![An Alternative Definition
• An organization
– involves the interactions and efforts of People
– in order to achieve Objectives
– channelled and coordinated through Structure
– directed and controlled via Management
[Mullins 1996]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/mgt-250630051338-e1e7a6c2/85/MGT-FUNCTION-OB-MGT-FUNCTION-OB-MGT-FUNCTION-OB-4-320.jpg)
MGT. FUNCTION & OB MGT. FUNCTION & OB MGT. FUNCTION & OB
- 2. What are the elements of an organization? 1. People / staff 2. Infrastructure / buildings / vehicles.. 3. Technology / machines, medicines.. 4. Resources/money and 5. Common objective/Goal
- 3. Organization Goals Objectives Tasks Infrastructure People/Staff & Technology Resources People who plan & control E E E E E = Environment Social Economic Religious Political/Administrative People who plan & control an organization are called MANAGERS Owners of the organization may or may not be managers
- 4. An Alternative Definition • An organization – involves the interactions and efforts of People – in order to achieve Objectives – channelled and coordinated through Structure – directed and controlled via Management [Mullins 1996]
- 5. The Hawthorne Studies A group of studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company during the late 1920’s and early 1930’s
- 6. The Hawthorne Studies • Elton Mayo hired to explain the results of a study of illumination on productivity and Western Electric • Conducted two additional studies – Relay Room – Bank Wiring Room
- 7. Bank Wiring Room • Introduced incentive pay system. • Expected individual worker output to increase. • Found no change in worker output. • Workers established informal norms because they feared the company would increase their quota.
- 8. Impact of the Hawthorne Studies • Elton Mayo is considered the father of the Human Relations movement • Human Relations recognizes that there are other factors beyond rational economics that drive individual behavior. • Productivity and satisfaction are inextricably linked—You cannot forget the human side of the equation
- 10. Toward an OB Discipline Social psychology Psychology Behavioural science Contribution Unit of analysis Output Anthropology Sociology Political science Study of Organizational Behaviour Organization system Learning Motivation Perception Training Leadership effectiveness Job satisfaction Individual decision making Performance appraisal Attitude measurement Employee selection Work design Work stress Group dynamics Work teams Communication Power Conflict Intergroup behaviour Formal organization theory Organizational technology Organizational change Organizational culture Conflict Intraorganizational politics Power Organizational culture Organizational environment Behavioural change Attitude change Communication Group processes Group decision making Group Comparative values Comparative attitudes Cross-cultural analysis Individual
- 11. Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field E X H I B I T 1-3a
- 12. Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field E X H I B I T 1-3b
- 13. Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field E X H I B I T 1-3c
- 14. Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field E X H I B I T 1-3d
- 15. Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field E X H I B I T 1-3f
- 17. PSYCHOLOGIST KURT LEVIN B = F (P, E) SO THAT BEHAVIOUR (B) IS A FUNCTION (F) OF A PERSON (P) AND ENVIRONMENT (E) AROUND HIM.
- 18. INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS • PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS • INTELLIGENCE • SEX • AGE • RELIGION
- 19. LEARNED CHARACTERISTICS LEARNED CHARACTERISTICS • PERCEPTION • ATTITUDE • PERSONALITY • VALUES
- 21. Personality • Personality consists of the stable psychological traits and behavioral attributes that gives a person his or her identity. • The Big Five Personality Dimensions – Extroversion – Agreeableness – Conscientiousness – Emotional stability – Openness to experience
- 22. Personality Defined • Personality represents the unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions characterizing an individual – Identity (internal and subjective) – Reputation (external and objective)
- 23. Personality • A person’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting that is consistent across time and situations • Relatively enduring underlying dispositions that influence behavior across situations
- 24. The Origins of Personality
- 25. DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY HEREDITY • BIOLOGICAL FEATURES • BRAIN STIMULATION • BIO FEEDBACK ENVIRONMENT • CULTURE • RELIGION • FAMILY • PARENTAL INFLUENCES • SIBLINGS INFLUENCE • SCHOOL • PLACE OF WORK SITUATION
- 26. The Big Five Model of Personality • Extroversion • Neuroticism • Agreeableness • Conscientiousness • Openness to Experience
- 27. The Hierarchical Organization of Personality Source: Adapted from R. R. McCrae and P. T. Costa, "Discriminant Validity of NEO-PIR Facet Scales,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, pp. 229–237. Copyright 1992. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.
- 28. Extroversion • The tendency to experience positive emotional states and feel good about oneself and the world around one; also called positive affectivity. • Specific traits include positive emotions, gregariousness, and warmth
- 29. Neuroticism • The tendency to experience negative emotional states and view oneself and the world around one negatively; also called negative affectivity. • Specific traits include anxiety, self- consciousness, and vulnerability.
- 30. Agreeableness • The tendency to get along well with others. • Specific traits include trust, straightforwardnes s and tender- mindedness.
