Logical fallacies

Fallacy in Arguments
14 types of Logical Fallacies

Definition
• When we make error in Logic while making an argument, it is called Fallacy.
• We make such fallacies in everyday life. For eg.: getting influenced by
celebrities to buy a product.
• If we are aware of Logical Fallacies, we can:
a. think logically
b. not be fooled by others
c. do better debates

Fallacy in Arguments: Day 1
Ad Hominem
Circular Reasoning
Strawman
Red Herring

Ad Hominem (‘Against the Man’)
• When we try to disqualify a person’s argument, by making a personal
attack on him/her.

Ad Hominem (‘Against the Man’)
Eg.:
Student A: I think people should not be influenced by Brand-names
while purchasing things. Quality is seen in non-branded products as
well.”
Student B: Look who is speaking! He himself is wearing a Fastrack
Sports watch!

Ad Hominem
Eg.:
Student A: I think people should not be influenced by Brand-names
while purchasing things. Quality is seen in non-branded products as
well.”
Student B: Look who is speaking! He himself is wearing a Fastrack
Sports watch!Reason: Counter-attack should be on Non-branded products having
quality or not.
Not on the personal dressing style of the speaker.

Circular Reasoning
When a speaker supports his claim by re-stating the same claim in
different words.
Eg.:
1. I am going to win this medal because I am the best.
2. The Bible is the word of God because Bible tells us so.

Reasons: ex. 1
“I am going to win this medal because I am the best.
Any one who is the best, will win the medal.
Concrete proof is required, as to why the speaker is the best.

Re-constructed:
I am going to win this medal
because my fitness is better than my nearest competitor.
I have been fit all the year,
but my competitor has just recovered from knee injury.

Ex. 2:
“The Bible is the word of God because Bible tells us so.”
The speaker needs to prove:
• there is there is a magical power called God,
• and that God can speak.

Re-constructed
The Bible is a compilation of the sermons.
Those sermons are given by Jesus Christ.
We consider him as God.
So, Bible, for us, is the word of God.

3 Idiots is an awesome movie!! It made me feel so good!!

Find out: Ad Hominem; Circular Reasoning;
or good argument
1. Patient: Doctor, can we get tested for coronavirus online?
Doctor: What a stupid question!!
2. You need to wash hands before eating because that is the way to
do things.
3. We need to wash hands before eating because the virus in our
hands gets killed with soap-water.
4. Coronavirus will be over by May. Our astrologer has said it! So, we
need not worry at all, as everything will get normal by May.

Answers
1. Patient: Doctor, can we get tested for coronavirus online?
Doctor: What a stupid question!!
2. You need to wash hands before eating because that is the way to
do things.
3. We need to wash hands before eating because the virus in our
hands gets killed with soap-water.
4. Coronavirus will be over by May. Our astrologer has said it! So, we
need not worry at all, as everything will get normal by May.
Ad Hominem
Circular Reasoning
Good Argument
Circular Reasoning

Strawman Argument
• When we take a portion of an argument, and take it to extreme
examples, to defeat it.

Strawman Argument
Eg.:
A: I think we should eat veg. meals until this coronavirus crisis is over.
B: You won’t rest until you convert the whole country to vegetarianism!
Vegetarian
Temporary Permanent
Permanent Vegetarian

Strawman Argument
A: The newspapers should not spread so much scary news on
Coronavirus. I mean, the people are already panicked.
B: Oh!! So you want to silence the freedom of expression!!!
Press presenting News
Presenting Facts:
good and scary
Editorials giving
opinion on
Government Policies:
freedom of press

Strawman Argument
A: The newspapers should not spread so much scary news on
Coronavirus. I mean, the people are already panicked.
B: Oh!! So you want to silence the freedom of expression!!!
Press presenting News
Presenting Facts:
good and scary
Editorials giving
opinion on
Government Policies:
freedom of press
A said:
B
Interpreted

Strawman Argument
Eg.:
A: Death sentence should be eliminated. Research shows death
penalty does not deter crime rates.
B: Let’s see who are given death sentences. Terrorists and
rapists. So you support terrorism and rape!

Reason
B chooses to use A’s objection for Death sentence
As
A’s objection of “Terrorists and Rapists” getting any punishment
altogether.
This is not the case. A also wants all criminals to be punished. Only, not via
death sentence.

