Remote+Sensing

United Arab Emirates University
Humanities & Social Science Collage
Geography Department
GIS

Student Name: Maitha Aylan Almuhairi

ID number: 200503003

Instructor Dr. M. M. Yagoub

Spring 2008

Content Page

Subject Page

Introduction…………………………………………………………….. 3

Remote Sensing………………………………………………………… 4

GIS…………..…………………………………………………………. 7

Oil Formation….……………………………………………………….. 10

Oil in UAE………….………………………………………………….. 11

Exploration…………………………………………………………...... 13

Production……………………………………………………………... 16

Marketing…………………………………………………………….... 18

Pipeline………………………………………………………...……… 22

GPS…………………………………………………………..……….. 24

Oil Pollution…………………………………….……………………... 31

Conclusion…………………………………………………………….. 37

References…………………………………….……………………….. 38

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Introduction

in this course we study one application of GIS related to the

petroleum, so we learn how to apply remote sensing and GIS in

petroleum study. For that, im my report I focus on concept of the

remote sensing and GIS, the oil formation and provide example of it

about the UAE oil. Then, we make a relation between remote

sensing, GIS and petroleum operations which are exploration,

production and marketing. Then I talk about the pipeline and how

use GIS to select the pest pipeline. Also, I mention the GPS

technique. At the end I focus on the oil pollution and how remote

sensing and GIS help on it.

3

Remote Sensing

Now a days we hear about many technology, one of them is the remote
sensing but the developing countries doesn’t have enough information
about it, but they hear the remote sensing can help its speed up its
development and economic growth, so my report will be about the
meaning of remote sensing, process of the remote sensing, remote sensing
history, also the sensors and its uses, after that we can imagine the future
of remote sensing as it is show below.

Remote Sensing Definition & Describing

Remote sensing is a method of studying any phenomena or object
on the earth surface by use a special data, such as the air photo and
satellite image which we can get it from specialized devices which are the
sensors without any contact between the phenomenon and the sensors so
the sensors can get the data by the electronic magnetic radiation some
time but not always, so Electronic magnetic radiation involves ultra
violet, visible light (blue, green, red), near infrared, mid infrared, thermal
infrared and microwaves which arrange from shorter waves to longest
waves. In addition remote sensing is quicker, cheaper and let us to see the
thing which we can’t see it in field survey.

Process of remote sensing

The sensors exist on the satellites which are in the air-borne, the
following diagram show the process in how the sensors take the photo,
then how we can get the photo which the sensors take it

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Figure (1): process remote sensing

By studying the diagram we can consider that are seven steps by
follow the aphetically order, so the steps with their explanation are:
A. Energy Source
This step is the main step, because if we want the photo we must have
the energy source (sun), to provide the electromagnetic energy to the
area or phenomena of study.

B. Radiation and the Atmosphere
The energy source (sun) sends the radiation to the area of phenomena
so the radiation will interactive with the atmosphere in this step, so it
takes a few seconds. Then the radiation will reflected to the sensors
also in a few seconds.

C. Interaction with the Target
When energy travel into the atmosphere to reach the area of
phenomena it is make an interactive with the phenomena. For that this
steps depend on the attributes of the phenomena and radiation because
they will be differs from one phenomenon to another, and form one
radiation to another.

D. Recording of Energy by the Sensor
In this step when the radiation comes to the sensor from the
phenomena, the sensor without contact with the phenomena will
collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.

E. Transmission, Reception, and Processing
After the sensors record the electromagnetic radiation it must send the
data in an electronic form to the receiving and processing stations to
transfer the data to be an image.

F. Interpretation and Analysis
There are three types to interpretation the image visually or digitally
or electronically, to know more about the phenomena.

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G. Application
The last step will be when we apply the information which we get
from the image which presents the phenomena to more understand, or
solve problem if it is problem or discover some thing new.

Kind of remote sensing techniques

To get the data by using remote sensing we must have a specific
techniques or system to get the data, so in these days we have new
techniques for that.

One of them is Remote Sensing Platforms, it consider as a device can
measure the reflectance of the earth surface, also their inverse relationship
between the platform and the scale, so the higher altitude of the platform
mean that is the smaller scale and vice versa.

In addition it uses to collect radiometer data which represent the
reflectance of the earth surface from different height. Also it use for
mapping and analysis of spatial patterns.

Another technique of remote sensing is cameras and it is many kind of
cameras, such as Photographic Camera/Film Systems is a system to
collect a spatial data, it consider as primary data input for production of
topographic maps. Also it used to records the EMR reflected from earth
surface.

The second type of cameras is digital Cameras, it is a recent development
of the traditional cameras, so all of them use a lens to focus reflected
EMR, but digital camera use array of EMR sensors to record the photo.

The last type of cameras is the Trimertregon Cameras, it have a three
cameras in one device to take simultaneous overlapping images of the
relief. The central camera take a vertical air photo, while the left and right
cameras take air photo of adjacent terrain, it use is to take a photo for
steep valley and solve the problem which linked with normal parallel
traverse air photo which coverage in areas with high local terrain.

