PSY 150 403 Chapter 9 SLIDES

Editor's Notes

• #3: Click to reveal textbox.
• #4: Click to reveal all bullets.
• #5: No animation.
• #6: Click to reveal additional bullets.The first box states the definition used in the book.The last two bullet points are: 1) optional details/examples, and 2) connections to other topics in this course.
• #7: Automatic animation.More detail on the second point: these obstacles include tendencies that derail scientific thinking, as well as reasons that we fear the wrong things.
• #8: Click to reveal second text box and graphic.In this case, “states” refers to a “state of being,” such as “happiness.”Instructor: you could ask students, “what concept is suggested by the picture on the slide?”...Beach? Vacation? Waves? Tropics? Chair? Emptiness? Happiness? See how many concepts students can come up with.
• #9: Click to reveal bullets. Then ask students to draw their triangle prototype when prompted.Click to show examples.
• #10: Automatic animation.These examples are more varied than the ones in the text that clearly fit. I suggest challenging students when they say that one of the objects here does not fit, since they all are a place you can sit upright. Students may figure out that many of these examples, while they fit the definition of “chair,” are a better fit for some other concept such as bench, swing, lounge, etc. This brings out another function of concepts; they are categories for observations, mental boxes to put things in.
• #11: Scale of faces flies by on the bottom automatically and the first question appears immediately after. Click to reveal second question/face and again for a final note.Instructor: Let your students know that these categories are difficult to define and the terms and categories may even be offensive to some.  Ask your students if they think these categories problematic (which may render the study invalid).The answer in the first case is 60 percent Asian. In the second, it is 70 percent Caucasian. The average answer among students might be higher in both cases unless they adjust because they know the point of the exercise...that we tend to push things into categories. This is even more true if the question is delayed, our memory shoves experiences even more toward pre-existing categories/concepts.It is important to remind students here that ‘concepts’ such as ‘Asian’ or ‘Caucasian’ are culturally determined—by definition, anyone born in Asia is Asian, but ethnic Saudis do not look like ethnic Tibetans, who do not look like Filipinos. “Caucasian, on the other hand,” is an outmoded racial category; does it refer to looks? ‘Blood’? Birthplace?
• #12: Click to reveal bullets.
• #13: Click to reveal strategies and text.There is no definition of problem solving stated in the text, but the definition above is implied. You can clarify that problem solving does not just pertain to math problems; it also involves figuring out the punch line of a joke, solving mysteries, or resolving a conflict. [If you have time, you could insert your favorite joke, and/or a brain teaser, or mystery.]Trial and error: examples of the third point include guessing the square root of an unusual number, or guessing how to drive to a specific address in another state. An example coming up is the word jumble.Another (not essential) point you can make is that trial and error is tempting when you don’t know what else to do, or you’re in a hurry, although often it ends up taking longer.More about algorithms: --You could substitute “strategy” or “logical procedure” for “method.” --Algorithms are generally guaranteed to generate a solution, either because they are systematic or because they have been previously proven to work (this applies more to mathematics).You could mention that beyond the realm of problem-solving, there are other heuristics we’ll be encountering (which we use in making decisions or forming judgments), such as the availability heuristic.
• #14: Click to reveal bullets.The text’s examples of algorithms might seem to students like examples of trial and error, so these slides aim to clarify these examples. There are also other slides to supplement or replace the text’s examples.
• #15: No animation.The text’s examples of algorithms might seem to students like examples of trial and error, so these slides aim to clarify those examples. There are also other slides to supplement or replace the text’s examples.
• #16: Click to reveal three examples.Don’t bother going through the math on this one; the fact that the math algorithm is laboriously complex is exactly the point. After we have shown when algorithms are better than trial and error, now this slide shows that heuristics can be better, or at least faster, than algorithms. We can take this example one step further through the text and credit the power ofinsight: if thin rectangles waste fence, and the skinniest rectangle has almost no area at all, then a square is best. In fact, corners waste fence; a circle would be even better. I devised this math problem and the solution on my own, but got help drawing the curve; it was graph generated at webgraphing.com from my formula: y axis = x times 0.5(100-2x), or y = 50x – x2.
