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Lecture 2 individual differences & behaviors

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Zainab Khan

This document discusses individual behavior and differences. It notes that understanding individual differences requires observing and recognizing differences, studying variables that influence behavior, and discovering relationships among variables. Key areas that influence individual behavior are abilities and skills, demographics like gender and culture, and psychological variables such as perception, attribution, attitudes, personality, and emotional intelligence. The document provides examples of how these factors can influence behaviors and outcomes in organizational settings.

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Copyright © 2003 by TheCopyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Individual Behavior andIndividual Behavior and DifferencesDifferences
4 -4 - 22McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Study ofThe Study of OrganizationalOrganizational BehaviorBehavior PsychologyPsychology SociologySociology Social PsychologySocial Psychology AnthropologyAnthropology Political SciencePolitical Science
4 -4 - 33McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Behavior FrameworkIndividual Behavior Framework The Environment The Individual Behaviors Outcomes
4 -4 - 44McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. To understand individual differences,To understand individual differences, managers must:managers must:  Observe and recognize the differencesObserve and recognize the differences  Study variables that influence individualStudy variables that influence individual behaviorbehavior  Discover relationships among the variablesDiscover relationships among the variables
4 -4 - 55McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Key questions to help managers focus onKey questions to help managers focus on performance problems:performance problems:  Does the employee have the skills and abilities toDoes the employee have the skills and abilities to perform the job?perform the job?  Does the employee have the necessaryDoes the employee have the necessary resources to perform the job?resources to perform the job?  Is the employee aware of the performanceIs the employee aware of the performance problem?problem?  When did the performance problem surface?When did the performance problem surface?  How do the employee’s co-workers react to theHow do the employee’s co-workers react to the performance problem?performance problem?  What can I do as a manager to alleviate theWhat can I do as a manager to alleviate the performance problem?performance problem?
4 -4 - 66McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Differences: Abilities and SkillsIndividual Differences: Abilities and Skills  AbilityAbility  A biological or learned trait that permits aA biological or learned trait that permits a person to do something mental or physical.person to do something mental or physical.  SkillsSkills  Task-related competencies.Task-related competencies.  Job AnalysisJob Analysis  Process of defining and studying a job inProcess of defining and studying a job in terms of behavior and specifying educationterms of behavior and specifying education and training needed to perform the job.and training needed to perform the job.
4 -4 - 77McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Ability and IntellectAbility and Intellect Ability An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Intellectual Ability The capacity to do mental activities.
4 -4 - 88McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin • Number aptitude • Verbal comprehension • Perceptual speed • Inductive reasoning • Deductive reasoning • Spatial (occupying space) visualization • Memory • Number aptitude • Verbal comprehension • Perceptual speed • Inductive reasoning • Deductive reasoning • Spatial (occupying space) visualization • Memory Dimensions of Intellectual AbilityDimensions of Intellectual Ability Home AssignmentHome Assignment
4 -4 - 99McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Physical AbilitiesPhysical Abilities The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity (good physical coordination ), strength, and similar characteristics.
4 -4 - 1010McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Other Factors 7. Body coordination 8. Balance 9. Stamina Other Factors 7. Body coordination 8. Balance 9. Stamina Nine Physical AbilitiesNine Physical Abilities Strength Factors 1. Dynamic strength 2. Trunk strength 3. Static strength 4. Explosive strength Strength Factors 1. Dynamic strength 2. Trunk strength 3. Static strength 4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility 6. Dynamic flexibility Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility 6. Dynamic flexibility Home AssignmentHome Assignment
4 -4 - 1111McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Ability-Job Fit The Ability-The Ability-Job FitJob Fit Employee’sEmployee’s AbilitiesAbilities Job’s AbilityJob’s Ability RequirementsRequirements
4 -4 - 1212McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Differences: DemographicsIndividual Differences: Demographics GenderGender DifferencesDifferences Racial andRacial and CulturalCultural DiversityDiversity
4 -4 - 1313McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Psychological VariablesIndividual Psychological Variables PerceptionPerception AttributionAttribution AttitudesAttitudesPersonalityPersonality EmotionalEmotional IntelligenceIntelligence
4 -4 - 1414McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Perception –Perception – The process byThe process by which an individual giveswhich an individual gives meaning to the environment.meaning to the environment. It involves organizing andIt involves organizing and interpreting various stimuli into ainterpreting various stimuli into a psychological experience.psychological experience.