Other technique of remote sensing is Optical-Electrical Scanners, it is
similar to digital cameras in use an array of electronic sensors, it produce
an electrical signal for each wavelength detected, so the satellites
converted the electrical signals into digital numbers to produce an air
photo.

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Active vs. Passive Remote Sensors it consider a one of the remote
sensing technique, it is active because the remote sensing can classify to
active devices, for example a photographic camera used with a flash
attachment, radar and sonar are examples of active remote sensing
systems. The second classify is the passive devic es such as A
photographic camera used with available light and Land sat MSS, Land
sat Thematic Mapper, or SPOT satellite imagery.

also Ground-based sensors consider as remote sensing technique, (2) :Data generated
Figure
it used to record detailed information about the surface which from an active sensor
is
compared with information collected from aircraft or satellite
sensors.

All of these techniques and other such as FLIR , Laser
Fluorosensor, Lidar, Rader can takes photo air which employed for
all manner of mapping and evaluation of natural and cultural
resources, including agriculture (crops and soils), archaeology,
biology (habitat, wildlife census), forestry, geology,
geomorphology, engineering, hydrology, industrial development,
military (camouflage detection, espionage, terrain models), mineral Figure (3): Ground-Based
and sensors
oil prospecting, pollution (air, land, water), reclamation, transportation,
urban planning, etc.

Geographic Information System

GIS Definition

GIS is a system of hardware and software used for storage, retrieval,
mapping, and analysis of geographic data. Practitioners also regard the
total GIS as including the operating personnel and the data that go into the
system. Spatial features are stored in a coordinate system
(latitude/longitude, state plane, UTM, etc.), which references a particular
place on the earth. Descriptive attributes in tabular form are associated
with spatial features. Spatial data and associated attributes in the same
coordinate system can then be layered together for mapping and analysis.
GIS can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, and
development planning.

GIS differs from CAD and other graphical computer applications in that all
spatial data is geographically referenced to a map projection in an earth
coordinate system. For the most part, spatial data can be "re-projected" from
one coordinate system into another, thus data from various sources can be
brought together into a common database and integrated using GIS software.
Boundaries of spatial features should "register" or align properly when re-

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projected into the same coordinate system. Another property of a GIS database
is that it has "topology," which defines the spatial relationships between
features. The fundamental components of spatial data in a GIS are points, lines
(arcs), and polygons. When topological relationships exist, you can perform
analyses, such as modeling the flow through connecting lines in a network,
combining adjacent polygons that have similar characteristics, and overlaying
geographic features.

Components of GIS

A common misconception is that data alone
constitute a GIS. Similarly, it is sometimes
assumed that someone who has purchased
GIS software has acquired a "GIS." A
central tenet of this publication is that a GIS
is a system; it consists of more than just data
and software. As a system, it exists to
answer geographical or spatial questions,
and the answers that it provides support
decision-making. Thus, it is not enough to
have data, or hardware, or software, or
users; all components must be present in the
system to have a true, fully-functional GIS.
Figure (4): component of GIS

There are four components of GIS: (1) data, (2) hardware, (3) software, and
(4) users. As shown in Figure 5, the components must be integrated; they must
be linked together and work in concert to support the management and analysis
of spatial or mapped data.

Data

GIS components are dynamic; there is rapid change in the computer
industry as well as turnover of personnel involved in GIS projects. For
this reason, GIS developers are often encouraged to adopt a data-centered
approach. Simply stated, a data-centered approach views data as the
central resource in the GIS. Though data may be shared among multiple
users and multiple hardware/software environments, the data are collected
and compiled by a person or organization to support the goal of that user.
The other components provide the support needed to process that data.

All data in a GIS are either spatial data or attribute data. As discussed
above, spatial data tells us where something occurs. Attribute data tells
what occurs; it tells us the nature or characteristics of the spatial data. For
example, we might describe the location of a municipal water well as a
point with the coordinates "45 degrees 17 minutes 20 seconds north

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latitude, 94 degrees 7 minutes 48 seconds west longitude." Furthermore,
we can observe and report several attributes of that well, including its
depth, yield, water quality, and proximity to a pumping station. Every
GIS provides the ability to store and manipulate both the spatial data and
the associated attribute data.

Hardware

Computer hardware used to support GIS is a highly variable part of the
overall system. Users will customize their hardware environment to best
meet their own individual needs. In all cases, however, a fully-functional
GIS must contain hardware to support data input, output, storage,
retrieval, display, and analysis. During its infancy, GIS processing was
supported only on large mainframe computers. Today, a variety of
platforms support GIS processing, ranging from large mainframe
computers to mini-computers to scientific work stations to personal
computers. In many cases, hardware used to support other applications
(e.g., payroll or accounting or digital image processing) is also used for
GIS. Hardware configurations for GIS span a tremendous range in terms
of start-up and acquisition costs. All systems carry associated costs for
maintenance and support.

Software

Software is also a highly dynamic part of the system. Dozens of GIS
software packages now exist. These systems are available on many
different types of hardware platforms and come with a wide variety of
functional capabilities. Public domain software is also available, though
on a more limited basis than commercial software. The range in software
options goes from generic turn-key systems that are ready for use "right
out of the box" to customized installations designed to support specific
user needs.

