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Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 7
Supporting Procurement with SAP
Chapter Objectives/Study Questions
Q1. What are the fundamentals of a Procurement process?
Q2. How did the Procurement process at CBI work before SAP?
Q3. What were the problems with the Procurement process before SAP?
Q4. How does CBI implement SAP?
Q5. How does the Procurement process work at CBI after SAP?
Q6. How can SAP improve supply chain processes at CBI?
Q7. How does the use of SAP change CBI?
Q8. What new IS will affect the Procurement process in 2024?

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List of Key Terms
• 3D printing – also known as additive manufacturing, objects are manufactured
through the deposition of successive layers of material.
• Augmented reality – computer data or graphics overlaid onto the physical
environment.
• Bottleneck – event that occurs when a limited resource greatly reduces the output of
an integrated series of activities or processes.
• Bullwhip effect – occurs when companies order more supplies than are needed due to
a sudden change in demand.
• Buy-in – selling a product or system for less than its true price.
• Finished goods inventory – completed products awaiting delivery to customers.
• Internal control – control that systematically limits the actions and behaviors of
employees, processes, and systems within the organization to safeguard assets and to
achieve objectives.
• Invoice – an itemized bill sent by the supplier.
• Lead time – the time required for a supplier to deliver an order.
• Procurement – the process of obtaining goods and services such as raw materials,
machine spare parts, and cafeteria series. It is an operational process executed
hundreds or thousands of times a day in a large organization. The three main
procurement activities are Order, Receive, and Pay.
• Purchase order – a written document requesting delivery of a specified quantity of
product or service in return for payment.
• Purchase requisition (PR) – an internal company document that issues a request for
a purchase.
• Radio-frequency identification (RFID) – chips that broadcast data to receivers to
display and record data that can be used to identify and track items in the supply
chain.
• Raw materials inventory – stores components like bicycle tires and other goods
procured from suppliers.
• Returns Management process – manages returns of a business’ faulty products.
• Roll up – the accounting process to compile and summarize the accounting
transactions into balance sheets and income statements.
• Supplier evaluation process – process to determine the criteria for supplier selection
that adds or removes suppliers from the list of approved suppliers.
• Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) process – process that automates,
simplifies, and accelerates a variety of supply chain processes. It helps companies
reduce procurement costs, build collaborative supplier relationships, better manage
supplier options, and improve time to market.
• Supply chain management (SCM) – the design, planning, execution, and integration
of all supply chain processes. It uses a collection of tools, techniques, and
management activities to help businesses develop integrated supply chains that
support organizational strategy.
• Three-way match – the data on the invoice must match the purchase order and the
goods receipt.

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MIS InClass 7
1. Describe the order pattern from the customers to the retailer every week.
The order pattern from the customers to the retailer was random from week to week.
One week demand would be six bikes, and 12 the next. The following week demand
would be for only two bikes. Sometimes the demand would trend upward, steadily
increasing over a period of weeks. At other times, demand would slowly fall over a
period of time.
2. Why did the ordering pattern between the suppliers in the supply chain evolve
the way it did?
Initially, the ordering pattern between the stations was very erratic. A bullwhip effect
was created. As the game moved forward, product was able to work its way through
the supply chain, so orders were able to be met. This created a pattern of over-
ordering, which led to generally excessive inventory. As the randomness of the orders
was realized, the orders through the supply chain moved up and down as well.
3. What are the objectives and measures for each team’s procurement process?
The objectives for each station are to have less inventory and less backorders. To
measure this, stations use the total cost. The total cost is 0.5 (inventory) +1
(backorders).
4. Where is the IS? What would more data allow? What data are most needed?
There is not an IS present in the game. More data would allow materials planning
within the supply chain. Customer demand is most needed. It takes a long time to get
the customer data through the different stations. If the factory had a more direct view
of customer demand, the backorder and inventory problems would not be as
exaggerated downstream.
5. If you spent money on an IS, would it improve an activity, data flow, control,
automation, or procedure?
It would improve the linkage between the retailer and each of the stations in the
supply chain. Without an IS, each station can only know what the demand is one
station away, and there is an inherent lag. This lag can be reduced when every station
understands what the customer demand actually is.

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6. Create a BPMN diagram of your team’s weekly procurement process.
Procurement Process for Wholesaler
Purchasing Manager Warehouse Manager Fulfillment Manager
Phase
Receive Incoming
Orders and Advance
the order delay
Fill the Order
Place Order
Receive Inventory
and advance the
shipping delay
Record Back Log
Start
Enough
inventory to
fulfill
Yes
No
Check Inventory
Inventory
Update Inventory
Enough
Inventory
No
End
Yes
Update Inventory

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Using Your Knowledge
7-1. Two supply chain processes introduced in this chapter are Returns
Management and Supplier Evaluation.
a. Create a BPMN diagram of each of these processes.
Returns Managment
Retailer Factory Supplier
Phase
Start
End
Product Received by
Retailer
Product Returned to
Factory
Correct Supplier
Charged for Defect
Replacement
Product issued to
Customer
Product Received by
Factory
Product Examined
for Defect
Supplier Charged

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Supplier Evaluation
Approved Supplier List
Purchasing Manager
Phase
Approved
Supplier DB
Start
End
Suppliers are
nominated
Information
Gathered
Supplier
Approved
Update List
Yes
b. Specify efficiency and effectiveness objectives for each process and identify
measures appropriate for CBI.
Potential efficiency objective examples for:
Returns Management: Fewer product returns.
Supplier Evaluation: Time to approve suppliers.

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Potential effectiveness objective examples for:
Returns Management: Quality Controls.
Supplier Evaluation: Sufficient number of approved suppliers.
Potential efficiency measures for:
Returns Management: Percentage of quality control tests passed and inspecting
parts prior to assembly.
Supplier Evaluation: Inventory turnover.
Potential effectiveness measures for:
Returns Management: Decrease in Product Returns account.
Supplier Evaluation: Decrease in the number of suppliers removed from the list
of approved suppliers.
c. What new information system technologies could be used by CBI to
improve these processes, as specified by your measures in part b? Can AR,
RFID, or 3D printing be used to improve these processes?
Yes, RFID could be used to track batches of parts that fail a quality control
inspection, allowing CBI to find the parts before they are used to assemble other
products. Augmented Reality could be used when inspecting a returned product.
The parts in the product could be linked directly to the supplier, allowing CBI to
quickly charge the supplier for the defect to reduce its own Returns allowance
and increase its accounts receivable.
7-2. Which of the four nonroutine cognitive skills identified in Chapter 1 (i.e.,
abstract reasoning, systems thinking, collaboration, and experimentation) did
you use to answer the previous question?
Based on the example answer for question 1, the nonroutine cognitive skill of
systems thinking was used to determine what available technologies could be used
by CBI to help improve its processes and how the technologies could be leveraged
to help each other. Abstract reasoning was also utilized to determine in which step
of the process the technology could be used.
7-3. Which of the four skills in Exercise 7-2 would be most important for Wally’s
replacement?
Wally’s replacement will need to possess systems thinking in order to connect all of
the inputs and outputs produced by CBI into one big system. The three remaining
non-routine skills will also be important for Wally’s replacement. Technology
moves quickly and to remain an effective manager, Wally’s replacement will need
to move quickly as well. Over the course of ten or twenty years, the processes will
also change, creating more opportunities for CBI to improve and become an even
better business.