Red Herring: Giving distractions

Red Herring
When someone distracts a person from the main issue, it is called red
herring.
Eg.:
A: The food served in the hostel is horrible. Too oily and spicy.
B: Consider yourself lucky. There are many who do not get
two meals a day.
Pointing at a different direction, to divert you

Red Herring
The topic is hostel-food. Too oily and spicy.
Either you agree with it, (and do something, like complaining to the
hostel warden)
Or you disagree, and say that oily and spicy is the general nature of
Indian dishes, which are served in our Indian hostels.
But there is no point referring to the starving masses here.

Red Herring
Reason:
The topic is hostel-food. Too oily and spicy.
Either you agree with it, (and do something, like complaining to the
hostel warden)
Or you disagree, and say that oily and spicy is the general nature of
Indian dishes, which are served in our Indian hostels.
But there is no point referring to the starving masses here.
The other person is just trying to divert you.
He has no answer for Hostel mess food!

Example 2
A: The world is not prepared to deal with coronavirus. There are
more patients than hospitals!
B: Why do you look to the negative side always! Just see how Coronavirus
has made us learn how to do online lectures and work-from-home!

Note: Red Herring vs Strawman
Strawman is a misrepresentation of facts.
The opponent draws a wrong interpretation of the same keywords in your argument.
[Death sentence > Criminals > support Rapists].
Red Herring is a diversion:
The opponent will use a different keyword, and take the argument to a totally opposite /
different issue.
[Bad Hostel food > I cannot eat even after paying> Cannot eat> Starving poor ]

Identify: Strawman or Red Herring
1. Why blame the rich for black money? Don’t you see how many jobs
they create through their businesses?
2. A: People who are still roaming in the streets during lockdown,
should be arrested immediately.
B: So we put the daily-labourers behind bars, and still call
ourselves progressive people, right?

Identify: Strawman or Red Herring
1. ? Why blame the rich for black money? Don’t you see how many
jobs they create through their businesses?
2. A: People who are still roaming in the streets during lockdown,
should be arrested immediately.
B: So we put the daily-labourers behind bars, and still call
ourselves progressive people, right?
Red Herring
Strawman

Identify the Fallacy
1. Person A: We should allow people from other countries to work
in America.
Republican leader: You won’t be happy until all jobs are taken away by
Asians, leaving our youth unemployed!
2. There is a lot of noise regarding saving the environment. What will we do
with so much forests? Make this world Eden Garden? And what use we have
for Eden Garden? Even Adam and Eve got bored there!
3. America is the best place to live, because it's better than any other
country.

1. Person A: We should allow people from other countries to work
in America.
Republican Leader: You won’t be happy until all jobs are taken away by
Asians, leaving our youth unemployed!
2. There is a lot of noise regarding saving the environment. What will we do
with so much forests? Make this world Eden Garden? And what use we have
for Eden Garden? Even Adam and Eve got bored there!
3. America is the best place to live, because it's better than any other
country.
Strawman
Red He
Circular
Reasonin

4. A: Do you know about the Chipko Movement? A group of activists protested against cutting down of trees
in a new way. They hugged the trees, and said that they would die, but not allow the tree to be cut.
B: Oh! So you support Chipko movement! You think its good to have jungles around us, than roads and
industries!
5. Journalist: Ma’am, there is evidence that your ministers are indulging in corruption.
CM: You are a fake News Channel. You spread lies.
6. Freedom of the press is one of the most important hallmarks of a modern, open society because modern,
open societies value the ability of the press to report what's happening.

4. A: Do you know about the Chipko Movement? A group of activists protested against cutting
down of trees in a new way. They hugged the trees, and said that they would die, but not
allow the tree to be cut.
B: Oh! So you support Chipko movement! You think its good to have jungles around us, than
roads and industries!
5. Journalist: Ma’am, there is evidence that your ministers are indulging in corruption.
CM: You are a fake News Channel. You spread lies.
6. Freedom of the press is one of the most important hallmarks of a modern, open society because
modern, open societies value the ability of the press to report what's happening.
Strawm
Ad Hominem
Cir
Reas

Appeal to False Authority
Appeal to Popularity / bandwagon fallacy
False generalization
False Dilemma
Appeal to Ignorance

Appeal to False Authority
When we praise a product or an idea, because a celebrity has endorsed
it, though the celebrity is technically not an expert in that field.
Eg.: Pepsodent is the best toothpaste in the market, because
Shah Rukh Khan says so.
Reason: Shah Rukh Khan is not a dentist by profession. So he is
technically not capable to judge and compare the quality of a
toothpaste over others.