Given the sometimes bewildering array of choices for hardware and
software, selection and use of a GIS should be approached strategically.
In all cases, anyone considering a GIS software package should consider
needs carefully and consult various references, including other users,
vendors, and technical publications.

Users

The final component required for a true GIS is users. The term "user" may
refer to any individual who will use GIS to support project or program
goals, or to an entire organization that will employ GIS in support of its
overall mission.

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GIS users are often envisioned as hands-on computer processing people.
While this is in part true, we choose to define a broader spectrum of GIS
users. One classification scheme (USGS, 1988) classifies users into two
groups: system users and end users.

System users are those persons who have actual hands-on use of the GIS
hardware and software. These persons have advanced technical skills in
the application of GIS to problem solving. System users tend to be
responsible not only for the day-to-day use of the system, but also for
system maintenance and upkeep.

End users are those persons who do not have actual hands-on use of the
system but who do make use of the information products generated via
the GIS. End users do not necessarily have to possess hands-on technical
skills. However, they must be able to communicate effectively and
interact with system users in order to make requests for information
products, and must also understand the limitations and requirements of
GIS-based processing. GIS must not be a "black box" to end users. They
should always be aware of the costs and benefits of a GIS approach to
problem solving in order to determine if the requests they make of GIS
are reasonable and to judge the quality of the output they receive.

Yet another type of user can be called data generators. These are people
who collect the raw data to be entered into the GIS. Because a GIS
requires such a strict structuring of the data (refer to Maps and Map Data
Handling), data generators must often predicate data collection and
compilation on the demands of the GIS. Thus, these persons must be
made aware that the intended use of the GIS will play a major role in the
way that they collect and package data.

In sum, we can see that there is a broad spectrum of GIS users, a spectrum
that extends beyond the image of all users as "hands-on" GIS experts. GIS
has the capacity to affect people at all stages of the data collection,
management, manipulation, and interpretation process.

The fifth component is the analysis ( method ) is consider as the heart of
the GIS and it have many method such as the buffer , intersect , … etc .
Also it is the final step on the GIS tool , because when we use it we get
the final map with our criteria .

Oil Formation

Petroleum, the general name for all carbon byproducts like oil and natural
gas, is formed from organic material. This material, coming from land or

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from dead plankton and other marine organisms, reaches the floors of
bodies of water and becomes part of the many layers of sedimentary rock
that form there. As these layers form and more layers arrive on top of
them the organic material turns into petroleum that is contained in the
rock, called source rock. This petroleum becomes oil if the amount of
heating and pressure on the source rock is sufficient but not too much. To
put it simply oil is considered “mature” petroleum, whereas source rocks
that were heated less or more than is required to reach the mature level
yield less oil and more natural gas. This occurs in a time frame of 10 to
more than 300 million years A rich source rock contains 2% petroleum,
while a very rich source rock contains 5% petroleum. (USGS, 1987)

Figure (5): Geology of oil formation

Trapped in the Earth:

As time passes, oil travels into rocks that have larger
spaces, or pores, to hold it. Limestone and sandstone
are two types of rocks with large pores, and they are
called porous rocks. The rocks that oil accumulates
within are reservoir rock and oil remains within these
reservoirs due to rock structures called caps or traps.
Cap or trap rock can hold oil within the ground
because these rocks are impermeable, which means
they lack pores through which oil can travel. Figure (6): oil trapped
Extracting oil from the ground therefore involves
drilling through the cap rock in order to
access the underlying oil.

Finding oil

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Discovering the location of oil within the earth is difficult because of the
presence of cap rock, which can be miles thick in some locations. Oil
geologists study surface rocks and terrain to determine if oil is present
underground, but the best evidence comes from various satellite imaging
techniques. Oil flows may disrupt earth's gravitational or magnetic field,
so gravity meters and magnetometers can detect some oil sources. The
most reliable method for finding oil is through the use of shock waves in
a process called seismology. In a seismological survey a shock wave is
aimed at the surface of the water or land and the length of time it takes
for the waves to reflect back to the sensor is recorded. The speed of the
shock wave depends on the type of rock it travels through, and by
comparing the travel times to known densities of rock, seismologists can
determine what rocks are underground and predict if they might contain
oil. Although this technology is superior to other oil detection methods
based solely on examining surface rock features, it has Off-Shore Seismic Survey
Figure (7): only a 10%
success rate of finding new oil sites.

Oil in UAE

The oil and gas sector provides around a third of the UAE's Gross
National Product, thanks to a successful programme in recent years of
diversification of the economy, but remains the dominant contributor of
Government revenues. The Abu Dhabi National Oil Company, ADNOC,
supervises policy in Abu Dhabi, under the guidance of the Supreme
Petroleum Council. Production is handled through joint ventures with
consortia of international companies,. ADNOC also owns, on behalf of
Government, all of Abu Dhabi's gas reserves. Oil production is around 2
million barrels a day. Gas is increasingly important, both for export, and
for meeting local demand, from domestic and industrial consumers and
from power generation and water desalination plants. Dubai produces
around 240,000 barrels a day of oil and substantial quantities of gas from
offshore fields, with a major condensate field onshore, while Saharjah has
smaller oil and gas fields. On the East Coast, Fujairah is the third largest
bunkering port in the world, although all of the fuel is imported.
Downstream development of refineries, petrochemical plants and other
related industries is increasingly creating an integrated oil and gas sector,
equivalent to that of industrialized nations.