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7-4. The Procurement process in this chapter is an inbound logistics operational
process. Name two other operational processes at CBI. Describe two inbound
logistics managerial processes and two strategic processes.
Examples of two other operational processes are Accounts Payable and Conducting
Sales. Examples of inbound logistics managerial processes include materials
requirement planning and production assembly employee scheduling. Examples of
strategic processes include budget planning and determining future warehouse
space requirements.
7-5. If a warehouse worker opens a box and the contents are broken, those items
will be returned to the supplier. Add this activity to the BPMN diagram of the
Procurement process (Figure 7-14).
Updated BPMN for Figure 7-12
Purchasing Manager
Warehouse
Manager
SAP Application Accountant
Phase
Start
Update DB
Create Purchase
Requisition
Create Purchase
Order
Receive Goods
Receive Invoice
Yes
Consistent 3
Way Match
Pay Supplier
Yes
End
Retrieve Three-Way
Match Data
Update DB
SAP DB
No
Product in
Acceptable
Condition
Return Product to
Supplier
No
7-6. For the Procurement process after SAP implementation, what are the triggers
for each activity to start? For example, what action (trigger) initiates the
Create PO activity?
To start, the raw material inventory for a given product must drop below a
predetermined level. This will cause a purchase requisition to be created. Once a PR
is created, the purchasing manager must approve it in order to create a purchase
order. Once a PO is created and the materials are delivered, a goods receipt is

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created. Once the goods are added to the inventory, the goods receipt creates an
entry in accounts payable. Once CBI receives the invoice for the PO, the receive
invoice process is triggered. This allows the Pay supplier activity to begin. Before
the post outgoing payment activity can be completed, the data from the PO, goods
receipt, and invoice must all be correct (the three-way match).
7-7. What kinds of errors can Wally, Maria, and Ann make that are not captured
by SAP? One example is that Wally might count 20 bottles and 30 cages but
mistakenly enter 20 cages and 30 bottles. Describe a particularly harmful
mistake that each can make and how the process could be changed to prevent
that error.
Wally could accidentally miss clicking OK for one of the products in the Goods
Receipt Screen. Maria could select the wrong supplier for a particular material. Ann
could select the wrong supplier to which to issue a payment. A particularly harmful
mistake that Wally could make is to forget to create a good receipt altogether. To
improve this process, augmented reality and RFID tags could be used to identify
materials that have been shipped by the supplier but have yet to be entered into
inventory at CBI. Maria could mistype a part number to be ordered. To prevent this,
a check could be run to confirm that the part number ordered is below the minimum
stock on hand. Ann could pay the wrong vendor. To prevent this, checks could be
used to ensure that the vendor being paid has an unpaid invoice with CBI and that
the amount of payment is less than or equal to the amount of the accounts payable
for that particular vendor.
7-8. How does a pizza shop’s Procurement process differ from CBI’s? What do you
believe is the corporate strategy of your favorite pizza franchise? What are the
objectives and measures of its Procurement process to support this strategy?
A pizza shop’s procurement process would need to be more efficient than CBI’s.
Pizza shops carry perishable items on their inventory, which means inventory must
be turned over quickly. Pizza shops also generally have narrow margins. This
means that there is not as much room to carry excess inventory like CBI might be
able to. Papa John’s, with over 3,500 locations, aims to provide better pizzas by
using better ingredients. This can be particularly difficult due to the need for fresh
vegetables. Because of this, the chain has local suppliers for each location. To
support the strategy, Papa John’s should have relatively small amounts of raw
materials on hand to make sure that the ingredients are fresh. This can be measured
by the inventory turnover for each ingredient. Another measure is the response time
by suppliers to provide the fresh ingredients. This can be measured by the order
fulfillment time.
7-9. 3D printing has many benefits for businesses. Suggest three products that CBI
might print instead of procure with traditional means and three that your
university might print.
Suggested answers for CBI:
• Any plastic parts for its bicycles, ranging from wheel reflector shells to handle-
bar plugs and from tire filler caps to water bottles and helmet shells.

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• Promotional materials such as key chains, custom signage for store display, etc.
• With the right technology and printer cartridges, metal parts may be part of the
process in the future. There are currently experiments with titanium printing that
would allow the printing of high-end gears, derailleurs, etc.
Suggested answers for a university:
• Athletic equipment (think football, hockey, etc.).
• Keys, most universities spend significant funds on key manufacture and control.
• Soft and hard goods with the university seal/logo for sale in the bookstore and at
events.
Students will certainly have a plethora of suggestions.
Which procurement objectives does 3D printing support?
Procurement is primarily associated with inbound logistics. It is the process by
which goods are ordered, received, stored, disseminated within the organization,
and paid for. 3D printing affects ordering (to some extent), receipt, storage, and
dissemination (depending upon where printing occurs relative to the ultimate user’s
location).
7-10. Augmented reality will help employees find items in a warehouse, but this IS
may also support many other processes. Name two and describe how AR will
improve them. Use Google Glass as one example of using AR, and use another
example of AR for your other process.
AR could assist with navigation though a large facility to locate an individual or
functional location. AR could also be used to help a person during a presentation by
presenting context sensitive information viewable only by the presenter regardless
of the presenter’s proximity to a computer (think Google Glass). In a more
traditional sense, AR could present 3D images of complex designs to assist in
product repair, virtual design interaction, etc. If AR is tied to GPS, which is
certainly a reality, your smartphone can present an AR view of your current
location to give you information about your surroundings, or possibly suggest
possibilities for a sales call close to you, for example.

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Collaboration Exercise 7
1. Figure 7-8 lists problems with the Procurement process at CBI. Which of these
would apply to the university? Which would not? What are some procurement
problems that might be unique to an athletics department?
In the Accounting role, three-way match discrepancies and the lack of real time
accounting data would apply at university. Purchasing agents could be spread across
many departments and colleges. Internal controls could also be weak in the
Purchasing role. The problems with finished goods inventory and raw materials
inventory would not apply to the university. The athletics department, on the other
hand, may face issues with procurement due to the need for a very specialized piece
of athletic equipment that is only offered by a limited number of suppliers. An
athletics department might also face issues with increased procurement costs because
of low order volumes. It might be difficult to obtain economies of scale when there
are only 25 hockey players who need hockey skates ordered for the season.
2. Figure 7-12 lists objectives and measures that the managers at CBI determined
for the Procurement process. What objectives and measures would you suggest
for the university? What objectives and measures would you expect the athletics
director to suggest (do not use the objectives and measures from Chapter 6)?
For the university, an objective should be to reduce inventory. Another objective
could be to reduce costs. Measures for these objectives would be decreasing
inventory costs from 25% of sales to 15% and to reduce product costs by 5%. The
athletics department should use objectives like reduce cost and increase the volume of
cross-selling. Measures could include reducing product costs by 10% and increasing
cross-selling revenues by 25%.
3. Figure 7-28 lists the impacts of SAP on an organization. Which of these impacts
would affect the athletics department?
Of the four items listed, new skills needed and process focus would affect the
athletics department. The department will need to train employees to be proficient
with the supply chain management system, and to utilize employees’ abstract
reasoning and analytical skills. The athletics department will also need to focus on
processes. The inputs and outputs into the system will provide more data for the
department’s customers and suppliers.
4. Chapter 1 explained four nonroutine cognitive skills: abstract reasoning, systems
thinking, collaboration, and experimentation. Explain how implementing the
new Procurement process at CBI will require each of these skills from the
members of the SAP implementation team.
Abstract reasoning is needed to create and manipulate the models for CBI’s
processes. Ultimately, the process used by the employees and the process that the
SAP software is designed to aid must be the same. It may require the human
processes and computer processes to be tweaked in order to work together. Systems
thinking will be needed in order to fully realize the benefits provided by SAP. The
ERP system creates many inputs and outputs which can be used by the company to

12 of 17
increase the efficiency of it processes and to increase its operating margins. It is up to
the employees to realize how the data can be used. Collaboration is essential for a
successful implementation. Employees from different areas of the company will need
to work together toward a common goal for the investment in the system to be
worthwhile. Experimentation is needed to pursue potential solutions to problems in
the processes and to foster learning opportunities. Not every experiment will be
successful; the opportunity comes in learning something from a failed experiment
other than the knowledge that what was tried did not work.