- 31. Conscientiousness • The extent to which a person is careful, scrupulous, and persevering. • Specific traits include competence, order and self- discipline.
- 32. Openness to Experience • The extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks. • Specific traits include fantasy, actions, and ideas.
- 33. Traits versus Types • Traits represent single dimensions of personality • Types represent constellations of traits
- 34. Main Main Opposite Opposite 1. Reserved Outgoing 2. Less intelligent More intelligent 3. Affected by Feelings Emotionally Stable 4. Submissive Dominant 5. Serious Happy-go-lucky 6. Expedient Conscientious 7. Timid Venturesome SIXTEEN SIXTEEN PRIMARY PRIMARY TRAITS TRAITS
- 35. 8. Tough-minded Sensitive 9. Trusting Suspicious 10 Practical Imaginative 11 Forthright Shrewd 12 Self-assured Apprehensive 13 Conservative Experimenting 14 Group-dependent Controlled 15 Uncontrolled Controlled 16 Relaxed Tense
- 36. Other Personality Models • Myers Briggs Type Indicator – Extroversion-Introversion – Thinking-Feeling – Sensing-Intution – Judging-Perceiving • Scores on each one of these “traits” is less important than your overall type.
- 37. Type A/B Personality • Type A: a behavior pattern involving high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and irritability • Type B: a behavior pattern characterized by a casual, laid back style. • What is the effect of Type on health, personal relations, and task performance?
- 38. Positive-Negative Affectivity • Positive Affectivity: the tendency to experience positive moods regardless of the situation. • Negative Affectivity: the tendency to experience negative moods regardless of the situation. • What is the impact of affectivity on performance?
- 39. Other Personality Traits at Work • Self-Efficacy – A person’s beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task. • Authoritarianism – The extent to which a person believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations.
- 40. JUNGIAN PERSONALITY TYPE JUNGIAN PERSONALITY TYPE Sensing Personality Sensing Personality (S) (S) Intuitive Personality Intuitive Personality (N) (N) Thinking (T) Rational, logical, empirical, objective, Money-oriented efforts, Risk avoider, short-sighted. Broad viewer, imaginative, wider options, risk takers, long-sighted. Feeling (F) Empirical, personal values, subjectivity, considering other views, risk takers, status-conscious. Broad view of personal situation, people- oriented, subjective, venturesome.
- 41. • Locus of Control –The extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them. • People who believe that individuals are in control of their lives are said to have an internal locus of control. • People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said to have an external locus of control.
- 42. Authoritarianism Persons having authoritarian personality believe in status and power differences. Risk Propensity People like or dislike risk-taking; that is, people have different risk propensities for assuming or avoiding risks. Dogmatism Dogmatism is a traditional view. People are traditional and take routine decisions.
- 43. Other Personality Traits at Work • Machiavellianism – People who possess this personality trait behave to gain power and control over the behavior of others. – High mach’s are very similar to psychopaths • Charming with no remorse, guilt, or empathy • Performance implications?
- 44. VALUES VALUES BASIC CONVICTIONS THAT A SPECIFIC MODE OF CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE IS PERSONALLY OR SOCIALLY PREFERABLE TO AN OPPOSITE OR CONVERSE MODE OF CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE.
- 45. VALUE SYSTEM VALUE SYSTEM A HIERARCHY BASED ON A RANKING OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S VALUES IN TERMS OF THEIR INTENSITY.
- 46. ALL OF US HAVE A HIERARCHY OF VALUES THAT FORMS OUR VALUE SYSTEM VALUE SYSTEM. THIS SYSTEM IS IDENTIFIED BY THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE WE ASSIGN TO SUCH VALUES AS FREEDOM, PLEASURE, SELF-RESPECT, HONESTY, OBEDIENCE AND EQUALITY.
- 47. SOURCES OF OUR VALUE SYSTEM SOURCES OF OUR VALUE SYSTEM A SIGNIFICANT PORTION IS GENETICALLY DETERMINED. THE REST IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO FACTORS LIKE NATIONAL CULTURE, PARENTAL DICTATES, TEACHERS, FRIENDS, AND SIMILAR ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES.
- 48. TYPES OF VALUES TYPES OF VALUES ALLPORT AND ASSOCIATES THEORETICAL 1. ECONOMIC 2. AESTHETIC 3. SOCIAL 4. POLITICAL 5. RELIGIOUS
- 49. ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY TERMINAL VALUES: DESIRABLE END-STATES OF EXISTENCE; THE GOALS THAT A PERSON WOULD LIKE TO ACHIEVE DURING HIS OR HER LIFETIME. INSTRUMENTAL VALUES: PREFERABLE MODES OF BEHAVIOUR OR MEANS OF ACHIEVING ONE’S TERMINAL VALUES.