Oil and gas production has been the mainstay of the economy in the UAE
and will remain a major revenue earner long into the future, due to the
vast hydrocarbon reserves at the country’s disposal. Proven recoverable
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4 percent of the world total. This means that the UAE possesses the third
largest natural gas reserves in the region and the fourth largest in the
world. At the current rate of utilization, and excluding any new
discoveries, these reserves will last for over 150 years. The UA E ’s oil
production is limited by quotas agreed within the framework of OPE C to
2 million barrels per day (mbd). Production capacity, however, will rise to
around 3 mbd in the year 2000. There are plans to boost that level to 3.6
mbd in the year 2005 and 4 mbd in the year 2010. Gas production is being
expanded to meet a forecast doubling of demand to 3.7 billion cubic feet
per day (bn cfd) by the year 2000. Domestic demand is expected to
increase from 813 million cubic feet per day (mn cfd) in 1996 to 1.137 bn
cfd by the year 2000, while gas used for reinjection is projected to double
to 1.8 bn cfd. The value of oil exports dropped from Dh 49.1 billion in
1997 to Dh 35.7 billion in 1998 (-27.3 per cent) due to the deterioration in
oil prices which fell by 34 per cent during 1998 compared with 1997
levels, to reach US $12.4 a barrel. The value of liquefied gas exports also
dropped from Dh 8.5 billion in 1997 to Dh 6.5 billion in 1998, due to the
fall in its prices which are closely linked with oil prices and owing to the
fact that the value of gas exports in 1997 included a one-time payment of
Dh 1.5 billion made to ADGAS by its main importer Tokyo Electricity
Power Company. The UAE exports 62 per cent of its crude oil to Japan
making it the UAE’s largest customer. Gas exports are almost entirely to
Japan, the world's largest buyer of liquefied gas, with the UAE supplying
almost one-eighth of Japan's entire requirements.

Oil Fields

Gas Fields
1:3,092,834
Oil Exploration
Figure (8): UAE oil and gas land fields

Exploration means searching for oil and knows the location of the oil. To
apply the remote sensing and GIS tool or oil exploration we must know
the formation of oil as I show above in oil formation section.

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When we know the formation of the oil and gas we must know the type of
soil and type of rocks , because the remote sensing tools only show the
earth surface , and the oil located underground , so the figure below show
the soil triangle :-

Soil classification is typically made based
on the relative proportions of silt, sand and
clay. Follow any two component
percentages to find the nominal name for
the soil type. For example, 30% sand, 30%
clay and 40% silt:

Find 30% along the bottom (sand) line,
and follow the slanted line up and to
the left. Stop at the horizontal line for
30% clay, and find the soil type: clay
loam
Figure (9): soil triangle

There are three types of the rocks which are:
1- Igneous
2- Metamorphic
3- Sedimentary (on this type of rocks we can find the oil).

By using the remote sensing we will know the type of vegetation , and
from type of vegetation , we can deduce the type of soil , and from soil we
can deduce the type of rocks , If it is sedimentary that mean , there is oil
in that place .

Also, the remote sensing in oil exploration is a multidisciplinary process
that involves:-
1. Botany scientist, who treat with structure of plants and with all
aspect of plant , so the botany scientist help to know the kind of the
vegetation , then know the type of soil .
2. Soil scientist, he will help us to know the type of soil, and then be
deduce the type of rocks.
3. Geologists, because he know the structure of the earth surface and
the underground, for that when he know the type of rocks he will
deduce the location of the oil.
4. The remote sensing specialist , because he can analysis the image ,
then he will work with the Botany Scientist , then the soil

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scientist , After that the geologist . Then the exploration process
will complete.

To apply the GIS tool in oil exploration we will produce a probability
maps showing availability of oil, such as the oil map:

ID
% of oil
20
40
50
70
90

Then we must use a different data , such as geological and soil map , main
roads , land use , satellite image , topographic map ( DEM , contour ) ,
ownership maps ( cadastral map ) , historical site . Then we make a table
for the decision matrix show digits from 0 – 10 ( 0 ) not suitable ( 10 ) the
best .

By the decision matrix we see the number 2 is the best, then number 1.

Factors Land Oil Rock Road Historical Ownershi Total
ID use p
1 6 4 7 5 8 7 37
2 8 10 9 8 7 9 51
3 9 6 7 4 2 6 34
4 5 3 2 6 10 5 31
To produce the potential map by use the software, there is a different to
know where the oil found and apply a different map to know where it is.
Such as point in polygon, buffering, overlay and spatial interpolation with
our criteria. Finally, we will produce a final probability map for know the
places of oil to be explore.

In addition, a typing exploration program proceeds as follows:
1. Regional remote sensing reconnaissance. (As 1 show before).
2. Reconnaissance geophysical surveys.
Geophysical: the use of physical properties to help in oil exploration.
There is different method use on the geophysical:
• Gravity method ~> for the density.