Appeal to Popularity ( 80% 100 %)

Appeal to Popularity /
Jumping the Bandwagon
When we think that since majority of the people are thinking / doing
something, it is correct to think/do that thing.
Example: Everyone around me uses Patanjali Shampoo, and is satisfied.
So, Patanjali shampoo will suit me too.

Reason
• “Everyone around me” is not the entire population.
• So, chances are, Patanjali does not suit some section of the
population.
• And I may fall in that part.
• So, Patanjali shampoo may not suit me.

False Generalization (1 100%)
A single case /sample case cannot be applied as a rule for 100 % of the
population.
This is the basis for stereotypes.
Eg.:
1. Hitler was a German, and a Jew hater.
Therefore all Germans must be Jew-haters.
2. My Uncle was a chain smoker for 30 years, and yet he never
had cancer. So, smoking does not cause cancer.
One German was bad, does not
mean all Germans will be bad.
One smoker not getting cancer
does not mean
No other smoker will ever get
cancer.

False Dilemma
• When a speaker presents facts in such a manner, that there are only
two options left to the listener to choose from. This is wrong way of
thinking.
Eg.: Either you marry the person of our choice, or leave home.

Either you support the government, or go
and live in the country that you want.

Appeal to Ignorance
So God Doesn’t Exist

Appeal to Ignorance
Just because you don’t have proof of something to exist as yet, does
not mean that the thing cannot exist.
Eg.: We are yet to have proof of aliens in the universe. Therefore, aliens
do not exist.
Correct: We can say, conclusion is awaited.

1st Century AD 15th century AD
During all this time:
Earth was moving round the Sun. Only man discovered it later.

Find the Fallacy
1. My accountant says that within the next 90 days, the president will be
impeached! So we should take this claim seriously!
2. Child to parent: ‘Either you buy me this new book, or you decide that
reading is not important at all.’
3. There is a sale going on in Myntra. All of my friends are buying dresses.
Therefore I also must buy something.
4. The parent said: “If my boy has become a smoker, I would have known
for sure. I haven’t noticed any such thing. Therefore, my boy doesn’t
smoke.”
5. My brother eats pizza everyday and is still slim. So Pizza does not make
you fat.

Find the Fallacy
1. My accountant says that within the next 90 days, the president will be
impeached! So we should take this claim seriously!
2. Child to parent: ‘Either you buy me this new book, or you decide that
reading is not important at all.’
3. There is a sale going one in Myntra. All of my friends are buying dresses.
Therefore I also must buy something.
4. The parent said: “If my boy has become a smoker, I would have known
for sure. I haven’t noticed any such thing. Therefore, my boy doesn’t
smoke.”
5. My brother eats pizza everyday and is still slim. So Pizza does not make
you fat.
False Author
False Dilemma
Bandwagon Fallacy
Appeal to Ignorance
False Generalization

Weak Analogy
Slippery Slope
Magical Thinking
Non Sequitur
Fallacy of Equivocation

Weak Analogy
When we liken one object with the other, and then base our conclusion
from it.
Eg.: 1. Guns are like hammers: they both have metal parts. Both can be
used to kill someone. And yet, it would be pointless to restrict the
purchase of hammers. So, it is pointless to restrict the purchase of
guns.

Weak Analogy
Reason: While guns and hammers do share certain features, these
features (having metal parts, being tools, and being potentially useful
for violence) are not the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict
guns. Rather, we restrict guns because they can easily be used to kill
large numbers of people at a distance. This is a feature hammers do not
share—it would be hard to kill a crowd with a hammer. Thus, the
analogy is weak, and so is the argument based on it.

Example:
Weak Analogy regarding Coronavirus
People have a habit of making big deal about little things. Just look how
they are getting scared of CoronaVirus. Why? Every year, our country
survives attacks of dengue; every year, we lose patients to diseases like
cancer, and yet we live. So why should we be bothered about
CoronaVirus?

Reason
Weak Analogy between COVID-19 and Dengue / Cancer
Dengue and Cancer may be deadly diseases that kill a lot of people every year.
But they do not spread through community transmission. You do not have to fear
you will catch these diseases by touching, or just breathing next to a Dengue or
Cancer patient.
This happens with CoronaVirus, which makes it a potential killer for millions. Plus,
unlike dengue and cancer, it has absolutely no proven treatment.
So, we cannot compare Coronavirus with Dengue or Cancer.

Other Examples of Weak Analogies
1. If we can send man to Mars, why cannot we find a cure for CoronaVirus soon?
2. If the alcohol kills CoronaVirus, why cannot we just have a drink and stay safe?