- 50. TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES IN IN ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY Terminal Values • Comfortable life • Exciting life • Sense of accomplishment • World at peace • World of beauty • Equality • Family Security • Freedom • Happiness • Inner harmony • Mature love • National security • Pleasure • Salvation • Self-respect • Social recognition • True friendship • Wisdom Instrumental Values • Ambitious • Broad-minded • Capable • Cheerful • Clean • Courageous • Forgiving • Helpful • Honest • Imaginative • Independent • Intellectual • Logical • Loving • Obedient • Polite • Responsible • Self-controlled
- 52. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 52 LEADERSHIP IS DEFINED AS INFLUENCE, THAT IS, THE ART OR PROCES OF INFLUENCING PEOPLE SO THAT THEY WILL STRIVE WILLINGLY AND ENTHUSIASTICALLY TOWARDS THE ACHIEVEMENT OF GROUP GOALS.
- 53. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 53 LEADERSHIP THE PROCESS OF DIRECTING AND INFLUENCING THE TASK-RELATED ACTIVITIES OF GROUP MEMBERS. FIRST, LEADERSHIP INVOLVES OTHER PEOPLE – EMPLOYEES OR FOLLOWERS. BY THEIR WILLINGNESS TO ACCEPT DIRECTIONS FROM THE LEADER, GROUP MEMBERS HELP DEFINE THE LEADER’S STATUS AND MAKE THE LEADERSHIP PROCESS POSSIBLE; WITHOUT PEOPLE TO LEAD, ALL THE LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF A MANAGER WOULD BE IRRELEVANT.
- 54. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 54 SECOND, LEADERSHIP INVOLVES AND UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF POWER BETWEEN LEADERS AND GROUP MEMBERS. GROUP MEMBERS ARE NOT POWERLESS; THEY CAN AND DOSHAPE GROUP ACTIVITIES IN A NUMBER OF WAYS. A THIRD ASPECT OF LEADERSHIP IS THE ABILITY TO USE THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF POWER TO INFLUENCE FOLLOWERS’ BEHAVIORS IN A NUMBER OF WAYS. INDEED, LEADERS HAVE INFLUENCED SOLDIERS TO KILL AND LEADERS HAVE INFLUENCED EMPLOYEES TO MAKE PERSONAL SACRIFICES FOR THE GOOD OF THE COMPANY.
- 55. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 55 FOURTH ASPECT COMBINES THE FIRST THREE AND ACKNOWLEDGES THAT LEADERSHIP IS ABOUT VALUES. MORAL LEADERSHIP CONCERNS VALUES AND REQUIRES THAT FOLLOWERS BE GIVEN ENOUGH KNOWLEDGE OF ALTERNATIVES TO MAKE INTELLIGENT CHOICES WHEN IT COMES TIME TO RESPOND TO A LEADER’S PROPOSAL TO LEAD.
- 56. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 56 INGREDIENTS OF LEADERSHIP 1. THE ABILITY TO USE POWER EFFECTIVELY AND IN A RESPONSIBLE MANNER, 2. THE ABILITY TO COMPREHEND THAT HUMAN BEINGS HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIVATION FORCES AT DIFFERENT TIMES AND IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS 3. THE ABILITY TO INSPIRE, AND 4. THE ABILITY TO ACT IN A MANNER THAT WILL DEVELOP A CLIMATE CONDUCIVE TO RESPONDING TO AND AROUSING MOTIVATIONS.
- 57. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 57 LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS THE GROUP-MAINTENANCE AND TASK-RELATED ACTIVITIES THAT MUST BE PERFORMED BY THE LEADER, OR SOMEONE ELSE, FOR A GROUP TO PERFORM EFFECTIVELY. LEADERSHIP STYLES THE VARIOUS PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR FAVORED BY LEADERS DURING THE PROCESS OF DIRECTING AND INFLUENCING WORKERS.
- 58. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 58 THE TRAIT APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP IN SEARCHING FOR MEASURABLE LEADERSHIP TRAITS,RESEARCHERS HAVE TAKEN TWO APPROACHES COMPARING THE TRAITS OF THOSE WHO HAVE EMERGED AS LEADERS WITH THE TRAITS OF THOSE WHOHAVE NOT; AND (2) COMPARING THE TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERS WITH THOSE OF INEFFECTIVE LEADERS. • LEADERS AND NONLEADERS • EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE LEADERS
- 59. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 59 LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR AND STYLES 1. LEADERSHIP BASED ON THE USE OF AUTHORITY, 2. LIKERT’S FOUR SYSTEMS OF MANAGING, 3. THE MANAGERIAL GRID, AND 4. LEADERSHIP INVOLVING A VARIETY OF STYLES, RANGING FROM A MAXIMUM TO A MINIMUM USE OF POWER AND INFLUENCE.
