)
1
3vx
+
i
v0
+
vx
9 V
+
io
1 +
VTh
+
3vx
2
+
vx 4
(b)
Fig. a
=> To determine RTH
Fig. b
=> To determine VTH
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook, RL = 4.22, Pm = 2.901W
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer (2)
4.7 Maximum Power Transfer (2)