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Active Case 7: SAP PROCUREMENT TUTORIAL
7-11. Describe your first impressions of SAP.
SAP can seem very large and daunting at first glance. Users may have feelings of
confusion and even intimidation. Many textboxes create many opportunities for
user error. However, while SAP may seem a little overwhelming, the system has
many controls in place. Some of these controls include data validation (selecting
vendors or products from a pre-populated list), and auto-completed fields, which
prevent user inputs from being incorrectly entered.|
7-12. What types of skills are necessary to use this system?
In order to use the SAP system, the user needs to possess analytical skills. The
system produces many data points. SAP relies on the efficiency of underlying
processes in order for businesses to gain the full benefit. The processes are designed
and executed by those that use the system.
7-13. Create a screen capture of an SAP screen. Underneath the image, provide an
answer to each of the following questions:
The Post Outgoing Payments screen is used as an example.
a. In which of the activities does this screen occur?
The screen occurs in the Post Payment activity.
b. What is the name of this screen?
This screen is called the Post Outgoing Payments Header screen.

14 of 17
c. What is the name of the screen that precedes it? What screen comes after
it?
The screen that precedes the Post Payment Header screen is the Outgoing
Payment screen. The screen that follows the Post Payment Header screen is the
Post Outgoing Payments process open items screen.
d. What actor accomplishes this activity?
The actor that accomplishes this activity is Ann from accounting.
e. Describe an error that this actor may do on this screen that SAP will
prevent.
Without SAP, Ann could enter the wrong amount for payment. While SAP does
not outright prevent this action, it does provide a check figure in the “Not
assigned” box. If the value for the not assigned box is not zero, Ann will know
that there is an error.
7-14. Make an informal diagram of the four main actors: Supplier (Composite
Bikes), Purchasing (Maria), Warehouse (Wally), and Accounting (Ann). Draw
arrows that show the data that flows among the actors during this process.
Number the arrows and include on each arrow what data are included in the
message.
Case 7 Question 4
Supplier Purchasing Warehouse Accounting
Phase
Start
1. Purchase Requisition Request
Receive Purchase
Request
Create Purchase
Order
Fill Purchase Order
Create Goods
Receipt
Issue Payment
2. Required Material
3. PO information
4. Product
5. Invoicing Information
Send Invoice 6. Invoice
Receive Payment
Create Account
Payable
7. Receipt Confirmation
8. AP Information
9. Payment Data
End

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7-15. Using the same four main actors as in question 7-14, this time show with the
arrows how the material (the water bottles and cages) moves.
Case 7 Question 5
Supplier Purchasing Warehouse Accounting
Phase
Receive PO / Ship
Order
Receive Order /
Create Goods
Receipt
Start
End
1. Order Contents

16 of 17
7-16. One concern of a business is fraud. One fraud technique is to create suppliers
who are not suppliers but are co-conspirators. The conspirator inside the
business accepts invoices for nonexistent deliveries. For this fraud scheme to
work, who at CBI has to take part? How can SAP processes decrease the
chance of this type of fraud?
For this scheme to be used, Wally, Maria, and Ann would all need to take part.
Maria would play a central role as the purchasing manager because she would
create both the fictitious vendor and the fraudulent purchase orders. Wally would
also play a role in the warehouse by creating the goods receipt document. By
creating the document, Wally would open up an account payable as well. In
accounting, Ann would be CBI’s last line of defense. Ann would post the payment
to the fictitious vendor, completing the fraud.
SAP processes can decrease this type of fraud by splitting the various processes up
between functional departments and actors within those departments. Access can be
restricted so that no single individual could complete each step necessary for the
fraud. By requiring more actors to take part, the likelihood of a coworker noticing
something is amiss increases. Another measure that can be taken is to utilize an
approved supplier list. This would allow purchase orders to only be placed to
vendors who meet certain requirements. One possible requirement is to undergo a
site visit by members of CBI’s management.
7-17. Select any of the main activities or subactivities in the Procurement process.
The activity used in this example is Create Purchase Order.
a. What event triggers this activity?
The activity is triggered by the purchasing manager approving a purchase
requisition. The purchase requisition may have been automatically generated by
the stock levels of a particular product dropping below a predetermined point.
The purchase requisition may have also been created for a product that CBI
does not normally stock, but needs for a special order or even a new product
line.
b. What activity follows this activity?
Following the Create Purchase Order activity is the Create Goods Receipt
activity.
c. For one data entry item for this activity, describe what would happen in the
rest of the process if that entry was erroneous.
One potential error would be ordering the wrong quantity of an item. This error
can cause problems if not enough are ordered, creating a stock-out, or if too
many are ordered, creating excess inventory. When the warehouse manager
goes to create the goods receipt, the items will be added to the inventory. Once
Ann receives the invoice for the order, a payment will be posted and CBI will
not have the product quantity it needs.

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d. For one data entry item for this activity, describe what limits (controls) you
would put in place on the data to prevent the type of error described in
item c.
To prevent an error like the one described above, CBI could implement a
reasonableness check for the create purchase order activity. For example, a
maximum order quantity of 25 could be set for a common component like a
popular road bike frame. On the other hand, the maximum order quantity might
only be five for a less popular specialty product like a cyclocross bike frame. In
the case of the road bike frame, this control would prevent 52 frames from being
ordered. In the case of the cyclocross bike, the smaller maximum order quantity
could prevent CBI from having a large quantity on-hand going into the off-peak
season.

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Schleiermacher taught him the distinction between faith and
theology and the central significance of the person of the Redeemer,
without, however, seriously infecting him with his own exaggeratedly
subjective and speculative tendencies. Through Neander, his mind
was open to the appreciation of Christianity as a phenomenon and
power in the history of humanity. He was most drawn towards the
last-mentioned, and always spoke of him with deep and loving
reverence. There was not a little affinity between the two—an
affinity which manifested itself even more distinctly in later years;
and if their course of development had been more similar, the
resemblance between them would have been something very
unusual. This will appear as we advance in our task.
During this tour, Ullmann visited Hamburg, and there formed an
acquaintance which was destined to become very intimate, and to
have not a little influence on his career as a theologian—it was that
of the celebrated publisher, Friedrich Perthes. The circumstances
under which the introduction took place were embarrassing enough.
Ullmann had ran short of money, and not knowing what else to do,
went to Perthes, who at once, on the credit of his honest face, as he
said, lent him a sufficient sum of money to enable him to carry out
his immediate plans. Perthes subsequently became Ullmann's
publisher.[45]
In the autumn of 1819, Ullmann commenced lecturing at Heidelberg,
taking for subjects Exegesis and Church History. With unusual
consideration, the Government gave him, even as Privat-Docent, a
small salary, and promised him early promotion to an Extraordinary
Professorship, a promise which was fulfilled in 1821. The first
published fruits of his studies were a critical treatise on the Second
Epistle of Peter, in which he defended the first two chapters as a
genuine fragment of the Apostle, but admitted the remainder to be
the work of another hand; and an examination of the 'Third Epistle
of Paul to the Corinthians,' which had just been translated from the
Armenian by Rind, and which he demonstrated to be a forgery.
These were the first and last properly critical essays he ever wrote.