- 60. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 60 AUTOCRATIC LEADER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER DEMOCRATIC OR PARTICIPATIVE LEADER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FREE-REIN LEADER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER FOLLOWER THE FLOW OF INFLUENCE WITH THREE LEADERSHIP STYLES
- 61. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 61 MANAGERIAL GRID DEVELOPED SOME YEARS AGO BY ROBERT BLAKE AND JANE MOUTON. GRID DIMENSIONS THE GRID HAS TWO DIMENSIONS: CONCERN FOR PEPOLE AND CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION.
- 62. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 62 FOUR EXTREME STYLES 1.1 STYLE (REFERRED TO AS “IMPOVERISHED MANAGEMENT”) 9.9 MANAGERS – TEAM MANAGERS 1.9 MANAGEMENT (CALLED “COUNTRY CLUB MANAGEMENT” BY SOME) 9.1 MANAGERS (SOMETIMES REFERRED TO “AUTOCRATIC TASK MANAGERS”) 5.5 MANAGERS AUTOCRATIC ATTITUDE TOWARD PEOPLE
- 63. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 63 The Management Grid 9- 8- 7- 6- 5- 4- 3- 2- 1- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,1 Impoverished management Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership. 9,1 Authority-obedience Efficiency in operations results From arranging conditions of Work in such a way that human Elements interfere to a minimum degree. 5.5 Organization man management Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. 1,9 Country club management Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relation- ships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmos- phere and work tempo. 9,9 Team management Work accomplishment is from committed people, interdepen- dence through a “common stake” in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.
- 64. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 64 IEDLER’S CONTINGENCY APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP RED E. FIEDLER AND HIS ASSOCIATES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LLINOIS HAVE SUGGESTED A CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP. THE THEORY HOLDS THAT PEOPLE BECOME LEADERS NOT ONLY BECAUSE OF THE ATTRIBUTES OF THEIR PERSONALITIES BUT ALSO BECAUSE OF VARIOUS SITUATIONAL FACTORS AND THE NTERACTIONS BETWEEN LEADERS AND GROUP MEMBERS. CRITICAL DIMENSIONS OF THE LEADERSHIP SITUATION . POSITION POWER . TASK STRUCTURE . LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS EADERSHIP STYLES AVORABLENESS OF SITUATION
- 65. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 65 PATH-GOAL MODEL A LEADERSHIP THEORY EMPHASIZING THE LEADER’S ROLE IN CLARIFYING FOR SUBORDINATES HOW THEY CAN ACHIEVE HIGH PERFORMANCE AND ITS ASSOCIATED REWARDS. A PATH-GOAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
- 66. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 66 PATH-GOAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS THE PATH-GOAL THEORY SUGGESTS THAT THE MAIN FUNCTION OF THE LEADER IS TO CLARIFY AND SET GOALS WITH SUBORDINATES, HELP THEM FIND THE BEST PATH FOR ACHIEVING THE GOALS,AND REMOVE OBSTACLES. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP SHOULD INCLUDE: 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBORDINATES, SUCH AS THEIR NEEDS, SELF-CONFIDENCE, AND ABILITIES; AND 2. THE WORK ENVIORNMENT, INCLUDING SUCH COMPONENTS AS THE TASK, THE REWARD SYSTEM, AND THE RELATIONSHIP WITH COWORKERS.
- 67. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 67 CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP CONTINGENCY APPROACH THE VIEW THAT THE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE THAT BEST CONTRIBUTES TO THE ATTAINMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS MIGHT VARY IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SITUATIONS OR CIRCUMSTANCES. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL AN APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP DEVELOPED BY HERSEY AND BLANCHARD THAT DESCRIBES HOW LEADERS SHOULD ADJUST THEIR LEADERSHIP STYLE IN RESPONSE TO THEIR SUBORDINATES’ EVOLVING DESIRE FOR ACHIEVEMENT, EXPERIENCE, ABILITY, AND WILLINGNESS TO ACCEPT RESPONSIBILITY.
- 68. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 68 LEADERSHIP STYLE AND THE WORK SITUATION: THE FIEDLER MODEL LEAST PREFERRED CO-WORKER (LPC) FIEDLER’S MEASURING INSTRUMENT FOR LOCATING A MANAGER ON THE LEADERSHIP-STYLE CONTINUUM. LEADER-MEMBER RELATIONS THE QUALITY OF THE INTERACTION BETWEEN A LEADER AND HIS OR HER EMPLOYEES; ACCORDING TO FIEDLER, THE MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCE ON THE MANAGER’S POWER.
- 69. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 69 TASK STRUCTURE A WORK SITUATION VARIABLE THAT, ACCORDING TO FIEDLER, HELPS DETERMINE A MANAGER’S POWER. IN STRUCTURED TASKS, MANAGERS AUTOMATICALLY HAVE HIGH POWER; IN UNSTRUCTURED TASKS, THEIR POWERIS DIMINISHED. POSITION POWER THE POWER, ACCORDING TO FIEDLER, THAT IS INHERENT IN THE FORMAL POSITION THE LEADER HOLDS. THIS POWER MAY BE GREAT OR SMALL, DEPENDING ON THESPECIFIC POSITION.