4 -4 - 1515McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Examples of how perception influencesExamples of how perception influences behavior:behavior:  A manager believes that an employee is givenA manager believes that an employee is given opportunities to use his judgment about how to doopportunities to use his judgment about how to do the job, while the employee feels that he hasthe job, while the employee feels that he has absolutely no freedom to make judgments.absolutely no freedom to make judgments.  A subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s requestA subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s request is based on what she thought she heard theis based on what she thought she heard the supervisor say, not on what was actually requested.supervisor say, not on what was actually requested.  The manager considers the product sold to be ofThe manager considers the product sold to be of high quality, but the customer making a complainthigh quality, but the customer making a complaint feels that it’s poorly made.feels that it’s poorly made.
4 -4 - 1616McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Examples of how perception influencesExamples of how perception influences behavior:behavior: (continued)(continued)  An employee is viewed by one colleague as a hardAn employee is viewed by one colleague as a hard worker who gives good effort and by anotherworker who gives good effort and by another colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort.colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort.  The salesperson regards his pay increase as totallyThe salesperson regards his pay increase as totally inequitable, while the sales manager considers it ainequitable, while the sales manager considers it a fair raise.fair raise.  One line operator views working conditions asOne line operator views working conditions as miserable; a co-worker right across the line regardsmiserable; a co-worker right across the line regards working conditions as pleasant.working conditions as pleasant.
4 -4 - 1717McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. AttributionAttribution  AttributionAttribution  The process of perceiving the causes ofThe process of perceiving the causes of behavior and outcomes.behavior and outcomes.  Dispositional AttributionsDispositional Attributions  Emphasize some aspect of the individual,Emphasize some aspect of the individual, such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.  Situational AttributionsSituational Attributions  Attributions that emphasize the environment’sAttributions that emphasize the environment’s effect on behavior.effect on behavior.
4 -4 - 1818McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. AttitudesAttitudes  AttitudeAttitude –– a positive or negative feeling ora positive or negative feeling or mental state of willingness, learned andmental state of willingness, learned and organized through experience, that exertsorganized through experience, that exerts specific influence on a person’s response tospecific influence on a person’s response to people, objects, and situations.people, objects, and situations.  AffectAffect –– the emotional segment of an attitude.the emotional segment of an attitude.  CognitionCognition –– the perception, opinion, or beliefthe perception, opinion, or belief segment of an attitude.segment of an attitude.  BehaviorBehavior –– the behavior segment of an attitude.the behavior segment of an attitude.
4 -4 - 1919McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Three Components of AttitudesThe Three Components of Attitudes Work factorsWork factors ComponentsComponents ResponsesResponses Job designJob design Manager styleManager style Company policiesCompany policies TechnologyTechnology SalarySalary Employee benefitsEmployee benefits AffectAffect CognitionCognition BehaviorBehavior Emotional:Emotional: Statement about likingStatement about liking Perceptual:Perceptual: Statement about beliefStatement about belief Action:Action: Statement aboutStatement about behaviorbehavior StimuliStimuli AttitudesAttitudes OutcomesOutcomes
4 -4 - 2020McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attitudes and ValuesAttitudes and Values ValuesValues –– The guidelines andThe guidelines and beliefs that a personbeliefs that a person uses when confronteduses when confronted with a situation in whichwith a situation in which a choice must be made.a choice must be made.
4 -4 - 2121McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Basic convictions that a specific mode ofBasic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence ( a wayconduct or end-state of existence ( a way of living) is personally or sociallyof living) is personally or socially preferable (i.e., what is right & good)preferable (i.e., what is right & good) ValuesValues
4 -4 - 2222McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Types of ValuesTypes of Values Terminal ValuesTerminal Values Desirable end-state of existence; the goals that aDesirable end-state of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime.person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime. ((Desirable End States)Desirable End States) Instrumental ValuesInstrumental Values Preferable modes of behavior or means of achievingPreferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one`s terminal values. (one`s terminal values. (The ways/means for achievingThe ways/means for achieving one’s terminal values)one’s terminal values)
4 -4 - 2323McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Importance of ValuesImportance of Values  Values are important to the study of OB becauseValues are important to the study of OB because they lay the foundation for the understanding ofthey lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes & motivation & they influence ourattitudes & motivation & they influence our perceptions.perceptions.  Individuals enter an org. with preconceivedIndividuals enter an org. with preconceived notions of what “notions of what “oughtought” & what “” & what “ought notought not” to be.” to be.  Of course, these notions are not “Of course, these notions are not “value-freevalue-free”.”. They contain interpretations of “They contain interpretations of “right & wrongright & wrong”.”.  Furthermore, they imply that certain behaviors areFurthermore, they imply that certain behaviors are preferred over others. As a result,preferred over others. As a result, values cloudvalues cloud objectivity & rationalityobjectivity & rationality..