• #17: Click to reveal bullets. Final click will flash an apple, which is the answer to the question in the study.Previous editions of the book have noted that animals, especially primates, show sudden leaps in solution-making when confronted with complex problems. For example, they can realize that fruit can be reached by using a short stick to reach a longer stick that in turn can reach the fruit, or realize that boxes can be stacked and climbed. We don’t know if the animals feel the same sense of satisfaction as humans when they solve a problem.
• #18: No animation.Clarification: “tiled” means covered with a flat layer of dominoes, only going to the current edge, not filling the area of the two missing squares.Insight: because each domino will cover one black and one pink square, it is not possible for it to work. Even though 62 is divisible by 2, there are now two more black squares than pink squares. This problem is attributed to Martin Gardner.
• #19: Automatic animation.
• #20: Click to reveal bullets on left. The upcoming section on decision-making/judgment will help clarify that last bullet point.Click to reveal sidebar about Peter Wason’s test. To test the “even numbers” theory, students should try out NON-even numbers (odd numbers, fractions, negative numbers) to find examples which would disprove their theory. Finding that these numbers did not fit the rule would make them more scientifically sure that their theory was correct. However, it is our tendency to add to our confidence by trying out information which would confirm our theory (in this case, more even numbers).Next: tests not in the book. This is one of the hardest yet more important concepts in the course, in my opinion, so we’ll try it in up to three more ways.
• #22: No animation.This test is harder for most people than the real-life situation.Flipping over the A could confirm or disprove the claim.Flipping over the D tells us nothing; we have no claim about cards with consonants on one side.Flipping over the 6 is crucial, but often missed because even numbers are not mentioned in the claim; if there is a vowel on the other side, then the claim is not true, because flipping it back over, there is NOT an odd number on the other side of the vowel.Flipping over the 7 is a chance to confirm the claim, but it cannot be used to really test the claim; if there is a consonant on the other side, then the card is irrelevant, because we have no claim about cards with consonants, only a claim about cards with vowels.So…. the answer is the first and third cards.
• #23: Click to reveal text boxes.“Good” science is about challenging our theories to see if they hold up under a search for disconfirming evidence. To do this, we need to find cases of kids who do NOT eat candy. If any of them have ADHD anyway, this would disprove our hypothesis. This slide fits the text here, but you could hit this important concept twice by using this slide (and others) to introduce this concept earlier when talking about research methods, or when talking about hindsight bias and the overconfidence error.Note that almost all claims regarding evolutionary psychology (such as, “it may have had survival value”) do not meet this high standard.
• #24: Automatic animation.The text refers initially to fixation and mental set as “obstacles” to problem solving, but later implies that these two related concepts have their good and bad sides. Mental set and fixation, like heuristics, are useful in solving problems more quickly. The downside is that these tendencies keep us from being able to come up with new approaches to solving new kinds of problems. A good quotation from the text: “As a perceptual set predisposes what we perceive, a mental set predisposes how we think.”
• #25: Click to reveal each sequence and then the answer.Instructor: The first two lines are a test of whether they have done the reading, though I have added one extra in each line.The last two would be easier if the others had not been done first. The third one might be tempting to see as days of the week at first.The last one might be seen as another sequence, when it’s just the first initials of the first bullet point.Another point to make in the middle of the last paragraph: priming that establishes a mental set can occur by going through several problems that can be solved with similar methods. This can be demonstrated with math, but enough math for today, let’s use the examples from the book. Answers: O, T, T, F, F, S, S (numbers)J, F, M, A, M, J, J (months)S, M, T, N, U, O, V, P, W, Q, X, R, Y, S, Z (alternating alphabet)W, I, N, I, T, S ? (initial letters of the words in the question at top)
• #26: Click to reveal answer.This type of fixation has been called functional fixedness. The assumption which makes this problem difficult is that the problem must be solved in two dimensions.
• #27: On click, a solution will appear on screen.There is still fixation here: seeing the dots as points rather than as discs.
• #28: On click, a solution will appear on screen.
• #29: Click to reveal bullets on left. Click to reveal sidebar about making quick judgments.
• #30: Click through to reveal text boxes.A good quote from the text: “Dramatic outcomes make us gasp; probabilities, we hardly grasp.”
• #31: Click to reveal bullets.Regarding the last bullet point: we may not be predisposed to fear a deadly activity with no confinement or heights such as riding a motorcycle.