- 70. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 70 THE FUTURE OF LEADERSHIP THEORY TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS LEADERS WHO DETERMINE WHAT SUBORDINATES NEED TO DO TO ACHIEVE OBJECTIVES, CLASSIFY THOSE REQUIREMENTS, AND HELP SUBORDINATES BECOME CONFIDENT THEY CAN REACH THEIR OBJECTIVES. TRANSFORMED LEADERS LEADERS WHO, THROUGH THEIR PERSONAL VISION AND ENERGY, INSPIRE FOLLOWERS AND HAVE A MAJOR IMPACT ON THEIR ORGANIZATINOS; ALSO CALLED CHARISMATIC LEADERS.
- 71. AIMA-PGCM-GM11 71 A CHARISMATIC LEADER OCCASIONALLY A LEADER EMERGES WHOSE HIGH VISIBILITY AND PERSONAL CHARISMA CATCHES THE PUBLIC CONSCIOUSNESS. NOW-RETIRED AUTO- INDUSTRY EXECUTIVE LEE LACOCCA, WHO LED CHRYSLER CORPORATION BACK FROM THE EDGE OF BANKRUPTCY, ENGENDERED CONSIDERABLE PUBLIC RECOGNITION AND SUPPORT.
- 73. ATTITUDES ATTITUDES EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS OR JUDGMENTS CONCERNING OBJECTS, PEOPLE, OR EVENTS.
- 74. COGNITIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE COGNITIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE THE OPINION OR BELIEF SEGMENT OF AN ATTITUDE.
- 75. AFFECTIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE AFFECTIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE THE EMOTIONAL OR FEELING SEGMENT OF AN ATTITUDE.
- 76. BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE AN INTENTION TO BEHAVE IN A CERTAIN WAY TOWARD SOMEONE OR SOMETHING.
- 77. TYPES OF ATTITUDE TYPES OF ATTITUDE A PERSON CAN HAVE THOUSANDS OF ATTITUDES, BUT OB FOCUSES OUR ATTENTION ON A VERY LIMITED NUMBER OF JOB-RELATED ATTITUDES. THESE JOB- RELATED ATTITUDES TAP POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE EVALUATIONS THAT EMPLOYEES HOLD ABOUT ASPECTS OF THEIR WORK ENVIRONMENT. MOST OF THE RESEARCH IN OB HAS BEEN CONCERNED WITH THREE ATTITUDES: JOB SATISFACTION, JOB INVOLVEMENT, AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT.
- 78. JOB SATISFACTION JOB SATISFACTION THE TERM JOB SATISFACTION REFERS TO AN INDIVIDUAL’S GENERAL ATTITUDE TOWARD HIS OR HER JOB. A PERSON WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF JOB SATISFACTION HOLDS POSITIVE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE JOB; A PERSON WHO IS DISSATISFIED WITH HIS OR HER JOB HOLDS NEGATIVE ATTITUDES ABOUT THE JOB.
- 79. JOB INVOLVEMENT JOB INVOLVEMENT THE DEGREE TO WHICH A PERSON IDENTIFIES WITH HIS OR HER JOB, ACTIVELY PARTICIPATES IN IT, AND CONSIDERS HIS OR HER PERFORMANCE IMPORTANT TO SELF-WORTH. EMPLOYEES WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF JOB INVOLVEMENT STRONGLY IDENTIFY WITH AND REALLY CARE ABOUT THE KIND OF WORK THEY DO. HIGH LEVELS OF JOB INVOLVEMENT HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE RELATED TO FEWER ABSENCES AND LOWER RESIGNATION RATES.
- 80. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT THE DEGREE TO WHICH AN EMPLOYEE IDENTIFIES WITH A PARTICULAR ORGANIZATION AND ITS GOALS, AND WISHES TO MAINTAIN MEMBERSHIP IN THE ORGANIZATION.
- 81. SO HIGH JOB INVOLVEMENT MEANS IDENTIFYING WITH ONE’S SPECIFIC JOB; HIGH ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT MEANS IDENTIFYING WITH ONE’S EMPLOYING ORGANIZATION.
- 82. MODELS OF ATTITUDE MODELS OF ATTITUDE • COGNITIVE MODEL • OBJECT MODEL • BEHAVIOUR MODEL • PERFORMANCE MODEL
- 83. ATTITUDE FORMATION ATTITUDE FORMATION • CLASSICAL ATTITUDE FORMATION • INSTRUMENT OR OPERANT ATTITUDE FORMATION • COGNITIVE ATTITUDE FORMATION
- 84. ATTITUDE CHANGE ATTITUDE CHANGE • CHANGING MOTIVES OF EMPLOYEES • ADMIRING EMPLOYEES • COMPARING CONFLICTING ATTITUDES • CHANGING THE BELIEFS
- 85. “ “HAPPY EMPLOYEE IS A PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE” HAPPY EMPLOYEE IS A PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEE”
- 86. Job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or attitudes that individuals have towards their jobs. When a person says that he has high job satisfaction, it means that he really likes his job, feels good about it and values his job highly.