His next publications, which were 'An Archæological Essay on the
Christian Festivals,' originally appended to the second edition of
Creuzer's 'Symbolik,' and another on the sect of the Hypsistarians,
written in Latin, as the programme when he entered on his
professorship, inaugurated the labours in the field of Church history
where lay his true vocation, and in which he achieved his best
successes.
The year 1820 brought two events on which he never ceased to look
back with the intensest thankfulness—his betrothal with Hulda
Moreau, who eventually became his wife, and his friendship with
Umbreit, who had become his colleague as Professor of Oriental
Languages. The strain in which he refers to the former, when writing
to his friend Schwab, was all that the most ardent lover could
demand. It will suffice to quote one sentence:—'Never had I either
in hopes or dreams represented to myself the happiness of love so
beautifully and truly as I have found it to be in reality.' Of Umbreit he
spoke in the following terms:—'He is just the friend for whom I have
longed; one who takes me and understands me just as I am and
live; who loves me faithfully with all his heart, despite my defects,
and who has insight into and sympathy with the needs of my soul.'
'Soon,' says he, in his own sketch of Umbreit's life, 'our hearts
opened to each other, and ere long our relation to each other was
such that it became a necessity to meet daily and exchange
thoughts and experiences. We were one as to the basis and goal of
life; and yet the individuality and development of each were so
different that we supplemented each other, and were thus for each
other a perpetual stimulus.' It was due to Ullmann's influence that
Umbreit became positively Christian, both in his theology and life.
These were the bright aspects of the life of the young professor. It
had, however, its shadows. The University numbered at this time
only fifty-five students of theology, and they were mainly divided
between Daub and Paulus; besides, the ground was so pre-occupied
by Rationalism on the one side, and Speculation on the other, that
there was no room for a theology that aimed to be at once

evangelical and historical. In 1823, Ullmann wrote to Schwab:—'In a
scientific respect, our position here is bad. The constellation of
theological studies is of such a kind that several, I might say most of
the professors, are really useless. To this number I have the honour
to belong, along with men like Abegg and Umbreit. I deliver my
regular lectures, but I have very few hearers and little hope of an
improvement.' In addition to this, his salary was so small that it did
not suffice for his own wants, much less could he marry on it. He
became at last so weary of this state of things that he begged the
Government to give him a living in the country. Instead of acceding
to his wish, however, they increased his salary, and thus enabled him
to venture on marrying in 1824.
In the following year he published his first large work—a monograph
on Gregory Nazianzen, which proved him to be a worthy compeer of
Neander, and brought him, in 1826, an invitation to the Theological
Seminary at Wittenberg. Had not the Government again increased
his salary, and made him in addition Professor in Ordinary, he would
probably then have quitted Heidelberg, much as he loved it, and
thoroughly loyal and grateful as were his feelings towards his native
land. He no longer, however, felt so happy there as he had done in
former years. The party spirit under which he had to suffer so
severely at a later period, and which has done so much to degrade
both theology and the Church in Baden, was just beginning to make
itself felt, both in the University and in private circles.
The next great event in his life, and an important event in the
history of German theology, the founding of the Theologische
Studien und Kritiken, shall be narrated in his own words:—
'About this time the thought occurred to us' (referring to Umbreit and
himself) 'of establishing a new theological journal, of which we
proposed to ourselves to be joint editors. Our idea was, not to
increase the already too numerous depositories of mere dry erudition,
but to create an organ for the new theology which was either already
in existence or in process of growth. After talking the matter over
carefully between ourselves, we communicated our idea to our friends
—Nitzsch, Lücke, and Gieseler,[46] all of whom were then in Bonn. As

they at once promised their cooperation, we arranged to meet, for the
maturing of our plans, at Rüdesheim, in the spring of 1827. Singularly
enough, too, the publisher to whom we proposed applying, Friedrich
Perthes, had himself also, quite independently, been entertaining a
similar plan; and that not merely as a business speculation, but also
for the sake of promoting the so-called new theology.'
As his and their wishes thus happily met, the scheme was speedily
ripened, and the first number made its appearance at Hamburg, in
1828, bearing on its title-page the names of Drs. Ullmann and
Umbreit as editors, and of Drs. Gieseler, Lücke, and Nitzsch as
collaborateurs.
During the first years of its existence, the Studien und Kritiken had a
severe struggle: in a commercial point of view it certainly did not
pay; indeed, as such things are now regarded in this country, it
never has paid well. The highest circulation it ever attained—
unprecedented before, and since, in Germany—was between 900
and 1,000. This was prior to that year of political and social
disturbances—1848. What the number of its subscribers at the
present moment may be, we do not know; we have been told they
do not reach 500. Among its contributors it has had almost all the
greatest German theologians of the last forty years; for example,
Schleiermacher, De Wette, Rothe, Julius Müller, Twesten,
Hundeshagen, Tholuck, Bleek, Neander, Dorner, Schenkel,
Schweitzer, and others too numerous to be specified. At present, it is
edited by Drs. Hundeshagen and Riehm. Whilst from the beginning
the original design of its founders—that it should be the organ of the
theology of which Neander and Nitzsch may be said to have been
the best-known representatives—was conscientiously adhered to, its
pages were constantly open to opinions diverging very widely from
those of the editors. In fact, it was a kind of neutral ground on
which men of, one might almost say, opposite theological opinions
met for courteous tourney. None were excluded from contributing
whose spirit was that of reverential inquiry. It has accordingly been
in the best sense a power, not only in Germany but even throughout
Christendom. We cannot write these words without blushing with

shame that we in Great Britain have never been able adequately to
sustain, for any length of time, any purely theological journal at all,
much less one that dared to be something more than the mere
organ of a little party or sect. It is a disgrace to us. In this matter,
we are far behind even America; how much farther behind Germany!
and that, too, notwithstanding that a certain interest in theological
questions is much more widely diffused among us than in the latter
country.
The article with which the Studien opened, at once established the
character both of the journal and of its principal editor; it was one
on the 'Sinlessness of Jesus,'[47] which subsequently appeared in a
separate and considerably enlarged form. During Ullmann's lifetime it
ran through seven editions, and was translated into, at all events,
one foreign language. Few books have rendered better service to
young theologians, in their doubts and struggles, than this.
In 1829, an invitation came to him from Prussia to take the chair of
Church History at the University of Halle. Strongly as he was
attached to Heidelberg, and patriotically desirous as he was of
serving Baden, still this time he felt that it was his duty to go. Such,
too, was the opinion of his friends; even the Minister of Education in
Baden raised little objection, though he expressed the hope that
when the right moment came, Heidelberg would be able to reclaim
its own. The change was a very great one—greater than can well be
appreciated by any one who is not acquainted with the difference,
not only between Halle and Heidelberg, but also between their
respective inhabitants. South Germans do not always harmonize well
with North Germans. No contrast could be greater than that between
the two towns. The praises of Heidelberg—of its river, castle, forests,
mountains, and valleys—everybody sings, and sings with justice.
Halle is known to comparatively few, and is not likely to be loved by
ordinary tourists. And yet those who have lived in Halle for any
length of time always think of it with affection. Its streets are narrow
and close; its pavements used to be uncivilized in summer, and
absolutely barbarous in winter; its atmosphere is tainted by one