4 -4 - 2424McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Importance of ValuesImportance of Values  Values generally influence attitudes & behavior.Values generally influence attitudes & behavior.  Suppose that you enter an org. with the view thatSuppose that you enter an org. with the view that ““allocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrongallocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrong”.”.  How are you going to react if you find that “How are you going to react if you find that “the org. youthe org. you have just joined rewards seniority & not performancehave just joined rewards seniority & not performance”?”?  You are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead toYou are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead to job dissatisfaction & the decision not to exert a highjob dissatisfaction & the decision not to exert a high level of effort since “level of effort since “ it is probably not going to lead toit is probably not going to lead to more money, anywaymore money, anyway”.”.  Would your attitudes & behavior be different if yourWould your attitudes & behavior be different if your values aligned with the org.’s pay policies?values aligned with the org.’s pay policies?
4 -4 - 2525McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
4 -4 - 2626McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
4 -4 - 2727McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin  Power DistancePower Distance  Individualism vs. CollectivismIndividualism vs. Collectivism  Masculinity vs. FemininityMasculinity vs. Femininity  Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance  Long-term and Short-termLong-term and Short-term orientationorientation Values across Cultures: Hofstede’s FrameworkValues across Cultures: Hofstede’s Framework
4 -4 - 2828McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin The Power DistanceThe Power Distance Extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. Low distance: relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth High distance: extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth
4 -4 - 2929McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Individualism Vs CollectivismIndividualism Vs Collectivism Collectivism A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. Individualism The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups. Vs.
4 -4 - 3030McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Masculinity Vs FaminityMasculinity Vs Faminity Masculinity The extent to which the society values work roles of achievement, power, and control, and where assertiveness and materialism are also valued. Femininity The extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women.
4 -4 - 3131McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and have created beliefs & institutions that try to avoid these. Countries who do not like uncertainty tend to have high need for security & a strong belief in experts & their knowledge.
4 -4 - 3232McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance High Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not like ambiguous situations & tries to avoid them. Countries with this dimension have a great deal of structuring of org. activities, more written rules, less risk taking by managers, lower labor turnover, & less ambitious employees. Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not mind ambiguous situations & embraces them. Such societies have orgs. With less structuring of activities, fewer written rules, more risk taking by managers, higher labor turnover, & more ambitious employees. Orgs. Encourages personnel to use their own initiative & assume responsibility for their actions
4 -4 - 3333McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Long-term Vs Short- Term OrientationLong-term Vs Short- Term Orientation Long-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. Short-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and the here and now.
4 -4 - 3434McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attitudes and JobAttitudes and Job SatisfactionSatisfaction Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction – The– The attitude that workersattitude that workers have about their jobs.have about their jobs. It results from theirIt results from their perception of the jobs.perception of the jobs.
4 -4 - 3535McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five DimensionsAttitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions 1.1. Pay.Pay. The amount received and perceivedThe amount received and perceived equity of pay.equity of pay. 2.2. Job.Job. The extent to which job tasks areThe extent to which job tasks are considered interesting and provideconsidered interesting and provide opportunities for learning and for acceptingopportunities for learning and for accepting responsibility.responsibility. 3.3. Promotion Opportunities.Promotion Opportunities. The availabilityThe availability of opportunities for advancement.of opportunities for advancement.
4 -4 - 3636McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five DimensionsAttitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions (continued)(continued) 4.4. Supervisor.Supervisor. The supervisor’s abilities toThe supervisor’s abilities to demonstrate interest in and concern aboutdemonstrate interest in and concern about employees.employees. 5.5. Co-workers.Co-workers. The extent to which co-The extent to which co- workers are friendly, competent, andworkers are friendly, competent, and supportive.supportive.