• #32: Click to reveal examples.Instructor: please clarify from the beginning that we are talking about a thinking error--a prediction/judgment mistake--and not an emotion or personality trait of “confidence”, although the two may tend to occur together in the same person. Ask students to give examples to test their overconfidence in having mastered this concept.In some studies, confidence in our guesses seems to be inversely correlated with accuracy. Suggest an application: simply scanning through the textbook before a test, you may make a judgment that you know the material well. Test for the overconfidence error by having someone ask you to define and give an example of the concepts.
• #33: Click to reveal all bullets in each column.Overconfident people may gain social power--other people are more likely to follow someone who sounds sure of themselves than someone who sounds unsure but turns out to be accurate.Keep track of when you were wrong--you might become more realistic in your judgments, and people might want to be around someone who respects their opinions.
• #34: Click to reveal all bullets in each column.The definition of belief perseverance is from the text. A restatement of the definition you can use: “we tend to defend our current ideas, our sense of what is true, when given information that doesn’t fit our ideas.”Why do I say “we”?...because these are common human tendencies.Why do I add the word “error” to these titles?...because the traits here lead to errors in judgment, such as choosing confidence or mental comfort over a search for the truth. Stereotypes are maintained by this error; people often disregard examples contradicting stereotypes by treating the new information as merely an exception, and not a challenge to the rule.
• #35: No animation.Instructor: belief perseverance might sound like confirmation bias to some students. They both sound like “not being open minded.” This is an optional slide to help make the distinction, since students may get them mixed up if both are options in a multiple choice test question.
• #36: Click to play out first and second animations.Thinking about the five percent failure rate is more likely to get us thinking about what happens if the condom fails; the moving frame represents the shift in where our attention is focused depending on how the issue (here, the condom reliability) is described/framed.
• #37: Click through examples and answers.How to use it well: You can connect past slides to this one by noting, “We have examined some of the pitfalls to watch out for in using intuitive, quick style of making decisions and forming judgments. In general, careful reasoning is better for complex decisions and judgments.”“Is intuition all bad? Let’s talk about the good aspects of intuition, starting with some research about an unconscious process that makes our decision better: incubation.”Editor’s note: note how the explanations under “How it may have been adaptive” are purely speculative guesswork and meet none of the standards of “good science” given a few slides earlier.
• #38: Click to reveal definitions of convergent and divergent thinking.How do people produce something new? Do some people have more creative ability than others?Note that this definition of creativity is slightly different than the definition for creative intelligence, which is not just concerned with the production of ideas but also with the function of those ideas. Creative intelligence involves using creativity to adapt to novel situations.There is no correct answer to the question about chess. Some might say that playing well is more about expertise and practice, while others might note that at the highest levels, someone has to be generating new options, new strategies, and counterstrategies. See if students can come up with examples of creativity beyond the artistic vocations. Possible answers include entrepreneurship, generating hypotheses and explanations in science, generating and proving theorems in mathematics, and inventive problem solving in any form of engineering. One last example familiar to most college students that may generate debate: is it creative, or just derivative/rip-off, when people do mashups (videos, music, images) involving sampling of the work of others?
• #39: Click to show blocks.These are ideas of Robert Sternberg (b. 1949), the same researcher who wrote about three general areas of intelligence. These “components” are really contributing factors that help foster creative production.You can add comments to each of these, using the analogy of playing with blocks. For example, expertise: the building blocks we use to build new ideas.imagination: the ability to see new ways that the blocks could fit together.venturesome personality: the willingness to manipulate the blocks and try combinations that might not work.intrinsic motivation: the desire to build with the blocks just because it’s fun, even when no one is watching or suggesting it.creative environment: having a place you can play and build with the blocks as much as you want, with help available if you want it.
• #40: Click to reveal bullets.These strategies may work especially well for creative problem-solving, but also may work for creative artistic expression.
• #41: Click to reveal bullets.Seeing Alex the parrot answer questions like “what color bigger” and “what shape 4” (what color is the item that is bigger, and what shape is the item of which there are four) certainly gets the observer thinking about thinking.In the videos hosted by Alan Alda, there is an image of seals or sea lions being able to deduce that a symbol they’ve never seen before fits in the category of ‘number’ based on logical deductions from rules and information they’ve established. It’s amazing seeing the seal get rewarded for choosing “#” in one session and then NOT choose it the next moment, choosing something different because the category is different. Ideas that this is simply operant conditioning get really stretched here, though the strictest behaviorists will never be convinced that thinking meaningfully exists in any species.