general smell of the peculiar kind of turf that is burnt, and by
numerous particular odours; the older houses and rooms are fusty,
and abound in tenants who do not pay, but exact rent from their
fellow-lodgers; it is awfully hot in summer and cold in winter; the
scenery around, save in one direction, is very dismal—and yet few
who have studied there can help saying, 'Dear old Halle!' The secret
is the kind, unpretending, truly scientific spirit that prevails among
the professors and their families, rendering them very accessible to
all, and facilitating close intercourse. Ullmann found in Halle all the
diversities of point of view that existed at Heidelberg, and, indeed, at
every University. Wegscheider and Gesenius represented
Rationalism, but a better and larger spirit possessed the faculties.
More frequent opportunities were, moreover, afforded him of
meeting the other eminent men of the age. He visited
Schleiermacher and Neander in Berlin; Tieck in Dresden; Hase and
Baumgarten-Crusius in Jena; went a foot tour with Lachmann,
Hossbach, and Schleiermacher in Thuringia; and held a conference
with the co-operators and contributors of the Studien in Marburg.
But the chief source of satisfaction were the 800 theological students
who then frequented Halle; for he now secured auditories double
the number of all the theological students of Heidelberg taken
together. Naturally, too, his income was more adequate to the
necessities of a man of family and learning than it had ever been
before. All these circumstances gave his letters to his friends in
South Germany a tone of unmistakeable cheerfulness.
During the early Halle years, his time and energies were so much
absorbed in the preparation of his lectures and the editing of the
Studien, which now devolved almost entirely on himself, that
extensive literary undertakings were out of the question. He lectured
on Church History, History of Doctrine, Symbolics, Introduction to
the New Testament, and at last also on Dogmatics. This last subject
was taken up by way of counteracting the influence of Wegscheider.
In his inaugural discourse on 'The Position of a Church Historian in
the Present Day,' afterwards printed in the Studien (1829), Ullmann
sounded the key-note of his entire future teachings in words some of

which may be quoted here. The entire discourse well deserves
studying by ourselves at the present time:—
'Sound reason and pure revelation of God are not at the root diverse,
and cannot be opposed to each other, though they may present
religious truth in differing forms and compass. A truly divine doctrine
will never interfere with the freedom of thought and of intellectual
development; on the contrary, it will confer true, inward liberty. That
which separates the opposing parties in our midst is, on the one
hand, that the defenders of reason are not always rational enough,
not truly and impartially rational; and on the other hand, that the
believers in revelation do not adhere with sufficient simplicity to the
word and spirit of revelation.' 'Christianity is higher reason; it is
reason in the form of history, in the form of a divine institution; and
as such it connects itself with the deepest needs of the human soul.'
'Christianity and reason must not and cannot be separated from each
other.'
The years 1831 and 1832 were years of deep sorrow: in the former
he lost his eldest daughter; in the latter his beloved wife. Severe as
was the test to which his faith was thus put, it stood it well. He was
able to say, 'The Lord gave; the Lord hath taken away: blessed be
the name of the Lord.' But the blow affected him very severely. He
withdrew from the social intercourse in which he had so greatly
delighted; his health, too, was so enfeebled that he was compelled
to go for a time to Baden on visits to friends. The following extract
from a letter to Umbreit, after his return, shows how he thought and
felt:—
'I have found it very hard to settle down in Halle after so long an
enjoyment of the beauties of my old home. Like an unwilling child, I
have only given in by degrees. Nor did I really become contented
again till I set thoroughly to work. And now that I am at work, I am
again looking forward to the holidays. One always seems to remain a
child, and life is an eternal circle, and after all a labour and sorrow,
occasionally broken by brighter glimpses of heaven, of the hearts of
friends, of one's own soul, and of nature. When one looks seriously at
life, one can scarcely help both smiling and weeping; and it would be
utterly unintelligible to me without God and eternity. It is not good,
however, to think and grub too much about it; one must undertake

some work, even though it be not much. Faith and work are the only
sources of lasting peace.'
In the autumn of 1834 he married again. Until 1833, when his first
contribution to the 'History of the Reformers before the
Reformation'—'John Wessel and his Times'—appeared, he printed
nothing but a few essays and reviews in the Studien. That the time
was not a very favourable one for theological authorship would
appear from the circumstance that Perthes, the publisher of 'Wessel,'
large-minded and sympathetic as he was, did not expect it to pay
expenses. It proved, however, a success, and with the portions
subsequently issued, is now esteemed one of the best German
monographs in the domain of Church history.
Early in 1835, Ullmann wrote to a friend: 'In the world of literature
we have at present a complete ebb; nor does there seem any
prospect of our being stirred out of our quiet jogtrot existence. What
a blessing it would be, if some great light were to arise in theology—
some second Luther, or Lessing, or Goethe!' He little thought that
the stirring up that he desired would so soon come; still less that it
would come in the way in which it did come. It was not a new
Luther, or Goethe, or Lessing that arose, but Strauss, with his 'Life of
Jesus.' As is well known, this work, notwithstanding its containing
little that was really new, produced an unexampled sensation in the
theological and ecclesiastical circles of Germany. It called forth a
perfect flood of replies; and among them, Ullmann's, though small in
compass, occupied a very honourable position. He put his finger on
the weak spot in Strauss's book, in the following words of a letter
written to Schwab, immediately after he had taken a first glance at
it:—'All honour to criticism, but in Strauss's case it becomes plainly
unhistorical; for on the view with which he starts, the origin of
Christianity and the rise of men like the Apostle Paul are alike
inexplicable.' His reply consisted of two essays in the Studien of
1836 and 1838, and afterwards published separately, under the title,
'Historisch oder Mythisch.' Next to Neander's 'Life of Jesus,'
Ullmann's treatise is said to have had most influence on Strauss.

Shortly after his second marriage, Ullmann wrote to a friend that he
felt he was becoming every year more and more attached to Halle
and North Germany; and yet, when the call came to him, in 1836, to
resume his position at Heidelberg, he was unable to resist it. He had
previously declined without hesitation to entertain a proposal to
remove to Kiel. Many considerations weighed with him; certainly,
however, not an increase of income, for he positively lost by the
change. The thought of revived intimacy with Umbreit; the being
near to his aged father; the beauty of Heidelberg; perhaps, too, the
sorrows associated with Halle; but, above all, the prospect held out
that his return should be the first step in the renewal of the
theological faculty, were the magnets drawing him homeward. Still
he found it difficult to decide. The Prussian Government did all in
their power to retain him, but he thought duty pointed to a return;
and he accordingly left Halle in the autumn of 1836. He could not
always congratulate himself on the step thus taken. Indeed, a
certain feeling of disappointment almost immediately took
possession of him. He missed especially the large Halle auditories. In
Halle he had 100 students; in Heidelberg he began with six, who
evinced, moreover, little interest. His hope of securing Nitzsch as a
colleague was frustrated; the Government soon grew weary of
special efforts to further theological study; the old ornaments of
Heidelberg died rapidly out; and the new generation had neither
faith nor refinement, so that when a professorship was offered him
in 1841 at the University of Bonn he was strongly tempted to accept
it, although he had previously refused one at Tübingen. Indeed, he
probably would have returned to Prussia but for the renewal of the
promises to do more for theology than had been done heretofore,
and an autograph letter from the Grand Duke himself, begging him
in the most flattering terms to remain. Having, soon after this time,
purchased a house and garden of his own, he settled down inwardly
and outwardly as a permanent Heidelberg fixture.
Death again visited his household, taking this time the only
remaining daughter of his first wife, and the only child of his second.
In other respects, however, he grew more content as the years