4 -4 - 3737McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Satisfaction-Performance Relationships:Satisfaction-Performance Relationships: Three ViewsThree Views 2. Job satisfaction2. Job satisfaction 1. Job satisfaction1. Job satisfaction 3. Job satisfaction3. Job satisfaction Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance causescauses is caused byis caused by ““The satisfied worker is moreThe satisfied worker is more productive.”productive.” ““The more productive worker isThe more productive worker is satisfied.”satisfied.” ““There is no specific direction orThere is no specific direction or relationship.”relationship.”
4 -4 - 3838McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin PersonalityPersonality  PersonalityPersonality –– a stable set of characteristicsa stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determineand tendencies that determine commonalities and differences in people’scommonalities and differences in people’s behavior.behavior.  Personality is influenced by:Personality is influenced by:  Hereditary factorsHereditary factors  Cultural factorsCultural factors  Social factorsSocial factors
4 -4 - 3939McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin The Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorThe Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Personality Types • Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I) • Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N) • Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F) • Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J) Score is a combination of all four (e.g., ENTJ) Personality Types • Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I) • Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N) • Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F) • Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J) Score is a combination of all four (e.g., ENTJ) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types. Home Assignment Home Assignment
4 -4 - 4040McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Some Major Forces Influencing PersonalitySome Major Forces Influencing Personality TheThe Individual’sIndividual’s PersonalityPersonality Cultural forcesCultural forces Hereditary forcesHereditary forces Family relationshipFamily relationship forcesforces Social class / groupSocial class / group membership forcesmembership forces
4 -4 - 4141McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Organizations can develop creativity by:Organizations can develop creativity by: 1.1. Buffering.Buffering. Managers can look for ways toManagers can look for ways to absorb the risks of creative decisions madeabsorb the risks of creative decisions made by their employees.by their employees. 2.2. Organizational time-outs.Organizational time-outs. Give peopleGive people time off to work on a problem and allowtime off to work on a problem and allow them to think things through.them to think things through. 3.3. Intuition.Intuition. Give half-baked orGive half-baked or unsophisticated ideas a chance.unsophisticated ideas a chance.
4 -4 - 4242McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Organizations can develop creativity by:Organizations can develop creativity by: (continued)(continued) 4.4. Innovative attitudes.Innovative attitudes. Encourage everyoneEncourage everyone to think of ways to solve problems.to think of ways to solve problems. 5.5. Innovative organizational structures.Innovative organizational structures. LetLet employees see and interact with manyemployees see and interact with many managers and mentors.managers and mentors.
4 -4 - 4343McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin The Psychological ContractThe Psychological Contract An implied understanding ofAn implied understanding of mutual contributions between amutual contributions between a person and his or herperson and his or her organization.organization.
4 -4 - 4444McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Psychological Contract Violations fromPsychological Contract Violations from Perceptions of EmployeesPerceptions of Employees  Job securityJob security  No such thing as security with good chance ofNo such thing as security with good chance of layoff or downsizing.layoff or downsizing.  Child-care benefitsChild-care benefits  Failing to provide adequate care and servicesFailing to provide adequate care and services for child care during working hours on- or off-for child care during working hours on- or off- site.site.  Job feedbackJob feedback  Poor attention and little effort to providePoor attention and little effort to provide meaningful job feedback.meaningful job feedback.
4 -4 - 4545McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Psychological Contract Violations fromPsychological Contract Violations from Perceptions of EmployeesPerceptions of Employees (continued)(continued)  Merit-based pay raisesMerit-based pay raises  No relationship between pay and actualNo relationship between pay and actual performance.performance.  Job autonomyJob autonomy  Failure to permit the employee to have theFailure to permit the employee to have the freedom to make job-related decisions aboutfreedom to make job-related decisions about how to perform the job.how to perform the job.  PromotionPromotion  Reneging on a specific promise to provide aReneging on a specific promise to provide a promotion for excellent performance.promotion for excellent performance.