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• #44: Click to reveal bullets.How do they know that dolphins, apes, elephants, and social birds can recognize themselves in a mirror, while dogs and cat cannot (which is why they’ll fight with a reflection)? This can be determined because these animals and birds were shown to use the mirror to help see as they rubbed off a substance such as some chalk they could not see without the mirror. The “social birds” (corvids, such as magpies and crows) have other amazing social skills such as apparent deception. They hide something when another bird is watching and then move it when the other bird is gone.Nature, Wildlife and the Environment 2 WL002385Sheep Elephant:
• #46: Click to reveal bullets.
• #47: Click to reveal bullets on left. Click to reveal sidebar and bullets.What is language made of?In a spoken language, we have phonemes, the smallest units of sound (vowels and consonants), which combine in various ways to form meaningful patterns.For alphabet-based written languages, in place of phonemes but roughly corresponding to them, we have graphemes such as letters.English uses only about 40 of a possible 869 different phonemes used in speech across the 500+ languages of the world.
• #48: Pause after the first bullet to let the word list go by. This is intended to depict the rapid rate of word acquisition of children.
• #49: No animation.I have not made the definitions for “receptive” and “productive” explicit, but in case it’s not intuitive: “Receptive” means understanding the language you hear and see (and later, read), while“productive” means creating meaningful communication (speaking/signing, and later, writing).About the babbling transition by 10 months: for a discussion question, you can ask students if the loss of production of non-household language sounds by the infants reminds them of anything. We’re probing here for the idea of pruning, the withering of neural connections that aren’t being used. Not producing non-native sounds is useful because it allows the development of speech that accurately fits the language being used at home.We may have to replace the term“telegraphic” one of these decades; analogies are supposed to have explanatory power and are not supposed to require explanation. How about “Tweet”? Although unlike telegraphs, tweets are not billed by the word, there is a premium on not wasting characters, so words are more likely to be missing. See if students can guess the meaning of “Go park,” in toddler speak: it’s not about going to park the car, but instead a request/demand to go to the park. “Ree book” is a request to read a book. If these seem obvious to your students, how about: “Green now!”…. an exclamation that the stoplight has changed.
• #50: Click to reveal bullets.You can add to the first bullet point: Noam Chomsky (b. 1928) believed that even syntax and grammar seem to be inborn. This is still a matter of debate. However, there are some universal word order preferences, and nouns do tend to be learned before verbs and adjectives. Trivia: which of the “syllables” on the left relates to genes?...GACT, Guanine Adenine Cytosine Thymine, the four bases forming the main components of DNA.
• #51: Click to reveal bullets.
• #52: Click to reveal bullets.You may want to see if students agree with this quotation or can picture what is meant by each part of the quote. Or, you can talk about why Helen Keller (1880-1968) might have a unique perspective on these issues since she lacked the use of both senses.Regarding the second and third bullet points, you can give it some impact by saying, “Imagine being brought up without exposure to language, with no one ever speaking to you. This would prevent language from developing, perhaps ever, and you would feel cut off. This would be considered child maltreatment. Yet this is what happens if a deaf child is brought up with family and classmates who do not use sign language.
• #53: Click to reveal pictures and descriptions.Before clicking to reveal the brain pictures, see if students can guess/recall which hemisphere of the brain is more likely to be damaged if there are problems with language. Answer: the left hemisphere, the one that can express itself verbally in split-brain patients.French physician Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880) and German neurologist Carl Wernicke (1848-1905) learned about the function of their respective eponymous parts of the brain by studying the language difficulties of patients who had those parts damaged.Why can someone with Broca’s aphasia sing a song?...perhaps because it is reproduced as one string of sounds, not assembled from many bits of meaning.Comprehension test: why would people with both types of aphasia have difficulty repeating someone else’s spoken words?Someone with Broca’s aphasia is able to understand what the other person said but not put the words together to say it back; Someone with Wernicke’s aphasia is able to speak but not able to understand what was said, which prevents being able to say it back.
• #54: No animation.Instructor: this image is from an older edition of the book, not in the current edition, and thus there won’t be questions about it in the test banks. It is included here as an illustration of all the complex process that go on below our conscious awareness in order to do something as “simple” as reading a word.