advanced; partly because the circle of sympathizing friends gradually
increased, and partly because the state of things at the University
materially improved. The advent of new colleagues like Rothe,
Hundeshagen, Schenkel, and Schöberlein, was naturally a source of
great satisfaction.
In 1842, he completed his principal work—'The Reformers before the
Reformation.' It was his last great effort. An intention, long
entertained, of writing a life of Luther, was never realized. He
became too absorbed in the various theoretical and practical
questions that successively agitated the political, theological, and
ecclesiastical worlds, to find time or energy for extensive literary
undertakings; not that he ceased writing, but that what he wrote
bore predominant reference to questions of immediate interest, and
appeared for the most part in the pages of the Studien und Kritiken.
Two of the most notable of the essays written at this period are
those on the 'Cultus des Genius' and 'Das Wesen des Christenthums.'
The former was directed against Strauss, who, in his 'Vergängliches
und Bleibendes im Christenthum,' having reduced Jesus Christ to the
rank of a religious genius, maintained that the cultus of genius is the
only form of public and common religion the educated of the present
generation can celebrate. The immediate occasion of his
'Sendschreiben,' as he termed it, was an oration delivered by his
friend Schwab in connection with the inauguration of a monument to
Schiller, at Marburg. It has always been esteemed one of the
freshest, completest, and most artistic products of his pen. Of the
geniality of the tone in which he approached the subject, the
following passage will be sufficient evidence:—
'Our age is an age of distracted spirits. Let us look at the greatest
among them, that ideal of all who really are, or affect to be, at
discord with themselves and God, the Poet-Lord! A spirit of defiance,
of contempt for mankind, of doubt; a cold breath of hopelessness and
destructiveness pervades his writings. Terror is his domain; the
destruction and misery of mankind are his dwelling place; he knows
little of those fundamental elements of piety, hope, humility, and self-
sacrifice. And yet who dare deny that he is engaged in a struggle,
painful and desperate it is true, after the highest; that he is filled with

irrepressible longings after the noblest? Because human life seemed
to him so vain and empty, therefore did he despise it; because he
would fain have loved men so much more truly than he could,
therefore did he hate them; and yet, when at certain moments the
primal consciousness of the heavenly and divine welled up from the
depths of his soul, what energy and vitality did it evince, and what a
mighty influence did it wield!'
There is very much in this essay that deserves carefully weighing by
all who are mixed up with the intellectual struggles of the present
time; and we have noted numerous passages for quotation, but our
space forbids. The second one, on the 'Essence of Christianity,'
strikes us as a scarcely satisfactory answer to the question
discussed, though one's estimate of it naturally depends on one's
own point of view. His course of thought is as follows.
Christianity, although unchangeably one and the same, has been
viewed in different ages in different ways; first as doctrine, then as
law, then as a plan of redemption. If we wish to understand its
inmost essence, and to account for its workings in their entire
compass, we must regard it as a new life, grounded on a complex of
divine deeds and manifesting itself in human works. This life
necessarily had a creative centre; this centre must have been a
living one; and as it is life of the highest kind, the centre must have
been a person. The founder of Christianity was the person in whom
was effected that which all religions have striven after, the perfect
union of God and man. Such being his character, the relation in
which he stands to the religion founded by him, is not the outward
one which subsists where the religion is advanced as a doctrine, or a
law, or an institution; no, he himself embodies in himself the religion
he founded, and his religion is essentially faith and life in him. The
essence, the distinguishing character of Christianity, must
accordingly be defined to be the person of its founder. Many of the
ideas unfolded in this essay have exercised a very great influence
on, and are now the common property of Christendom.
Schleiermacher was the first in modern times to assign to the person
of Christ the central position in Christianity; but Ullmann purified

Schleiermacher's teaching on this subject from its speculative
accessories, and made it in the best sense popular. The wide-spread
tendency among the preachers and religious thinkers of this country
to bring the person Christ to the foreground is, unquestionably,
largely traceable to this German source. What we should blame in it
is the vagueness and sentimentalism by which it is often
accompanied or marked. The treatise pleased neither the critical nor
the ultra-orthodox. An attack made on it by Count Agenor de
Gasparin, in the 'Archives du Christianisme' (1851), called forth a
reply from Ullmann which, to our mind, is far more interesting and
valuable than the work it was meant to defend. From that reply,
which appeared in the Studien of 1852, we cannot forbear making
the following quotation, partly for what seems to us its intrinsic
suggestiveness, and partly because it is characteristic of its author's
position. 'The subject in dispute between Count Gasparin and
myself,' says Ullmann,
'May be reduced to three points, the relation first between the outer
and inner rule; secondly, between dogma and love; thirdly, between
the person and the work of the Saviour. As to the first point, he
appeals solely to the outer rule. Now an outer rule is one that comes
to us from without, with the claim to be the norm of our spiritual life.
The completest embodiment of the idea of the outer rule is
Catholicism. But the Count will say, "The true outer rule is the Bible,
not the Church." But how does he decide which of these outer rules is
the true one? Each is a form of the same thing; each claims to be the
only true form. In discriminating between them, appeal must clearly
be made to an inner rule of some kind or other. Do I then mean to
deny that the Scriptures are an outer rule? Certainly not! If I am
asked, In what sense, then, is the Bible an outer rule?—is it in a sense
that excludes all reference to an inner rule, to something higher,
deeper, broader than the written word? I reply, No! In such a sense
the Bible does not itself claim to be an outer rule. That in it which is
outward issued forth from what was originally inward, and has the
tendency, and is designed to become inward again. In thus becoming
inward, it is not intended to operate as an outward rule, but to bear
witness to itself in our inner life, and secure our free assent. Inward
and outward thus act and react on each other. If the Scripture be a
rule, it is fair to ask whence it came to us? It did not fall from heaven;
it was not written immediately by the hand of God; it did not exist

prior to Christianity. Christianity, on the contrary, existed first, and the
Scripture was the organ through which it presented itself to, and
propagated itself among men. That which existed before Scripture
was the complex of saving facts, whose centre is Christ and the
Christian life. The function of the Scripture, therefore, was to be the
medium of making known the person and work of Christ, where the
living message could not reach. For this reason its position and worth
are not unconditional. Christ it is who conditions Scripture and gives it
its worth. It is not the Scripture that gives authority to Christ, but
Christ to Scripture. The proper object of faith is Christ, not the
Scripture; the latter is merely the guide and educator unto Christ.'
The point of view indicated in the above extract is one that needs
taking to heart and developing by the Christian thinkers of this
country; rightly carried out, it would aid them materially in meeting
the difficulties raised by the critics or opponents of the Bible. The
exposition of the nature and function of mysticism in this same reply
is admirable.
In two things, Ullmann had always differed from the majority of
German theologians, and resembled the majority of English
theologians. He endeavoured to write so as to be intelligible and
acceptable to educated laymen, and aimed at exerting direct
practical influence. Science, including theology, is too frequently
pursued and expounded in Germany in the genuine dry-as-dust
style; and theological authors in particular have been in the habit of
completely ignoring the fact that they lived to serve the Church, and
ought therefore to have an eye to its practical needs in all their
enquiries. Hence the astonishing ignorance of theology that prevails
in all but distinctively professional circles. A better feeling on this
point has been growing up during the last ten years; but any change
of practice has been rather forced on the theologians than
spontaneously adopted—forced on them by the consideration that
the laity of their Church were being utterly robbed of faith by the
popular anti-Christian expositions of philosophy, criticism, and
natural science that abounded. We in this country have erred for the
most part in an opposite direction. Our eye to popularity and
practical effect has had a squint in it. But though our theological