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Lecture 2 individual differences & behaviors

  • 1. Copyright © 2003 by TheCopyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Individual Behavior andIndividual Behavior and DifferencesDifferences
  • 2. 4 -4 - 22McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Study ofThe Study of OrganizationalOrganizational BehaviorBehavior PsychologyPsychology SociologySociology Social PsychologySocial Psychology AnthropologyAnthropology Political SciencePolitical Science
  • 3. 4 -4 - 33McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Behavior FrameworkIndividual Behavior Framework The Environment The Individual Behaviors Outcomes
  • 4. 4 -4 - 44McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. To understand individual differences,To understand individual differences, managers must:managers must:  Observe and recognize the differencesObserve and recognize the differences  Study variables that influence individualStudy variables that influence individual behaviorbehavior  Discover relationships among the variablesDiscover relationships among the variables
  • 5. 4 -4 - 55McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Key questions to help managers focus onKey questions to help managers focus on performance problems:performance problems:  Does the employee have the skills and abilities toDoes the employee have the skills and abilities to perform the job?perform the job?  Does the employee have the necessaryDoes the employee have the necessary resources to perform the job?resources to perform the job?  Is the employee aware of the performanceIs the employee aware of the performance problem?problem?  When did the performance problem surface?When did the performance problem surface?  How do the employee’s co-workers react to theHow do the employee’s co-workers react to the performance problem?performance problem?  What can I do as a manager to alleviate theWhat can I do as a manager to alleviate the performance problem?performance problem?
  • 6. 4 -4 - 66McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Differences: Abilities and SkillsIndividual Differences: Abilities and Skills  AbilityAbility  A biological or learned trait that permits aA biological or learned trait that permits a person to do something mental or physical.person to do something mental or physical.  SkillsSkills  Task-related competencies.Task-related competencies.  Job AnalysisJob Analysis  Process of defining and studying a job inProcess of defining and studying a job in terms of behavior and specifying educationterms of behavior and specifying education and training needed to perform the job.and training needed to perform the job.
  • 7. 4 -4 - 77McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Ability and IntellectAbility and Intellect Ability An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Intellectual Ability The capacity to do mental activities.
  • 8. 4 -4 - 88McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin • Number aptitude • Verbal comprehension • Perceptual speed • Inductive reasoning • Deductive reasoning • Spatial (occupying space) visualization • Memory • Number aptitude • Verbal comprehension • Perceptual speed • Inductive reasoning • Deductive reasoning • Spatial (occupying space) visualization • Memory Dimensions of Intellectual AbilityDimensions of Intellectual Ability Home AssignmentHome Assignment
  • 9. 4 -4 - 99McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Physical AbilitiesPhysical Abilities The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity (good physical coordination ), strength, and similar characteristics.
  • 10. 4 -4 - 1010McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Other Factors 7. Body coordination 8. Balance 9. Stamina Other Factors 7. Body coordination 8. Balance 9. Stamina Nine Physical AbilitiesNine Physical Abilities Strength Factors 1. Dynamic strength 2. Trunk strength 3. Static strength 4. Explosive strength Strength Factors 1. Dynamic strength 2. Trunk strength 3. Static strength 4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility 6. Dynamic flexibility Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility 6. Dynamic flexibility Home AssignmentHome Assignment
  • 11. 4 -4 - 1111McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Ability-Job Fit The Ability-The Ability-Job FitJob Fit Employee’sEmployee’s AbilitiesAbilities Job’s AbilityJob’s Ability RequirementsRequirements
  • 12. 4 -4 - 1212McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Differences: DemographicsIndividual Differences: Demographics GenderGender DifferencesDifferences Racial andRacial and CulturalCultural DiversityDiversity
  • 13. 4 -4 - 1313McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Psychological VariablesIndividual Psychological Variables PerceptionPerception AttributionAttribution AttitudesAttitudesPersonalityPersonality EmotionalEmotional IntelligenceIntelligence
  • 14. 4 -4 - 1414McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Perception –Perception – The process byThe process by which an individual giveswhich an individual gives meaning to the environment.meaning to the environment. It involves organizing andIt involves organizing and interpreting various stimuli into ainterpreting various stimuli into a psychological experience.psychological experience.
  • 15. 4 -4 - 1515McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Examples of how perception influencesExamples of how perception influences behavior:behavior:  A manager believes that an employee is givenA manager believes that an employee is given opportunities to use his judgment about how to doopportunities to use his judgment about how to do the job, while the employee feels that he hasthe job, while the employee feels that he has absolutely no freedom to make judgments.absolutely no freedom to make judgments.  A subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s requestA subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s request is based on what she thought she heard theis based on what she thought she heard the supervisor say, not on what was actually requested.supervisor say, not on what was actually requested.  The manager considers the product sold to be ofThe manager considers the product sold to be of high quality, but the customer making a complainthigh quality, but the customer making a complaint feels that it’s poorly made.feels that it’s poorly made.