• #55: Click to reveal bullets and sidebar bullets.Fleshing out first bullet point: some would say that dogs are trained by rewards to respond to a pattern of sounds (same with humans, maybe?), but this doesn’t explain why a dog can retrieve a named object it’s never heard before, by process of elimination from the ones it does know, without a reward.Second bullet point: is this language?It certainly involves sounds representing objects and other concepts, but it does not involve grammar, i.e. meaning derived from word order.
• #56: Click to reveal bullets.
• #57: Automatic animation.
• #58: Click to reveal bullets.Extreme forms of linguistic determinism are in disfavor, but a more moderate version remains controversial. The reality about the Hopi may have been that they are not able to demonstrate how they think about the past, or perhaps, although their memory is intact, they do not think about the past in the same way.About the last question: I suggest looking up and finding some of your favorites from a list of “sniglets”: words for objects, actions, and states that our language does not seem to have a name for (but should).
• #59: Click to reveal text boxes.Is language the cause or the effect of this difference in self vs. other emphasis? We know that these cultures differ, with American/English culture being more self-focused. This may explain the language differences. But then, does the language shape our thinking if we learn the language?However, does this demonstrate a difference in personality or a difference in how it is expressed?Over time, in speaking a different language, would we begin to behave differently to fit the new way we are describing ourselves?The Tarahumara people of Mexico do not have different words for blue and green.The book talks about separations at A or B. I wonder if students will see the blue/green separation after the very leftmost square. Maybe students could be asked about where they consider the split to be between blue and turquoise, or blue and teal.
• #60: Click to reveal all text.“When a lawyer shops for a watch, he should choose it to fit his personal preferences and his workplace” could become “A lawyer should choose a watch to fit personal preferences and the workplace.”People’s main protests to gender neutral language is that it is cumbersome (which it doesn’t need to be; in fact, sentences can be streamlined without all the pronouns) and that it’s unnecessary (that “everyone knows that “man” means “humans”). This is where the example from the book comes in: “man, like other mammals, nurses his young.” Wasn’t there a glitch in imagery upon hearing/reading that sentence?
• #61: Click to reveal bullets.Does this partly explain the lower ADHD rates in Europe compared to the United States--that bilingualism improves executive functioning, self-control, impulse inhibition, and resisting giving attention to irrelevant information?Or is it just that the genetically impulsive populations of Europe are the ones who chose to get on a boat and go to the United States?
• #62: Click to reveal all bullets.
• #63: Click to reveal bullets.Points 1-3 are Jim Foley’s conclusions based on the text, for you to present if you agree; students should know they won’t be tested on this material.
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• #66: Click to reveal bullets.It is hard to argue with this definition of intelligence other than to point out that it’s pretty much a tautology (a circular reasoning statement that really doesn’t say much). However, the text goes out on a limb and puts a little meaning into the concept (next slide).
• #67: No animationNote that this definition from the text makes reference to knowledge, and correlates with it, but is focused on ability, especially adaptability. Not surprisingly, psychologists tend to define “intelligence” in a way that allows psychologists to fit the definition. The picture from the text is meant to represent the “understanding of plants.”
• #68: Click to reveal bullets.Instructor: see if students can guess what is not clearly stated in the text, that “g” stands for “general.” This may be a good demonstration of hindsight bias; it will seem obvious if told, but not so obvious if you right away ask, “why did he call this ‘g’?”Factor analysis is a statistical technique to determine how different variables relate to each other, for example whether they form clusters that tend to vary together (correlate).
• #69: Click to reveal bullets. The last bullet can be deleted if you’re going to use the slide “Critique of Multiple Intelligence Theories.”Stephen Wiltshire (b. 1974) is limited in his social and overall cognitive skills by autism, but has extraordinary visual memory. Wiltshire was able to draw this picture of the Tokyo skyline from memory after a 30-minute helicopter ride and a view from the top of a skyscraper. The existence of the savant syndrome suggests that intelligence can exist in parts.Click to reveal Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences.Narrative linking to above: “Howard Gardner feels that even discounting the “savant syndrome,” different people have different strengths.” Acknowledging all of these abilities means honoring strengths and success in areas other than verbal and math ability.