investigations have lacked depth, they have, at all events, been far
more widely appreciated. And that our fault is the less serious of the
two is clear from the fact which is possibly unknown to most—that
sound German theological works like those published by the Messrs.
Clark, of Edinburgh, have had, with few exceptions, a larger
circulation in the English than in their original dress. Still, it were well
if both writers and readers in this country were a little more eager to
sound the deeper depths of the science even at the risk of creating
and meeting with difficulties.
The desire felt by Ullmann to exert a direct influence in Church
matters grew with his years. He longed to see the ideas he had
expounded becoming realities, and thought he could and ought
personally to put hand to the work. There was much, too, in the
circumstances of the ten years that preceded 1853 to draw his mind
in the direction in which it naturally tended. Germany was
everywhere in a state of ferment; especially in the domain of
ecclesiastical affairs, were new and difficult problems constantly
presenting themselves. He was also repeatedly called upon by the
authorities of various German States to supply them with Gutachten
on difficulties that had arisen; and the opinions he gave carried
great weight, because of the sound judgment, thorough
conscientiousness, and reverential liberality which characterised
them.
One movement in particular greatly strengthened the inclination to
which we are referring: we mean the secession from the Roman
Catholic Church of Germany that took place under Ronge. He was
not, however, carried away by it, as were many of his
contemporaries, who hailed it as the harbinger of a new era in the
history of the Christian Church. Its insignificance was clear to him
from the very first. In a letter to his friend Schwab, he says
sarcastically:—'The reformers of the nineteenth century have already
passed through Heidelberg and Mannheim, doing a notable amount
of eating and drinking and halloeing by the way.' An essay on the
subject, published originally in the Studien for 1845, and afterwards

as a pamphlet, contains much that bears forcibly on efforts that are
now being made among ourselves to form churches or religious
communities without either historical or doctrinal basis.
In 1853, a post was offered to him, which seemed to meet the wish
he had cherished, to be able to wield direct practical influence in
ecclesiastical affairs. He was called to be Prälat of Baden. This office
or dignity—to which nothing exactly corresponds in our own country
—conferred on its holder a seat in the Upper Chamber of Deputies,
as the representative of the Evangelical Church; but, singularly
enough, did not necessarily make him a member of the Upper
Ecclesiastical Council, so that his direct influence was more personal
than official. Ullmann hesitated at first to sacrifice the quiet and
independence of his University position, and the opportunities of free
action which he largely enjoyed, possessing, as he did, the
confidence of the better clergy throughout the country; but at length
he yielded. Considerations, such as loyalty to his prince, disgust at
the illiberal liberalism that was increasingly gaining the upper hand
at Heidelberg, and perhaps, too, an unconscious stirring of ambition,
influenced his decision; but the main reason, undoubtedly, was the
one to which reference has already been made. Before making this
change, he did as he had done when he consented to remove from
Halle to Heidelberg, and his experience, as a man of a less idealistic
turn of mind might have anticipated, was again the same. He
stipulated for many alterations, both in the principles and methods
of ecclesiastical procedure. Could the programme which he laid
before the Grand Duke have been thoroughly carried out, a great
reform would have been the consequence; but the programme was
a professor's programme, and the professor was not the man to
make it a reality. He soon found that bureaucratic redtapeism,
vested interests, indifference, incapacity, not to mention intrigue and
open opposition, were as common in the higher ecclesiastical as in
the political circles, and as difficult to vanquish.
In 1857, he was appointed to the office of Director of the Upper
Ecclesiastical Council—a position equivalent, in some respects, to

that of the Minister of Cultus in Prussia. The increase of honour
brought an increase of care, but the increase of apparent power did
not bring a corresponding increase of real power. He was associated
with men who, besides being narrow bureaucrats, and having no
sympathy with the higher interests of the Church, looked on Ullmann
as a sort of interloper; the consequence being perpetual struggles
and annoyance, without adequate compensation. Dislike to him
personally began also to spread among the clergy, and the laity
charged him with being a High Church reactionary. His difficulties
culminated in the so-called Agenden-Streit, and in the disputes
relating to the new constitution proposed for the Church; the upshot
of the whole, being that, in 1860, he retired from office, broken in
health, and almost broken in spirit.
He was never able to resume independent literary work, though he
did again undertake the direction of the Studien und Kritiken, which
for several years had mainly devolved on his colleague Umbreit.
After the death of the latter, in 1860, he associated Dr. Rothe with
himself as joint editor; but, owing to an ever-increasing divergence
of their views—both practical and theoretical—this arrangement
terminated in 1864, at which date the journal passed into the hands
of its present editors.
The faith that Ullmann had expounded and defended in life,
sustained him in the decline of health and in the hour of death. In
the autumn of 1863, both bodily and intellectual vigour began
seriously to fail; and on the 12th of January, 1865, he died,
surrounded by his family, and repeating to himself the closing words
of that grand, but almost too moving hymn—
'O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden.'
Art. II.—Aerial Voyages.

Travels in the Air. By James Glaisher, F.R.S., Camille Flammarion, W. de
Fonvielle, and Gaston Tissandier. Edited by James Glaisher, F.R.S.
With 125 illustrations. London: Richard Bentley and Son.
1871.
A few years ago a Frenchman, apostrophising the Genius of
Humanity as none but a Frenchman can do, took the liberty of
reproaching that metaphorical being for its extreme backwardness in
one department of duty. He called upon it to 'march,' an injunction
which his countrymen are so fond of issuing that they sometimes
forget to tell you where, or to state the reason why. The present
age, he intimated, demanded this movement: the coming
generations would be greatly disappointed if it were not
accomplished. 'One effort,' said he encouragingly to the Genius, 'and
the future is thine (l'avenir t'appartient)!' The crooked places, he
promised, should be made straight, and the rough ones delightfully
smooth. There should be no more mountains (Pyrenees or
otherwise), and the valleys should become as level as the plains!
And what does the reader suppose was the duty in respect of which
the genius in question was so shamefully in arrear? It was, says M.
Farcot, in the matter of aerostation. How is it, asked this individual,
somewhat sharply, that man, who is so anxious to conquer
everything and everybody (except, we might add, himself), should
not have made greater exertions to subdue the sole element which
continues in a state of rebellion? How is it that a being who has such
magnificent forces at command, and can traverse the ocean with an
ease and a rapidity which the fleetest denizens of the deep cannot
surpass, should suffer himself to be outstripped in the air by an
insignificant fly? M. Farcot could not comprehend it; M. Farcot would
not submit to it. He therefore offered his services to mankind as the
precursor of a new era, in which the balloon was to become the
prominent figure, and entreated the object of his invocation to wake
up, and with a single bound to overleap the gulf that lay between it
and its greatest triumphs.