  • 16. 4 -4 - 1616McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Examples of how perception influencesExamples of how perception influences behavior:behavior: (continued)(continued)  An employee is viewed by one colleague as a hardAn employee is viewed by one colleague as a hard worker who gives good effort and by anotherworker who gives good effort and by another colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort.colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort.  The salesperson regards his pay increase as totallyThe salesperson regards his pay increase as totally inequitable, while the sales manager considers it ainequitable, while the sales manager considers it a fair raise.fair raise.  One line operator views working conditions asOne line operator views working conditions as miserable; a co-worker right across the line regardsmiserable; a co-worker right across the line regards working conditions as pleasant.working conditions as pleasant.
  • 17. 4 -4 - 1717McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. AttributionAttribution  AttributionAttribution  The process of perceiving the causes ofThe process of perceiving the causes of behavior and outcomes.behavior and outcomes.  Dispositional AttributionsDispositional Attributions  Emphasize some aspect of the individual,Emphasize some aspect of the individual, such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.such as ability or skill, to explain behavior.  Situational AttributionsSituational Attributions  Attributions that emphasize the environment’sAttributions that emphasize the environment’s effect on behavior.effect on behavior.
  • 18. 4 -4 - 1818McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. AttitudesAttitudes  AttitudeAttitude –– a positive or negative feeling ora positive or negative feeling or mental state of willingness, learned andmental state of willingness, learned and organized through experience, that exertsorganized through experience, that exerts specific influence on a person’s response tospecific influence on a person’s response to people, objects, and situations.people, objects, and situations.  AffectAffect –– the emotional segment of an attitude.the emotional segment of an attitude.  CognitionCognition –– the perception, opinion, or beliefthe perception, opinion, or belief segment of an attitude.segment of an attitude.  BehaviorBehavior –– the behavior segment of an attitude.the behavior segment of an attitude.
  • 19. 4 -4 - 1919McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Three Components of AttitudesThe Three Components of Attitudes Work factorsWork factors ComponentsComponents ResponsesResponses Job designJob design Manager styleManager style Company policiesCompany policies TechnologyTechnology SalarySalary Employee benefitsEmployee benefits AffectAffect CognitionCognition BehaviorBehavior Emotional:Emotional: Statement about likingStatement about liking Perceptual:Perceptual: Statement about beliefStatement about belief Action:Action: Statement aboutStatement about behaviorbehavior StimuliStimuli AttitudesAttitudes OutcomesOutcomes
  • 20. 4 -4 - 2020McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attitudes and ValuesAttitudes and Values ValuesValues –– The guidelines andThe guidelines and beliefs that a personbeliefs that a person uses when confronteduses when confronted with a situation in whichwith a situation in which a choice must be made.a choice must be made.
  • 21. 4 -4 - 2121McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Basic convictions that a specific mode ofBasic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence ( a wayconduct or end-state of existence ( a way of living) is personally or sociallyof living) is personally or socially preferable (i.e., what is right & good)preferable (i.e., what is right & good) ValuesValues
  • 22. 4 -4 - 2222McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Types of ValuesTypes of Values Terminal ValuesTerminal Values Desirable end-state of existence; the goals that aDesirable end-state of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime.person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime. ((Desirable End States)Desirable End States) Instrumental ValuesInstrumental Values Preferable modes of behavior or means of achievingPreferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one`s terminal values. (one`s terminal values. (The ways/means for achievingThe ways/means for achieving one’s terminal values)one’s terminal values)
  • 23. 4 -4 - 2323McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Importance of ValuesImportance of Values  Values are important to the study of OB becauseValues are important to the study of OB because they lay the foundation for the understanding ofthey lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes & motivation & they influence ourattitudes & motivation & they influence our perceptions.perceptions.  Individuals enter an org. with preconceivedIndividuals enter an org. with preconceived notions of what “notions of what “oughtought” & what “” & what “ought notought not” to be.” to be.  Of course, these notions are not “Of course, these notions are not “value-freevalue-free”.”. They contain interpretations of “They contain interpretations of “right & wrongright & wrong”.”.  Furthermore, they imply that certain behaviors areFurthermore, they imply that certain behaviors are preferred over others. As a result,preferred over others. As a result, values cloudvalues cloud objectivity & rationalityobjectivity & rationality..