• #70: No animation.In case a student asks, Howard Gardner has considered adding “moral” intelligence and “spiritual”/”existential” intelligence to his list, but does not consider them to have adequate empirical support.
• #71: Click to show three types.This is referred to as the “triarchic” (three-part) model.The first type of intelligence is the best fit for the early definition we encountered in this chapter: intelligence is what intelligence tests measure.The definition of “practical” intelligence, like the example earlier of the rainforest resident who understands plants, is hard to separate from the concept of expertise. This intelligence may include expertise but also include the ability to handle situations that do not draw just upon previous experience. Some people are skilled with fixing machines or managing people, even when it’s a situation they have never seen before.
• #72: Click to reveal bullets.Optional slide: this critique is suggested on the first slide about multiple intelligences.
• #73: Automatic animation.Note that these definitions link emotional intelligence to social intelligence. The four components of emotional intelligence on the next slide also correlate with social success. This means that other emotional skills, such as modulating extreme emotions (e.g. staying mentally healthy) are less central to this definition, except as they relate to social success.
• #74: Click to reveal more about each component.Introducing this slide: “emotional intelligence can be defined by four components identified on a test by Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2002, 2008):”In this case, “modulating” means not allowing emotions get out of control; having one’s emotions be a connective rather than a disruptive force in social situations.Click to reveal sidebar.The second bullet point relates to the struggles of people on the autism spectrum who have difficulty in this area and sometimes in all areas of emotional intelligence, even if overall intelligence test scores are in the normal range.
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• #76: Click to reveal bullets.The plan, and the hope of France’s minister of public education, was to assess children in a systematic way rather than relying on teacher judgment (which might be biased, but was also not “scientific” even if it was more accurate).
• #77: Click to reveal bullets.Alfred Binet’s assumed that all children follow the same course of development, some going more quickly, others more slowly. This implied that children with lower ability were mainly delayed, not disabled. Tests attempted to measure “mental age”--how far the child had come along on the “normal” developmental pathway.
• #78: Click to reveal bullets.Answer to the question on the slide: the 10-year-old is scored as 8/10 x 100 = 80.You can now ask students: “Is William Stern’s calculation of IQ a better way of presenting a score than “mental age?” Lets test it by seeing if it works with adults, as Terman hoped. What IQ do you get if a 16 year old scores as well as a 20 year old (20/16 = 5/4 = IQ 125). Now try it with a 50 year old scoring as well as a typical 20 year old. Oops…IQ would be 20/50... IQ = 40.Coming up soon, under the topic of standardization, is a new way of calculating IQ by simply comparing your raw score to the general population of adults who took the test. We will soon see why the book says here, “about 2/3 of people fall between 85 and 115 [in IQ].”Terman proposed using IQ tests to classify children; he believed IQ was inherited and was the strongest predictor of one's ultimate success in life. Terman was a prominent member of the Human Betterment Foundation, which supported the promotion and enforcement of compulsory and involuntary sterilization laws in California.
• #79: Click to reveal bullets.Eugenics is the idea that society can be improved by deliberate selection, that is, keeping people with undesired traits from reproducing. Thus, Terman’s hypothetical comment about removing inferior genes from the population. It is not clear whether Terman’s changing views about influences on test scores changed his views of whether people could be improved or still had “inferior” genes.Eugenics has been making a comeback in recent years with the development of new reproductive technologies. Once again, it is supported by many researchers and psychologists. Distinguished scientists, including several Nobel Prize-winners, have supported genetic screening bordering on eugenics. James Watson, the American biologist who helped discover DNA in 1953, said in 2003 that he backed genetic manipulation to make people more intelligent and better looking. “If you really are stupid, I would call that a disease,” he said. “The lower 10 percent who really have difficulty, even in elementary school, what's the cause of it? A lot of people would like to say, ‘Well, poverty, things like that.’ It probably isn't. So I'd like to get rid of that, to help the lower 10 percent.”--Richard Ingram, “EUGENICS: Stupidity should be cured—Watson,” DarwinAwards, 19 June 2003, at http://www.darwinawards.com/old/main200306a.html.Remind students that attitudes like this were prevalent in Germany during World War II.