- 87. WHAT DETERMINES JOB SATISFACTION? WHAT DETERMINES JOB SATISFACTION? • Mentally challenging work. • Equitable rewards. • Supportive working conditions. • Supportive colleagues • Don’t forget the personality – Job fit.
- 88. SOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTION SOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTION 1. Organizational factors. 2. Work environmental factors. 3. Factors related to work itself. 4. Personal factors.
- 89. 1. 1. ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS • Salaries and wages • Promotions • Company policies 2. 2. WORK ENVIRONMENT WORK ENVIRONMENT • Supervisory style • Work group • Working conditions
- 90. 3. 3. WORK ITSELF WORK ITSELF The job content has two aspects. One is the “job scope” that involves the amount of responsibility. The second aspect is variety. It has been found that a moderate amount of variety is most effective. 4. 4. PERSONAL FACTORS PERSONAL FACTORS
- 91. THE EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION THE EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE • Satisfaction and Productivity • Satisfaction and Absenteeism • Satisfaction and Turnover
- 92. HOW EMPLOYEES CAN EXPRESS DISSATISFACTION HOW EMPLOYEES CAN EXPRESS DISSATISFACTION Active Passive Destructive Constructive EXIT VOICE NEGLECT LOYALTY Responses to Job Dissatisfaction Responses to Job Dissatisfaction
- 93. Exit Exit Dissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed toward leaving the organization. Voice Voice Dissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts to improve conditions. Loyalty Loyalty Dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve. Neglect Neglect Dissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen.
- 94. CONSEQUENCES OF JOB DISSATISFACTION CONSEQUENCES OF JOB DISSATISFACTION • Employee unrest • Absenteeism • Tardiness • Employee turnover • Union activity • Early retirement • A job satisfaction
- 95. PERCEPTION
- 96. Chronological Development of Law Notion Perception Conception Assumption Theory Law
- 97. PERCEPTION PERCEPTION • A PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS ORGANIZE AND INTERPRET THEIR SENSORY IMPRESSION IN ORDER TO GIVE MEANING TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT
- 98. Perception • Perception – The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting environmental information. – Based on internal factors (e.g., personality) and external factors (e.g., accuracy of information). – Self-esteem describes how individuals perceive themselves.
- 99. Factors in the perceiver • Attitudes • Motives • Interests • Experience • Expectations Perception Factors in the target • Novelty • Motion • Sounds • Size • Background • Proximity Factors in the situation • Time • Work setting • Social setting Factors that Influence Perception Factors that Influence Perception
- 100. THE PERCEIVER THE PERCEIVER • WHEN AN INDIVIDUAL LOOKS AT A TARGET AND ATTEMPTS TO INTERPRET WHAT HE OR SHE SEES, THAT INTERPRETATION IS HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PERCEIVER.
- 101. • A MAJOR REASON IS THAT THEY HOLD DIVERGENT ATTITUDES CONCERNING LARGE CLASSES. • UNSATISFIED NEEDS OR MOTIVES STIMULATE INDIVIDUALS AND MAY EXERT A STRONG INFLUENCE ON THEIR PERCEPTIONS.
- 102. • THE FOCUS OF OUR ATTENTION APPEARS TO BE INFLUENCED BY OUR INTERESTS. • EXPECTATIONS CAN DISTORT YOUR PERCEPTIONS IN THAT YOU WILL SEE WHAT YOU EXPECT TO SEE.
- 103. THE TARGET THE TARGET •CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TARGET THAT IS BEING OBSERVED CAN AFFECT WHAT IS PERCEIVED. • BECAUSE TARGETS ARE NOT LOOKED AT IN ISOLATION. • THE RELATIONSHIP OF A TARGET TO ITS BACKGROUND INFLUENCES PERCEPTION, AS DOES OUR TENDENCY TO GROUP CLOSE THINGS AND SIMILAR THINGS TOGETHER
- 104. THE SITUATION THE SITUATION • THE CONTEXT IN WHICH WE SEE OBJECTS OR EVENTS IS IMPORTANT. ELEMENTS IN THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCE OUR PERCEPTIONS. • THE TIME AT WHICH AN OBJECT OR EVENT IS SEEN CAN INFLUENCE ATTENTION, AS CAN LOCATION, LIGHT, HEAT, OR ANY NUMBER OF SITUATIONAL FACTORS.
- 105. Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others Attribution theory This theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.