  • 24. 4 -4 - 2424McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Importance of ValuesImportance of Values  Values generally influence attitudes & behavior.Values generally influence attitudes & behavior.  Suppose that you enter an org. with the view thatSuppose that you enter an org. with the view that ““allocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrongallocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrong”.”.  How are you going to react if you find that “How are you going to react if you find that “the org. youthe org. you have just joined rewards seniority & not performancehave just joined rewards seniority & not performance”?”?  You are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead toYou are likely to be disappointed – and this can lead to job dissatisfaction & the decision not to exert a highjob dissatisfaction & the decision not to exert a high level of effort since “level of effort since “ it is probably not going to lead toit is probably not going to lead to more money, anywaymore money, anyway”.”.  Would your attitudes & behavior be different if yourWould your attitudes & behavior be different if your values aligned with the org.’s pay policies?values aligned with the org.’s pay policies?
  • 25. 4 -4 - 2525McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
  • 26. 4 -4 - 2626McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
  • 27. 4 -4 - 2727McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin  Power DistancePower Distance  Individualism vs. CollectivismIndividualism vs. Collectivism  Masculinity vs. FemininityMasculinity vs. Femininity  Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance  Long-term and Short-termLong-term and Short-term orientationorientation Values across Cultures: Hofstede’s FrameworkValues across Cultures: Hofstede’s Framework
  • 28. 4 -4 - 2828McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin The Power DistanceThe Power Distance Extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. Low distance: relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth High distance: extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth
  • 29. 4 -4 - 2929McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Individualism Vs CollectivismIndividualism Vs Collectivism Collectivism A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. Individualism The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups. Vs.
  • 30. 4 -4 - 3030McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Masculinity Vs FaminityMasculinity Vs Faminity Masculinity The extent to which the society values work roles of achievement, power, and control, and where assertiveness and materialism are also valued. Femininity The extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women.
  • 31. 4 -4 - 3131McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and have created beliefs & institutions that try to avoid these. Countries who do not like uncertainty tend to have high need for security & a strong belief in experts & their knowledge.
  • 32. 4 -4 - 3232McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance High Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not like ambiguous situations & tries to avoid them. Countries with this dimension have a great deal of structuring of org. activities, more written rules, less risk taking by managers, lower labor turnover, & less ambitious employees. Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not mind ambiguous situations & embraces them. Such societies have orgs. With less structuring of activities, fewer written rules, more risk taking by managers, higher labor turnover, & more ambitious employees. Orgs. Encourages personnel to use their own initiative & assume responsibility for their actions
  • 33. 4 -4 - 3333McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Long-term Vs Short- Term OrientationLong-term Vs Short- Term Orientation Long-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. Short-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and the here and now.
  • 34. 4 -4 - 3434McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attitudes and JobAttitudes and Job SatisfactionSatisfaction Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction – The– The attitude that workersattitude that workers have about their jobs.have about their jobs. It results from theirIt results from their perception of the jobs.perception of the jobs.
  • 35. 4 -4 - 3535McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five DimensionsAttitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions 1.1. Pay.Pay. The amount received and perceivedThe amount received and perceived equity of pay.equity of pay. 2.2. Job.Job. The extent to which job tasks areThe extent to which job tasks are considered interesting and provideconsidered interesting and provide opportunities for learning and for acceptingopportunities for learning and for accepting responsibility.responsibility. 3.3. Promotion Opportunities.Promotion Opportunities. The availabilityThe availability of opportunities for advancement.of opportunities for advancement.
  • 36. 4 -4 - 3636McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five DimensionsAttitudes and Job Satisfaction: Five Dimensions (continued)(continued) 4.4. Supervisor.Supervisor. The supervisor’s abilities toThe supervisor’s abilities to demonstrate interest in and concern aboutdemonstrate interest in and concern about employees.employees. 5.5. Co-workers.Co-workers. The extent to which co-The extent to which co- workers are friendly, competent, andworkers are friendly, competent, and supportive.supportive.
  • 37. 4 -4 - 3737McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Satisfaction-Performance Relationships:Satisfaction-Performance Relationships: Three ViewsThree Views 2. Job satisfaction2. Job satisfaction 1. Job satisfaction1. Job satisfaction 3. Job satisfaction3. Job satisfaction Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance Job PerformanceJob PerformanceJob PerformanceJob Performance causescauses is caused byis caused by ““The satisfied worker is moreThe satisfied worker is more productive.”productive.” ““The more productive worker isThe more productive worker is satisfied.”satisfied.” ““There is no specific direction orThere is no specific direction or relationship.”relationship.”