Other Examples of Weak Analogies
1. If we can send man to Mars, why cannot we find a cure for CoronaVirus?
2. If the alcohol kills CoronaVirus, why cannot we just have a drink and stay safe?
Space technology and Virology are two different things. The first depends on Maths and Physics, of an
existent data of the universe. The second depends on study of upcoming patient records of a new virus,
and doing prolonged test-trials of a drug, before launching it in the market.
The germs on your hands are not bonded to any internal-organ cell lining. The germs in your throat are.
So, alcohol on hands can kill coronavirus germs, but alcohol in throat cannot. The binding receptors of the
germ has already entered the cell lining of your food pipe, and therefore beyond reach. Also, the contact
time of alcohol and germs on hand are greater, that that when it passes down the food pipe.

Slippery Slope
• When we think the worst possible chain-reactions to happen from an
event, it is called slippery slope.
Eg.: Today you allow your child to choose her friends. Tomorrow, she
will make friends with drug addicts, and soon you will see her in jail or
rehabilitation centre.

Slippery Slope
Reason:
The above chain of events may happen. But the possibility is remote.

Further Examples
1. A supporter of Trump says: Today we open our border walls to the Mexican refugees.
Tomorrow, the rest of central America will follow. Soon, the whole country will be filled with
any people but Americans, who eat away our economy and take away our homes.
2. Today we support gay marriage. Soon, it will be man and animal marriage. At what point then,
will we have to support man and object? I mean, can I marry this table? This clock?
3. Today, I hardly managed to get flour from one shop, and that too, on the 2nd day of lockdown.
Soon, it would be dal and rice. Around the 21st day, there will be nothing left in the shops to
buy, and I would be facing death due to starvation, if not of Coronavirus. So, it is a good idea to
hoard up things.

Note: Difference between Slippery Slope and Strawman fallacy
There is a chance you may confuse between Strawman and slippery
slope.
Remember: Strawman’s prediction about a future event is
one-step removed from current situation.
Slippery Slope’s prediction about future is at least
two-three steps removed from current situation.

Examples
• You are allowing your child to choose her friends. That means you
have no problem if she makes friends with drug addicts.
• You are allowing your child today to choose her friends. Tomorrow,
she will have drug addicts as friends, and soon, she will be in a rehab
centre.

Magical Thinking
It Rained, Because I washed my car!!!

Post hoc ergo Proper hoc [Magical Thinking]
• Two incidents, A & B, happen one after the other.
We falsely conclude that A has caused B to happen.
Eg.: I was sitting on the left side of the sofa throughout the match.
India won the match.
Therefore, India won because I was sitting on the left side of the sofa.
India won because of the players’ capabilities.
Just because I took a particular seat before the match began,
I cannot assume that I controlled its winning.

Further examples
1. Trump visited India in February. And by March, India is within the
grip of CoronaVirus. It is a clear sign that Trump is unlucky for India!
2. Colgate Mouthwash: “You can win the college heart-throb with your
smile! Just use Colgate mouthwash!”
3. Kerala floods of 2018 was God’s punishment for women petitioning
to enter Sabarimala.

Non-Sequitur
(Conclusion does not follow claim)
I think Nike Shoes
are best.
Dude, You
should save
some money!

Non sequitur: irrelevant conclusion
1. Sheila has a car. She must be rich!
2. Trump: ‘Hilary cannot handle Presidency of America. She is a woman.’
3. People love to walk on sand at the beaches. Therefore, they should
have sand on the floors of their houses.

Reasons
1. Sheila having a car is not proof enough for her being rich.
She might have inherited the car from a wealthy relative.
[The invisible statement here is: Most people who have a car,
are rich. So Sheila must be rich].

Reasons
2. Hilary being a Woman is not proof enough that she cannot
handle presidency.
[Invisible Assumption: Till date, America has never got a
Woman as President. So, women, altogether, can never
handle American Presidency].

Reasons
3. Just because people love beach-sands, is not proof enough
they will love sand on home-floors.

Note: Non Sequitur Vs. Red Herring
For a red herring, you need at least two people speaking, where, the second
person diverts the attention of the speaker to an opposite issue.
So, if you talking about film stars stashing money in offshore accounts to
escape tax, your friend will say: ‘but look, they do good things as well. Like
donating in the PM’s fund during emergency!” Basically, your friend agrees
with your evidence, but won’t like to accept it.
So, it is a red herring, a diversion.