- 106. Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others, Determinants: 1. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations. 2. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation. 3. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
- 107. Attribution Theory
- 108. Errors and Biases in Attributions
- 109. Errors and Biases in Attributions
- 110. BARRIERS TO PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS TO PERCEPTUAL ACCURACY ACCURACY
- 111. Selective Perception • People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
- 112. Halo Effect • Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.
- 113. Selective Perception • People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
- 114. Contrast Effects • Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.
- 115. Projection • Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.
- 116. Stereotyping • Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.
- 117. Self-fulfilling Prophecy • When one person inaccurately perceives a second person and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception.
- 118. Overcoming Biases • Don’t overlook external causes of others’ behavior • Identify and confront your stereotypes • Evaluate people based on objective factors • Avoid making rash judgments
- 119. SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS • EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW • PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS • PERFORMANCE EVALUATION • EMPLOYEE EFFORT • EMPLOYEE LOYALTY
- 120. Specific Applications of Shortcuts in Organization • Employment Interview – Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of interviewers’ judgments of applicants. • Performance Expectations – Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities. • Performance Evaluations – Appraisals are subjective perceptions of performance.
- 121. • Employee Effort – Assessment of individual effort is a subjective judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias. • Employee Loyalty – Employee support towards the organization. • Whistle-Blowers – Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders.
- 122. Motivation • The willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
- 123. Need • Some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive
- 124. Work Motivation: The psychological forces that determine the direction of a person’s behavior in an organization, a person’s level of effort, and a person’s level of persistence.
- 125. Work Motivation • Direction of Behavior - Which behaviors does a person choose to perform in an organization? • Level of Effort - How hard does a person work to perform a chosen behavior? (Arousal)
- 126. Work Motivation • Level of Persistence - When faced with obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how hard does a person keep trying to perform a chosen behavior successfully? (Maintaining)
- 128. Need-Based Theories of Motivation The basic premise of need theories is that humans are motivated primarily by deficiencies in one or more important needs or need categories.
- 129. The Hierarchy of Needs • Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s. • Maslow believed that people have an innate desire to satisfy a given set of needs. • Maslow believed that these needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, with the most basic needs at the foundation of the hierarchy.
- 130. The Hierarchy of Needs • Maslow believed that each need level must be satisfied before the level above it becomes important. • The escalation up the hierarchy continues until the self-actualization needs become the primary motivators.
- 131. The Hierarchy of Needs Self- actualization Esteem Affiliation Physiological Security
- 132. • Lower Order Needs: Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs. Higher Order Needs: Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
- 133. The Hierarchy of Needs • Physiological Needs: Adequate wages, ventilation, and comfortable temperatures and working conditions are measures taken to satisfy this most basic level of need. • Security Needs: Security needs can be satisfied by such things as job continuity, a grievance system, and an adequate insurance and retirement system.
- 134. The Hierarchy of Needs • Affiliation Needs – Managers can help satisfy these needs by fostering a sense of group identity and interaction among employees. • Esteem Needs – These needs are met at least partially by job titles, choice offices, merit pay increases, awards, and other forms of recognition.
- 135. The Hierarchy of Needs • Self-Actualization Needs – The drive to become what one is capable of becoming. – Achieved when people meet their full potential. – These needs are the hardest to understand and the most difficult to satisfy.
- 136. ERG Theory –Represents an extension and refinement of the need hierarchy theory by Clayton Alderfer. –The ERG theory describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs.
- 137. Existence Concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. It includes the items that Maslow considered physiological and safety needs.
- 138. Relatedness The desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. The social and status desires require interaction with others if they are re-satisfied and they align with Maslow’s social need and external component of Maslow’s esteem classification.
- 139. Growth An intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow’s esteemed category and the characteristics included self-actualization.
- 140. ERG theory –The ERG theory suggests that if people become frustrated trying to satisfy one set of needs, they will regress back to the previously satisfied set of needs.
- 141. How does ERG Theory differ from Maslow’s In contrast to hierarchy of need theory, the ERG Theory demonstrates: 1. More than one need may be operative at the same time. 2. If the gratification of higher level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy lower-level need increases.
- 142. The Dual-Structure Theory (Motivation –Hygiene Theory) • Developed by Frederick Herzberg • Herzberg conceptualized motivation as a dual structure phenomenon consisting of motivation factors and hygiene factors.
- 143. –Motivation factors are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition. These factors cause motivation and satisfaction.
- 144. The Dual-Structure Theory • Motivation and hygiene factors (continued) – Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security. – These factors do not necessarily lead to satisfaction. If inadequate, however, these factors can lead to dissatisfaction.
- 145. The Dual-Structure Theory Motivation Factors Hygiene Factors - Achievement - Recognition - The work itself - Responsibility - Advancement - Supervision - Working Conditions - Pay and Job Security - Company Policies - Relationships
- 146. McClelland’s Theory of Needs Achievement power, and affiliation are three important needs that help to understand motivation.