We are not in a position to state whether the genius in question
listened favourably to M. Farcot's fervid appeal; but it is certain that
his hopes have not yet been realized. The balloon has always
appeared to possess such splendid capabilities that it is no wonder
its admirers never weary of predicting a brilliant future for the
machine. Considering the prominent part which Frenchmen have
played in the history of aerostation, it will be readily understood that
the apparatus commenced its career with a dash and élan which led
mankind to anticipate that it would accomplish marvellous things,
and become one of the foremost agents in the great work of
civilization. Our lively neighbours, ever on the alert for glory until
their recent misfortunes, and probably so still, were charmed with
the idea of conquering a new region, though it contained nothing
but clouds, and were by no means insensible to the vanity of riding
in the air, though in most cases they went up, like their famous
sovereign, simply to come down again.
Many years have elapsed—nearly a century—since Pilâtre de Rozier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes made their daring voyage into the
atmosphere in the car of a fire-balloon, this being the first excursion
ever attempted by living creatures, if we except three anonymous
animals, a sheep, a duck, and a cock, which were sent up in the
previous month, and returned in safety to the earth. But as yet,
though the machine has rendered considerable service to science,
and will doubtless assist in the solution of many interesting
problems, it is a thing of promise rather than of performance. It is
still in a rudimentary state, and should be received, says M. Glaisher,
simply 'as the first principle of some aerial instrument which remains
to be suggested.' Potentially, it may include the germ of some great
invention, just as Hiero's eolipile and Lord Worcester's 'water-
commanding' engine contained a prophecy of the most masterly of
human machines—the steam giants of Watt. But to apply the well-
known metaphor of Franklin, when asked what was the use of a
balloon, we may say that the 'infant' has not grown up into a man.

Within the last twelve months, however, this largest of human toys—
the plaything of pleasure seekers, and the cynosure of all eyes at
fêtes and tea-gardens—has been converted into a useful machine,
though under the pressure of circumstances which every
philanthropist must deeply deplore.
Of course, when the balloon was presented to mankind, one of the
first thoughts which suggested itself to our combative race was this
—'Can we turn it to any account in war? Will it assist us in killing our
enemies, or capturing their fortresses?' And when we remember that
the machine was reared amongst the most military people in Europe,
can we doubt that as Napoleon's great question respecting the
Simplon road was, whether it would carry cannon, so the chief point
with a Frenchman would be, whether a balloon could be rendered of
any service in a battle? Not many years were suffered to elapse
before regular experiments were instituted with this view. An
aerostatic school was established at Meudon, a company of
aeronauts, under the command of Colonel Coutelle, was formed, and
a number of balloons constructed by Couté were distributed
amongst the divisions of the French army, not even forgetting the
troops despatched to Egypt. At the sieges of Maubeuge, Charleroi,
Mannheim, and Ehrenbreitstein the invention was found to be of
some value for purposes of reconnoitring; and previous to the battle
of Fleurus, Coutelle and an officer spent several hours in the air,
studying the positions of the Austrians, and this with such effect that
their information materially assisted General Jourdan in gaining the
victory. The machine was, of course, held captive during the
process, but its tether was easily extended by means of a windlass,
and thus the occupants were enabled to soar above the enemy's
fire.
More than once it has been proposed to build huge balloons, and
freight them with shells and other missiles, which might be
conveniently dropped down upon a hostile corps, or 'plumped' into
the midst of a beleaguered town. With a view to the demolition of
the fortress of St. Juan de Ulloa, during the war between Mexico and

the United States, Mr. Wise suggested the construction of an
enormous air-ship, which was to carry up a quantity of bombs and
torpedoes, and, whilst securely moored in the atmosphere by means
of a cable several miles in length, it would be in a position to rain
down death upon the devoted place. To its honour, however, the
American Government declined the use of such an aerial battery.
Fortunately—we think we may say fortunately—for the interests of
mankind, the balloon has not succeeded to any considerable extent
as a military machine. Even the Jesuit Lana felt inclined to weep
over his abortive project (he did pray over it) when he considered
how easy it would be for warlike marauders to set the stoutest walls
and ramparts at defiance, and to hurl destruction into any city they
might select. Let us hope that the balloon is destined for more
pacific purposes. The range of modern guns, and the difficulty of
manœuvring so rudderless an apparatus, seem to cut it off from a
career of glory. If employed for purposes of reconnoitring purely, and
kept in a captive condition, it may occasionally render service by
darting suddenly into the atmosphere, and taking a glimpse of the
enemy's position or movements. But, then, a tethered balloon, as M.
de Fonvielle intimates, belongs neither to the air nor the earth; it is a
creature compelled to serve two masters, and therefore cannot do
its duty to either; but, whilst attempting to obey the commands of
its rulers below, it is forced to yield to the caprice of the breezes
above. If free, asks M. Simonin, and if the wind were everything the
aerial heroes could wish; if, moreover, the balloon, charged with the
most formidable fulminates, were carried direct to the hostile camp,
could they expect to find the enemy massed for a review or a
manœuvre precisely at the spot over which they sailed, and could
they time their discharges so beautifully, having due regard to the
speed of the machine, that their projectiles should explode at the
most fitting moment for damaging their foes? Happily, in neither of
the two greatest struggles of recent times—how recent none need
say, for the scent of blood is yet on the soil of Virginia, and the
bones of Teuton and Gaul still lie blended on the fields of France—

has the balloon brought itself into formidable confederacy with
Krupp cannon or the murderous mittrailleuse.
War, however, the greatest of scourges, is sometimes compelled, in
the good providence of God, to yield an incidental harvest of
blessings. Liberty has often been entrusted to the keeping of the
bayonet, and civilization has more than once depended upon the
explosive virtues of charcoal and saltpetre. It is not impossible that
the recent investment of Paris may ultimately lead to the
development of aerial navigation on a scale which would gladden the
heart of M. Farcot, and almost satisfy the expectations of some of
the greatest enthusiasts in the art. We allude, of course, to the
employment of the balloon for postal purposes. During the recent
siege of that city—we mean, of course, by the Germans, and not by
Frenchmen themselves—upwards of fifty of these aerial packets
sailed from the beleaguered metropolis with despatches for the
outer world. They conveyed about two-and-a-half millions of letters,
representing a total weight of about ten tons. Most of them took out
a number of pigeons, which were intended to act as postmen from
the provinces. One, called Le Général Faidherbe, was furnished with
four shepherds' dogs, which it was hoped would break through the
Prussian lines, carrying with them precious communications
concealed under their collars. The greater number of these balloons
were under the management of seamen, sometimes solitary ones,
whose nautical training, it was naturally supposed, would qualify
them more especially for the duties of aerial navigation. More than
one fell into the hands of the enemy, having dropped down right
amongst the Prussians. In some of these cases the crews were
generally made prisoners, but in others they effected their escape;
and more than once their despatches were preserved in a very
remarkable way—in one instance being secreted in a dung cart, and
in another being rescued by a forester, and conveyed to Buffet, the
aeronaut of the Archimède, who had been sent out in search of
them, and had traversed the hostile lines on his errand. Many of
these postal vessels were carried to a considerable distance, some
landing in Belgium, Holland, or Bavaria; whilst one, La Ville

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