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• Magnetic method ~> magnetic susceptibility.
• Seismic method ~> elastic module and density.
• Electric method ~> resistively (conductivity).
• Radiometric ~> radioactive elements contents.

The best method for the oil exploration is the seismic method , because it
observations are collected at small source-receiver offsets , Also the
observation can be more readily interpreted in terms of complex geology .

3. Detailed remote sensing interpretation, it is mean after take the
remote sensing image study it and make analysis for it.
4. Seismic survey, it can use on the land (Geophone) and sea
(hydrophone) by collect the reflection to the measure the distance.

After that we will produce a probability map for oil exploration , we need
to go on detail investigation using geophysical method , and from
geophysics process we can generate more geophysical map , the
probability map to reduce the cost and time .

For examples:-
By use the seismic survey we can produce map by know the x , y and the
reflection r , so each point on the map represent by ( x , y , z ) , for
example :-

Produce
counter map
or color
coded

5. The last step for exploration is the drilling to get the oil and gas.

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Oil production

The oil production mean the act of drilling a hole in the earth , in the hope
of this process to raise the economy, of the country. Also the GIS mean
the collect of hardware, software and data for capturing, managing,
analyzing and displaying all forms of geographically referenced
information (defination in general ) .

We can apply the GIS in oil produce a maps called spatial-temporal
showing the history of wells (data start of production). With time and
space. Also it show the location of fields, total depth, completion data,
well operator identification, producing formation, cumulative production,
Initial potential, well classification, the figures below show a spatial-
temporal map :

symbol Date start
of production
1980

1990

2000

2005
Figure (10): Spatial Temporal Map

ID Data Data Depth Geology Type of Production
*production rate :
Mean the amount of
start end oil rake
oil gallons or 1 / / / / / /
barrels a day. 2 / / / / / /
3 / / / / / /
: / / / / / /

By produce this kind of maps we can observe many things, for example,
the map of total depth can quickly identify where the shallow and deep
drilling has occurred over basin, trend, also the anomalies can be
identified, also this map can help us in the environmental site because if
we study and analysis that maps we can know where is the pollution
status near oil fields and refineries, and it is affect the air, water, land and
human health, vegetation, after that we must find a solution to reduce the
oil pollution if it is happened near the fields.

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Also by use GIS tool we can produce another map, show the production
of the oil and gas on the world, regions, countries, status and cities on the
sea (offshore) and land (onshore). After that we can make different
analysis by use GIS tools, suchas the buffering to identify possible
undrained or overdrilled reservoir acreage, also we can use another
method such us overlay.
In addition, we can use GIS tool to produce map called cartogram map
show the size of country depending on the size of country depending on
the size of attribute, so it give the country which produce more oil the big
size even it is a small than other country, this map id very useful loecause
it give a clear visualization about the amount of production.
There is an organization of the petroleum exporting countries (OPEC) is a
permanent intergovernmental organization, created at the Bagdad
conference on September 1960, OPEC coordinate the countries oil
production policies in order to help stabilize the oil market and to help oil
producer achieve a reasonable to ensure that oil consumers continue to
receive stable supplies of oil.
According to its statute, the principal goal is the determination of the best
means for safeguarding their interests, individually and collectively;
devising ways and means of ensuring the stabilization of prices in
international oil markets with a view to eliminating harmful and
unnecessary fluctuations; giving due regard at all times to the interests of
the producing nations and to the necessity of securing a steady income to
the producing countries; an efficient, economic and regular supply of
petroleum to consuming nations, and a fair return on their capital to those
investing in the petroleum industry." OPEC's influence on the market has
been negatively criticized. Several members of OPEC alarmed the world
and triggered high inflation across both the developing and developed
world when they used oil embargoes in the 1973 oil crisis. OPEC's ability
to control the price of oil has diminished somewhat since then, due to the
subsequent discovery and development of large oil reserves in the Gulf of
Mexico and the North Sea, the opening up of Russia, and market
modernization. OPEC nations still account for two-thirds of the world's
oil reserves, and, as of March 2008, 35.6% of the world's oil production,
affording them considerable control over the global market. The next
largest group of producers, members of the OECD and the Post-Soviet
states produced only 23.8% and 14.8%, respectively, of the world's total
oil production. As early as 2003, concerns that OPEC members had little
excess pumping capacity sparked speculation that their influence on crude
oil prices would begin to slip.

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Marketing
Figure (11): OPEC countries

Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception,
pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, services,
organizations, and events to create and maintain relationships that will
satisfy individual and organizational objectives.

In this section we will focus on the marketing for the petroleum, there are
factors affecting the oil marketing which are:

1. Transportation.
2. Customers.
3. Price.
4. Quantity & Quality.

Transportation Factor:

Oil and oil products are moved by ship, barge, truck, rail and pipeline.
The oil transport system is global, including super tankers and continents
crossing pipelines. Since oil is often used far from where it is found,
several means may be used along the way.

The bulk of the oil transported (62%) is using maritime transportation.
The Persian Gulf is a major origin and from this point maritime routes are
reaching Europe through the Suez Canal, Japan through the Strait of
Malacca and North American through the Cape of Good Hope. Major
continental movements involve the Russian and former Soviet Republic's
petroleum shipped to Western Europe by pipeline and Alaskan and
Canadian petroleum shipped to the United States also by pipeline. Other
important oil shipments are from Africa to North America and Europe,
from the North Sea to Europe and from South America to North America.