• #80: Click to reveal bullets and graphic.Why do we say that aptitude should correlate with intelligence? Because according to one definition, intelligence refers to an ability to adapt and handle challenges, and is not a measure of existing knowledge. By this definition, “intelligence” would give one more aptitude, more likelihood of performing well in the future. Remind students that this is a scatterplot; it’s as if each blue dot is a person positioned by that person’s SAT and IQ scores.Notice that although there is a strong correlation (+.82) in this sample of 14- to 21- year olds, the SAT separates out some above-average IQ people from others. In other words, IQ scores do not do a good job of distinguishing among people with IQ’s over 120 (presuming the SATs measure anything meaningful at all). You can remind students that men typically do better than women on SATs, yet women have a greater success rate in college; why do they think this is?
• #81: No animation.WAIS and WISC Tests measure intelligence, but the results include subscores for:verbal comprehension, processing speed, perceptual organization, and working memory (the resequencing and recall of letters and numbers). items include: describing similarities and differences between objects or between concepts. doing math problems, presented as story problems, while being timed. being tested on speed of decoding, translating symbols to numerals. assembling blocks into prescribed patterns while being timed (pictured in the text and on this slide). digit span retention and re-ordering (working memory). vocabulary knowledge and general knowledge. question and sentence comprehension and expression. arranging related pictures in chronological/story sequence. picture completion.
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• #83: Click to reveal bullets.Standardization, in the form described here, has also been called “norming” a test. ‘Norming” refers to determining what the “norm” is for typical, randomly selected people taking the test, so that you can compare an individual score to the norm. This norm is described by the normal curve, which we’ll see again on the next slide.
• #84: Click to highlight the curve and again for the next question.The answer to the question on the slide: if your raw score was higher than 98 percent of the people, your IQ would be around 130, the score at which about 2.1 percent of the population scored higher.
• #85: Click to reveal bullets about reliability.Question at the bottom: If your height was measured with a ruler made of stretchy material, it would not be a reliable ruler, you would not get a consistent number when measuring height.Question for understanding: how does this stretchy ruler fail the two tests of reliability? Click to reveal bullets about validity.The yardstick, though reliable, would not be a valid measure of height.
• #86: No animation.Even though younger people have faster processing speed, the better vocabulary of older people allows them to complete crossword puzzles more quickly. It looks like people at about age 63 might do best.Note that this slide presupposes that there are different kinds of intelligence; does this imply the single-number IQ score is problematic?
• #87: Click to reveal bullets.The wisdom that comes with age may include social understanding, humility, and expert knowledge about life in general. Our thinking may become less distorted by emotional factors.Fluid intelligence allows the young to make great contributions in mathematics; crystallized intelligence allows the old to make great contributions in literature.
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• #89: Click to reveal bullets.The child in the picture at the top left has Down syndrome. He is shown happily painting in a classroom with children of varying abilities. The child in the picture at bottom right is in a college statistics class; he is 10 years old. At both ends of the intellectual aptitude spectrum, labeling and tracking children has the danger of becoming a self fulfilling prophecy because of the power of expectations and the availability of educational opportunities. Education of all children in an integrated classroom can prevent these problems, although they require greater individualization to assure appropriate levels of challenge.
• #90: No animation.
• #91: Click to reveal bullets.Note that no commonly accepted definition of “successful” exists so that the entire question is probably better suited to philosophy than psychology. You might ask students to try to define “success”—socioeconomic status? self-reported claims to happiness? achievement (another difficult word to define)? celebrity status? public acclaim?
• #92: Click to show questions and answers about the graph.The first two bars differ because of differences in rearing/environment, since the genetics did not change; rearing the twins apart reduced the similarity. The first and third bar may differ because of genetics, since they were reared together in both cases; having more identical genes increased the similarity of intelligence scores.
• #93: Click to reveal bullets.The slide has appeared before in the chapter on nature and nurture. The heritability of a trait also does NOT tell us whether genetics explain differences between groups/populations. Height is 90 percent heritable in general, but as a group, people are taller in this century than last, or in South Korea compared to North Korea. This is probably not caused by genetics but by nurture (nutrition). Click to reveal sidebar bullets.Note: there is a similar slide in the “Nature-Nurture” chapter which originally used intelligence as the example and now has been revised to discuss sociability.Of course identical nurture is not possible; tiny differences, even in utero, can begin the epigenetic process of turning genes on and off.
• #94: Click to reveal bullets.