- 147. Learned Needs Theory (nAch) • Most frequently associated with the work of David McClelland. – Need for Achievement (nAch) – Need for Affiliation (nAff) – Need for Power (nPow)
- 148. The Need for Achievement • The need for achievement is the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past.
- 149. The Need for Affiliation • The need for human companionship. • Individuals with a high need for affiliation tend to want reassurance and approval from others and usually are genuinely concerned about others’ feelings. • People with a high need for affiliation often work in jobs with a lot of interpersonal contact.
- 150. The Need for Power • The desire to control the resources in one’s environment. • People with a high need for power can be successful managers if three conditions are met: – They must seek power for the betterment of the organization rather than for their own interests.
- 151. The Need for Power • Three Conditions (continued) – They must have a fairly low need for affiliation (fulfilling a personal need for power may well alienate others in the workplace). – They need plenty of self-control to curb their desire for power when it threatens to interfere with effective organizational or interpersonal relationships.
- 152. Equity Theory A process theory about work motivation that focuses on workers’ perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs.
- 153. Equity Theory According to equity theory, what is important to motivation is the way a worker perceives his or her outcome / input ratio compared to that of another person.
- 154. Outcome / input ratio Outcome / input ratio is the relationship between what a worker gets from a job and what the worker contributes to the job.
- 155. Two Basic Types of Inequity Overpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that their outcome / input ratio is greater than the ratio of the referent. Underpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that their outcome / input ratio is less than the ratio of the referent.
- 156. Four referent comparisons an employee can use: • Self-inside • Self-outside • Other-inside • Other-outside
- 157. Employee perceive an inequity Employee perceive an inequity they can be predicted they can be predicted • Change their inputs • Change their outcomes • Distort perceptions of self • Distort perceptions of others • Choose a different referent • Leave the field
- 158. Ways to Restore Equity • Workers change their inputs or outcomes. • Workers change the referents’ inputs or outcomes. • Workers change their perceptions of inputs and outcomes. • Workers change the referent. • Workers leave the job or organization or force the referent to leave.
- 159. Expectancy Theory • A process theory about work motivation that focuses on how workers make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort. • The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
- 160. Theory focuses on three relationships 1. Effort-performance relationship 2. Performance-reward relationship 3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
- 161. Expectancy Theory Individual Individual Organizational Personal effort performance rewards goals 1. Effort-performance relationship 2. Performance-reward relationship 3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
- 162. Expectancy Theory - Key Terms • Valence: the desirability of an outcome to an individual. • Instrumentality: a perception about the extent to which performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome. • Expectancy: a perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance.
- 163. Goal-Setting Theory • Goal-Setting Theory suggests that an individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior. • Developed by Locke and Latham.
- 164. Components of Goal-Setting Theory • Goal Difficulty – The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort. – Difficult, yet realistic, goals are typically the most effective. • Goal Specificity – The clarity and precision of a goal. – Specific, rather than vague, goals are typically the most effective.
- 165. Components of Goal-Setting Theory • Goal Acceptance – The extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own. • Goal Commitment – The extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal.
- 166. Reinforcement Theory • In Reinforcement Theory we have a behavioristic approach which argues that reinforcement conditions behavior. • Behavior is being environmentally caused. • Theory ignores the inner state of individual and constraint solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.
- 167. Theory Theory X X Theory Theory Y Y • Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive, labeled Theory Y. • After viewing the way in which managers dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior toward subordinates according to these assumptions.
- 168. Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers: Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers: 1. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. 2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. 3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible. 4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.
- 169. McGregor listed four positive assumptions, which McGregor listed four positive assumptions, which he called Theory Y: he called Theory Y: 1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. 2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. 3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. 4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions.
Editor's Notes
- #6: Relay room—female employees varied various rest intervals and meal intervals. Regardless of change productivity increased. Bank wiring room—men wiring machines used in bank operations…instituted a piece rate pay system. Productivity did not increase.
- #10: Psychology Seeks to measure, explain, & sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals. Studying and attempting to understand individual behaviour. Sociology Focus on the individual by studying the social system in which individuals fill their roles. Studies people in relation to other human beings. Social Psychology An area within psychology, but it blends concepts from psychology and sociology. Focuses on the influence of people on one Anthropology The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. Anthropologists’ work on cultures and environments, for instance, has helped us understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behaviour between people in different countries and within different organizations. Political Science Studies the behaviour of individuals and groups within a political environment. Specific topics of concern include structuring of conflict, allocation of power, and the manipulation of power for individual self-interest.
- #36: EI—directs energy outward vs. inward (not social extroversion but related) TF—coldly logical very structuring vs. based on personal values SN—empirical vs. gut feeling JP—planned and organized vs. spontaneous and flexible -----INTP: rational, curious, theoretical, and abstract, preferring to organize ideas rather than situations or people. They enjoy working alone and ample autonomy for their own ideas and methods.