  • 38. 4 -4 - 3838McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin PersonalityPersonality  PersonalityPersonality –– a stable set of characteristicsa stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determineand tendencies that determine commonalities and differences in people’scommonalities and differences in people’s behavior.behavior.  Personality is influenced by:Personality is influenced by:  Hereditary factorsHereditary factors  Cultural factorsCultural factors  Social factorsSocial factors
  • 39. 4 -4 - 3939McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin The Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorThe Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Personality Types • Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I) • Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N) • Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F) • Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J) Score is a combination of all four (e.g., ENTJ) Personality Types • Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I) • Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N) • Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F) • Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J) Score is a combination of all four (e.g., ENTJ) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types. Home Assignment Home Assignment
  • 40. 4 -4 - 4040McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Some Major Forces Influencing PersonalitySome Major Forces Influencing Personality TheThe Individual’sIndividual’s PersonalityPersonality Cultural forcesCultural forces Hereditary forcesHereditary forces Family relationshipFamily relationship forcesforces Social class / groupSocial class / group membership forcesmembership forces
  • 41. 4 -4 - 4141McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Organizations can develop creativity by:Organizations can develop creativity by: 1.1. Buffering.Buffering. Managers can look for ways toManagers can look for ways to absorb the risks of creative decisions madeabsorb the risks of creative decisions made by their employees.by their employees. 2.2. Organizational time-outs.Organizational time-outs. Give peopleGive people time off to work on a problem and allowtime off to work on a problem and allow them to think things through.them to think things through. 3.3. Intuition.Intuition. Give half-baked orGive half-baked or unsophisticated ideas a chance.unsophisticated ideas a chance.
  • 42. 4 -4 - 4242McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Organizations can develop creativity by:Organizations can develop creativity by: (continued)(continued) 4.4. Innovative attitudes.Innovative attitudes. Encourage everyoneEncourage everyone to think of ways to solve problems.to think of ways to solve problems. 5.5. Innovative organizational structures.Innovative organizational structures. LetLet employees see and interact with manyemployees see and interact with many managers and mentors.managers and mentors.
  • 43. 4 -4 - 4343McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin The Psychological ContractThe Psychological Contract An implied understanding ofAn implied understanding of mutual contributions between amutual contributions between a person and his or herperson and his or her organization.organization.
  • 44. 4 -4 - 4444McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Psychological Contract Violations fromPsychological Contract Violations from Perceptions of EmployeesPerceptions of Employees  Job securityJob security  No such thing as security with good chance ofNo such thing as security with good chance of layoff or downsizing.layoff or downsizing.  Child-care benefitsChild-care benefits  Failing to provide adequate care and servicesFailing to provide adequate care and services for child care during working hours on- or off-for child care during working hours on- or off- site.site.  Job feedbackJob feedback  Poor attention and little effort to providePoor attention and little effort to provide meaningful job feedback.meaningful job feedback.
  • 45. 4 -4 - 4545McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Psychological Contract Violations fromPsychological Contract Violations from Perceptions of EmployeesPerceptions of Employees (continued)(continued)  Merit-based pay raisesMerit-based pay raises  No relationship between pay and actualNo relationship between pay and actual performance.performance.  Job autonomyJob autonomy  Failure to permit the employee to have theFailure to permit the employee to have the freedom to make job-related decisions aboutfreedom to make job-related decisions about how to perform the job.how to perform the job.  PromotionPromotion  Reneging on a specific promise to provide aReneging on a specific promise to provide a promotion for excellent performance.promotion for excellent performance.

Editor's Notes

  • #3: Organizational behavior (OB) is applied behavioral science and, as a result, is built upon contributions from several behavioral disciplines. Psychology is the science that seeks to measure, explain, and modify human and animal behavior. Psychologists study individual behavior. Those who have contributed to OB are learning theorists, counseling psychologists, and industrial and organizational psychologists. Sociology studies people in relation to their fellow human beings. Sociology’s greatest contribution to OB has been in the areas of group behavior, work teams, organizational culture, communication, power, status, and conflict. Social psychology blends the disciplines of sociology and psychology. This discipline has contributed to OB in several ways: measuring, understanding, and changing attitudes, communication patterns, and decision-making processes. Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human behavior. Much of our current understanding of organizational culture and differences between national cultures is the result of the work of anthropologists. Political science is the study of behavior of groups and individuals within a political environment. This discipline has contributed to the understanding of how conflict is structured, power is allocated, and how self-interest is promoted.