• #95: Click to reveal chart.Answer: birth/biological parents. This will seem counterintuitive to many students. Suggest that they notice that their parents may be having increasingly less influence on their talents. You may want to restate this result in a way that ties back to the heritability concept; the heritability of intelligence test scores increases with age.
• #96: Click to reveal bullets.When environment/nurture varies more, its influence on intelligence increases. Pictured in the slide is a Romanian orphan who suffered from deprivation of human interaction. The impact of tutored enrichment can be compared to the impact of multi-vitamins, which make a bigger difference for those who were malnourished than for those who eat healthy meals. The impact of educational videos does not seem to be great for any group, especially when it substitutes for face to face interaction.
• #97: Click to reveal bullets. Instructor: you might ask students, “What might it imply about intelligence test scores if they can be affected by schooling and attitude?”
• #98: Click to reveal bullets.
• #99: No animation.Instructor: clarify for students that this graph of scores by IQ level does not replace the normal curve. It IS the same people in the normal curve, but split into percentage male and percentage female. Males with IQ ‘x’ plus females at IQ ‘x’ equals 100 percent of the people at IQ ‘x’.You can ask students, then, what they can say about boys and girls and their ranges of IQ scores? A final click reveals an answer at the bottom of the slide.
• #100: Click to reveal bullets.Question to raise with students: do you think that these differences are caused by genetics and strengths developed through natural selection, or because boys and girls are raised differently?
• #101: After you have clicked and the classroom picture and moving rock have disappeared, have students do the “male” block configuration test first. Please practice using this slide in slide show mode.[Answer: the two right most circles. I moved and rotated some of the ones from the text to make it harder to simply look at the book for answers]Then do the “female” object location memory test: ask who can remember where the rock started and where it ended up.
• #102: Click to animate graph. Click to reveal remaining bullets.The following statement perhaps gives too much away before seeing if students can figure out the concept on the next slide, but I included here as material for explaining the next slide: “But first we must train ourselves to see that differences between groups can be caused by environmental factors (even identical twins can have differences in height, sexuality, and ability).Remind students that even the term “African American” has little or no meaning; is it self-defined or can someone determine who fits in this category? Do Egyptians and Algerians count? Are Bantu peoples to be lumped in with Khoisan? Is the American “one drop of blood” rule to be used to determine “African American-ness,” or a different standard from Brazil or Trinidad?Remind students that a future slide notes that racial categories are not distinct genetically.
• #103: No animation.Instructor: have students think about what they assume causes the difference between the two groups of flowers. After you ask this question and hear some answers, click to reveal that both groups of flowers are from the same seed packet. Again, even identical twins can have differences in height, sexuality, and ability.
• #104: Click to reveal bullets.
• #105: Click to reveal bullets.Click to reveal sidebar bullets.A question to ask students to test their learning: “what quality of good tests have we just identified in the last sentence?”...predictive validity.Angela Garcia, executive director of the SAT program, defended the prompt: “It’s really about pop culture as a reference point that they would certainly have an opinion on.” You might ask students if they agree.Note: “racial” differences persist on skills such as repeating digits backward. Do these skills also depend on cultural experience?
• #106: Click to reveal three questions.Instructor: Simple answer to all three questions:  They fell victim to the effect known in psychology as Stereotype Threat (explained next slide). You can change the title of the slide if you just want to test students on the name of the concept, or you can ask them to explain how it works before you go to the next slide.NOTE:  Some students may be uncomfortable with the way the terms "Black" and even "race" are used in the study cited by the text. Although we can't make an exact determination of someone's race, we can determine whether someone identifies themselves as being part of a stereotypically lower-status group, and that's what's relevant in this study, that's what apparently triggered the effects on performance, as we'll see on the next slide.
• #107: Click to reveal bullets.A self fulfilling prophecy occurs when the act of making a prediction about the future leads to that prediction coming true. Is stereotype threat an example of a self fulfilling prophecy? The book’s definition of stereotype threat includes “self-confirming” as part of the definition. One possible implication of the stereotype threat is that programs to support members of minority groups may hurt people’s performance when they imply that minorities need more help than others, especially when it is implied that help is needed inherently rather than situationally (the fundamental attribution error). Of course, this implication needs to be measured versus other factors (such as ongoing discrimination or socio-economic disadvantage).
• #108: No animation.