Note: Non Sequitur Vs. Red Herring
In case of non-sequitur, you do not need two people. You can do it alone. Just say a statement, and draw a
conclusion, which feels like: some lines are missing between the statement and conclusion.
Eg.: ‘The film stars are evading tax by stashing money abroad. If I cannot have a proper road to walk or a good
school to send my kids, why should I spend money watching their movies?’
Now, what is the connection between you having basic amenities, and film starts stashing money?
Of course, you will say: film stars evade tax. Tax is used by the government to build roads and schools. If tax-
earning is less, government will not build roads and schools. So I suffer. So, I should not watch their movies,
and give them a chance to earn.
But since you did not say these internal lines, your conclusion sounded out-of-context.

Some non-sequiturs of the moment
1. CoronaVirus will not affect me because I do Satsang.
(a recent viral video of a lady contained this statement)
2. CoronaVirus is a red-signal for all of us to turn vegetarians.

Fallacy of Equivocation
Misusing two meanings of a word, to win an argument

Equivocation: Meaning ‘Both ways’
John F Kennedy’s famous statement was:
“And so…my fellow Americans, do not ask what the country can do for
you—ask what YOU can do for the country.”
The first usage of ‘country’ means ‘the government’.
The second usage of ‘country’ means ‘nation / motherland’
The US President used double-meaning, to ask people to do their
duties as citizens, without promising government’s responsibilities
towards them.

Equivocation: Further examples
1. Every religion, every philosophy teaches us, that we should do the
right thing. Then why do people have issues with right-wing
politics?
2. People become left, because they are left out by the people who
are mainstream.

Equivocation: Further examples
1. Every religion, every philosophy teaches us, that we should do the
right thing. Then why do people have issues with right-wing
politics?
2. People become left, because they are left out by people who
are mainstream.
The first statement uses right as ‘opposite to wrong’.
The second statement uses right as ‘a political way of thought’
The two are different concepts. So, the first line is not a correct evidence for the second line.
Again, we can see Equivocation tactics. The first statement uses ‘left’ as ‘a political way of thought’. The second
statement uses ‘left’ as the opposite of ‘take along’. This is bad argument.

Equivocation in the times of CoronaVirus
“Have you seen our CM? She is doing all her visits alone. None of her ministers are
by her side now. This shows that no matter how powerful you are, you are actually
alone, when the matter of life-and-death comes.”
In the first sentence, “alone” means a de-company movement done by choice. The
CM is following social distancing.
In the second sentence, “alone” means “mortal in the hour of death”.
Both are not the same. One is a medical step, the other is a philosophical idea.

Find the Fallacy
1. A Guru, on women’s dressing: “Women are like walls. People look at
them. So, just as a wall looks good, when it is painted and
decorated, a girl should also maintain proper dress code.”
2 . Reporter, to a leader: “Sir, could you explain the meaning of your
statement?’
Leader: “No, I cannot. In fact, is there anyone who can explain
meaning of anything? No. meaning is a mystery. Only God, the
creator of the universe, can know the meaning.”

Find the Fallacy
1. A Guru, on women’s dressing: “Women are like walls. People look at
them. So, just as a wall looks good, when it is painted and
decorated, a girl should also maintain proper dress code.”
2 . Reporter, to a leader: “Sir, could you explain the meaning of your
statement?’
Leader: “No, I cannot. In fact, is there anyone who can explain
meaning of anything? No. meaning is a mystery. Only God, the
creator of the universe, can know the meaning.”
False Analogy
Equivocatio

Find the Fallacy
1. Lambs are like children. Both are innocent. Therefore killing a lamb
is like murdering a child. So anyone who slaughters a lamb should be
booked for murder.
2. Legalization of abortion will lead to murder of the old and the
physically and mentally handicapped.
3. I used Ax Deoderant. That’s why, everyone in the party paid
me attention.
4. David eats too much meat. He should become a vegetarian.
5. Rohit has a bike. He must be a fan of John Abraham!

Find the Fallacy
1. Lambs are like children. Both are innocent. Therefore killing a lamb
is like murdering a child. So anyone who slaughters a lamb should be
booked for murder.
2. Legalization of abortion will lead to murder of the old and the
physically and mentally handicapped.
3. I used Ax Deoderant. That’s why, everyone in the party paid
me attention.
4. David eats too much meat. He should become a vegetarian.
5. Rohit has a bike. He must be a fan of John Abraham!
Weak A
Slippery Slop
Magical Thinking
Non-Sequitur

Logical fallacies

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