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Figure (12): Oil Transportation and Major Chokepoints
Customers Factor:

Good customer service is the key to a successful business due to that;
customer is the main goal of the marketing. So we must be taken into
account the client demand in the best way. For that we need to study and
make statistics illustrate the types of customers and know the income of
them per month or per a year, because their will be no benefit in
producing a product if their not consumed.

Knowing the wishes of customers and develop a range of products and
services that satisfy their desires, we will be able to achieve a profit in the
appropriate period of time.

Quality & Quantity Factors:

There are different types of oil can be classified according to intensity of
oil to heavy oil (heavy) and light oil (light), and feature different intensity
due to oil ratio of heavy hydrocarbons in it, The more this ratio had
increased the intensity of oil, in fact, the light oil more applications
Market and more costly, because access to large amounts of oil
derivatives, particularly gasoline (gasoline), which is derived oil Most
Wanted in the world. Also it can be classified as petroleum oil to sweet
Petroleum (the proportion of low-sulphur), and the sour Petroleum (high
sulphur ratio), and of course the more sweet oil demand in the global
market.

If we know which types is more demand in the global market, then the
quantity of that type will be increased more than other types, so we can
say there are a relation between quality and quantity in marketing for any
products.

Price Factor:

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Petroleum is more goods deliberated in the world, and its price varies
according to quality, light sweet petroleum more expensive in the world
oil market and there is the largest in the world oil markets in London and
New York and Singapore, and petroleum products heating oil and
gasoline market enjoys popular is the other. Given the presence of
different types and varieties of oil has been agreed between the oil traded
on the selection of specific types serve as a Standard of quality and on the
basis of which is increasing or reducing the value of petroleum goods.
At the world level chosen Brent crude in the United Kingdom to be a
global point of reference, in the Arabian Gulf region, Dubai crude is used
as a Rate for it, and in the United States Central Texas crude average. Has
been Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a
reference own custom basket of OPEC which is an average of seven crude
oil specific, namely:
1. Saudi Arabian Light crude
2. Dubai crude Emirate
3. Nigerian Bonny Light crude
4. Crude Algerian desert
5. Indonesian Minas crude
6. Tia Juana Light crude Venezuelan
7. Mexican crude Aistamos.

Oil price ranges generally between 22 and 28 dollars per barrel, in fact,
unstable oil prices are prone to rapid change due several factors, political,
economic, disasters and wars, and this is what we are witnessing now as
the price of oil to 67 Dollar per barrel.

Figure (13): show the increasing in oil price per barrel in last years by different currency

21

Apply GIS in marketing:

GIS tool is very useful because we can apply it in petroleum marketing,
by produce maps with their attributes. For example we can select the best
location for marketing our products. Also to determine the optimum route
between factory and marketing centre. In addition, if we have a map show
the import and export oil countries we can decide which countries is the
best import of our products. Also in the same countries GIS help to select
the best market depend on our criteria. Then we will increase our critical
thinking in knowing the relation between different factors.

To more obvious, I will provide an example of use GIS in how to
determine which the best country to export the oil products on the next
page.

C

ID Transport Distance State of Oil Populati
Sea System Country consumption on
density
A Rail Near Developed Medium Low
B B Pipeline Little Developed High Medium
far
A Ship Far Developed Very high High

Export A
Country

Now we have a map show three import oil country and they want our
product, also we have the attribute which it can help us to determine
which country will import our product.

So we can make a decision matrix, and give weight for each attribute
from 0-10. (0) not suitable, (10) the best.

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ID Transport Distance State of Oil Population Total
System Country consumption density

A 8 7 10 7 10 42
B 4 8 10 9 8 39
A 10 9 10 10 7 46
The Best

As the decision matrix show the country (C) is the best import country for
our product, then country (A), at the last country (B). By that way we can
solve the problem by use the GIS.

Pipelines

As I mention in the marketing, that we can use the pipeline as one of type
of transportation the oil, in this section I will focus on the pipeline and
how we can apply GIS in it.

Pipeline it consider as a tool to transfer the oil from one place to another.
We can use the CIS tool and remote sensing technique for the pipeline in
two different ways for sitting and management and monitoring the
pipeline and I will focus on how to use remote sensing for sitting the
pipeline. Remote sensing tool is better than map, because it give image.
Which contains more information, but map abstract the reality show only
selected features e.g.:-roads.

By use remote sensing we can get the image from different sources:-

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1. Aero plane, that means an-air plane fly and there is camera on it to
take the photo which called aerial photographs, it is the better because
of the high resolution, easy to control it, on the low attitude, low price.
2. Satellite -------- which are the sensors on the space-borne to collect the
data without being in contact with it.
3. From car (mobile mapping), it is useful for the police.
So if we have an image for the pipeline we can know the sitting of
pipeline and it will be more helpful because :-
1. Image contains more information that can be seen very clearly:-
e.g.: roads, vegetation, building, rivers, topography.
2. Let us observe the changes if we have a temporal images of the
pipeline (before, during, after), so we can provide a database for it.
Also the temporal images help to observe the environmental
import on the water, soil, vegetation, birds, animals, human by
concentrate on the it, then we will deduce the facts.
3. It save money and time.

After get the image, we will plan to make new pipeline by following
certain factors:

1-Economic factors (Cost):

• distance (shorter path, decrease the cost)
• elevation (low elevation, low cost)
• Crossing (roads, mountain, valley, river, forest, swamps,
tunnel, electricity), (less of crossings, less of money).
• Salary of the labour force.

2- Environment factors:

Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere Lithosphere
Human
Air ( O2, CO2) Soil
Surface
River, sea, valleys Animal & bird
Ground Plant Rocks
(vegetation)

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3-political (legal) factors:

The ownership of land Boundary

Local International

We can use the GIS tool for pipeline, so if we want to site the pipeline
location we will find the best route path between the two different
location, also for management and monitoring the pipeline.

For example, we will bring a satellite image and make analysis to find the
best way, then make a decision matrix for it, the figure below chow that:-

2 factors 1 2 3 4
1
Distance 5 9 5 3
3 Elevation 3 2 9 8
4
total 8 11 14 11

The best one is the 3

GPS in Petroleum

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation
system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S.
Department of Defence. GPS was originally intended for military
applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system available
for civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the
world, 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to
use GPS.

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There are three main segments of the GPS:

1. Space Segment.

The space segment consists of the satellites
themselves. According to the United States Naval
Observatory, there are currently 27 operational
GPS satellites about 11,000 miles up in space.
This constellation provides between five and
eight GPS satellites visible from any point on the
earth. The next scheduled launch is May 10,
2000. It takes each satellite about twelve hours to
orbit the earth. There are six orbital planes with at
least four satellites in each plane.
Figure (14): GPS satellites orbits
2. Control Segment.

The control segment is a group of ground stations that monitor and
operate the GPS satellites. There are monitoring stations spaced around
the globe and one Master Control Station located in Colorado Springs,
Colorado (see Figure 3 below). Each station sends information to the
Control Station which then updates and corrects the navigational message
of the satellites. There are actually five major monitoring systems, the
figure below does not include the Hawaiian station.

3. User Segment.

The user requires a GPS receiver in order to receive the transmissions
from the satellites. The GPS receiver calculates the location based on
signals from the satellites. The user does not transmit anything to the
satellites and therefore the satellites don't know the user is there. The only
data the satellites receive is from the Master Control Station in Colorado.
The users consist of both the military and civilians.

The way of GPS work

The principle behind GPS is the measurement of distance (or “range”)
between the satellites and the receiver. The satellites tell us exactly where
they are in their orbits by broadcasting data the receiver uses to compute
their positions. It works something like this: If we know our exact
distance from a satellite in space, we know we are somewhere on the

26

surface of an imaginary sphere with a radius equal to the distance to the
satellite radius. If we know our exact distance from two satellites, we
know that we are located somewhere on the line where the two spheres
intersect. And, if we take a third and a fourth measurement from two
more satellites, we can find our location. The GPS receiver processes the
satellite range measurements and produces its position.

Figure (15): way of GPS work

GPS uses a system of coordinates called WGS 84, which stands for World
Geodetic System 1984. It allows surveyors all around the world to
produce maps like the ones you see in school, all with a common
reference frame for the lines of latitude and longitude that locate places
and things. Likewise, GPS uses time from the United States Naval
Observatory in Washington, D.C., to synchronize all the timing elements
of the GPS system, much like Harrison's chronometer was synchronized
to the time at Greenwich.

Types of receiver

Aviation

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Airborne GPS receivers are generally used for navigation and attitude
determination. There are a wide range of receivers available to fit every
budgetary requirement. There are handheld GPS receivers available
which can accept data cartridges containing Jeppson charts. High-end
GPS units are being built into jumbo jets and are being tested for
automated lan ding.

Computer Boards

These receivers are designed to fit inside a computer of some
sort. A general purpose IBM-PC based receiver is made by
Novatel while another GPS designer kit is made by GEC-
Plessey. These boards are fairly pricey, with none I'm aware
of running below $1000.

Handheld

Quite a variety of these are now available. Many are intended to fit a
specific purpose such as land navigation, boating, aviation and even
industrial mapping. The range of features is therefore, fairly diverse.
Some are available at prices as low as $300 with some high end
mapping units running up to $4000.

Mapping

These receivers are intended for mappin g items for later inclusion
in databases, maps or drawings. All will have DGPS capability
and most will have the ability to store lots of points and add text
or menu information to the points. These units will start around
$1000 and go up from there.

Spaceborne

Spaceborn GPS receivers are used for satellite navigation and
attitude determination. From what I've seen so far, most
spaceborne receivers are radiation-hardened versions of ground-
based receivers. I don't have the faintest idea what these things
cost but it's got to be heartstopping (from my budgetary
standpoint, anyway).

Factors Affecting GPS Accuracy

Accuracy of GPS is the degree of conformance between the estimated or
measured position and time of a GPS receiver and its true time and

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position. Radio-navigation system accuracy is usually presented as a
statistical measure of system error and is characterized as follows:

• Predictable
• Repeatable
• Relative

Atmospheric Refraction

The earth’s atmosphere can also affect GPS accuracy , electrically charged
particles in the ionosphere and water vapour in the troposphere combine to slow
satellite signals as they pass through these regions. This slight slowing of the
signals can introduce considerable position errors.

Figure (16): atmospheric errors

Multipath errors

Multipath errors are caused by reflected satellite signals that are
received after bouncing off buildings, lakes, etc. (Fig 2). The reflected
signals are not traveling directly from satellites and thus “confuse” the
GPS receiver when it makes position calculations. Because it takes longer
for the signal to reach the receiver, the receiver thinks it is farther away
from the satellite than it actually is.

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Figure (17): multipath errors

Satellite geometry

Satellite geometry can magnify positional errors due to configuration of
the satellites in the sky in view of a receiver (satellite constellation). In
most cases, the farther apart the satellites, the better the position
calculation. Satellite constellation “quality” is quantified by a value called
Dilution of Precision (DOP). For example, in Figure 6, the constellation
with satellites “clumped” together would have a higher DOP than the
constellation with satellites more evenly distributed in the sky. Many end-
user GPS receivers report HDOP (horizontal DOP — or quality of the
latitude/longitude) or PDOP (position DOP — or quality of the three-
dimensional position data). A DOP of less than four is usually preferred
for most applications.

Figure (18): Example of good satellite constellation.
Satellites are spaced far apart for better
calculation.

Figure (19): Example of poor satellite constellation.
Satellites are spaced closely together for a poor
position calculation.

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Blockage :

More satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the better the accuracy.
Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, or sometimes even dense
foliage can block signal reception, causing position errors or possibly no
position reading at all. GPS units typically will not work indoors,
underwater or underground.

Figure (20): show the errors of blockage and multipath.

Ephemeris and clock errors

While the ephemeris data is transmitted every 30 seconds, the information
itself may be up to two hours old. Data up to four hours old is considered
valid for calculating positions, but may not indicate the satellites actual
position. If a fast TTFF is needed, it is possible to upload valid ephemeris
to a receiver, and in addition to setting the time, a position fix can be
obtained in under ten seconds. It is feasible to put such ephemeris data on
the web so it can be loaded into mobile GPS devices. The satellite's
atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The navigation
message contains corrections for these errors and estimates of the
accuracy of the atomic clock. However, they are based on observations
and may not indicate the clock's current state. These problems tend to be
very small, but may add up to a few meters (10s of feet) of inaccuracy.

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GLONASS
Figure (21): errors on GPS signal
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) is based
on a constellation of active satellites which continuously
transmit coded signals in two frequency bands, which can be
received by users anywhere on the Earth's surface to identify
their position and velocity in real time based on ranging
measurements. The system is a counterpart to the United States Global
Positioning System (GPS) and both systems share the same principles in
the data transmission and positioning methods. GLONASS is managed
for the Russian Federation Government by the Russian Space Forces and
the system is operated by the Coordination Scientific Information Center
(KNITs) of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. The
operational space segment of GLONASS consists of 21 satellites in 3
orbital planes, with 3 on-orbit spares. The three orbital planes are
separated 120 degrees, and the satellites within the same orbit plane by 45
degrees. Each satellite operates in circular 19,100 km orbits at an
inclination angle of 64.8 degrees and each satellite completes an orbit in
approximately 11 hours 15 minutes. The ground control segment of
GLONASS is entirely located within former Soviet Union territory. The
Ground Control Center and Time Standards is located in Moscow and the
telemetry and tracking stations are in St. Petersburg, Ternopol, Eniseisk,
Komsomolsk-na-Amure. The first GLONASS satellites were launched
into orbit in 1982. Two Etalon geodetic satellites were also flown in the
19,100 km GLONASS orbit to fully characterise the gravitational field at
the planned altitude and inclination. The original plans called for a
complete operational system by 1991, but the deployment of the full
constellation of satellites was not completed until late 1995 / early
1996. GLONASS was officially declared operational on September 24,
1993 by a decree of the President of the Russian Federation.

Galileo

Galileo is the informal name for the European Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS), a system that will offer users anywhere in the world
"near pinpoint" geographic positioning when it becomes fully operational
by 2008. The Galileo system, which consists of 30 satellites orbiting the
earth at a height of 15,000 miles, is expected to pinpoint a geographical
position to within a single meter. Because the service's availability will be
guaranteed in almost any circumstance, the system will be ideal for
applications in which precision and reliability are critical, such as air
traffic management (among many possible examples). Galileo will also

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perform global search and rescue (SAR) functions, based on the Cospas-
Sarsat SAR system. Each satellite will have its own transponder, which
will transfer distress signals from a user's transmitter to a rescue co-
ordination center. Once the rescue operation is launched, the system will
transmit a signal to the user, to notify them that help is on the way.

GPS application in Petroleum

GPS tool is for know the location, by know the (x,y) or ( x,y,z) , so if will
apply this technique in petroleum field we will produce a map show the
locations, or a map represent the location with the height.

For example, if we want to establish a new pipeline between the two
villages, we must take data for features between them, and knowing the
height after that we will know if it possible or not to build it.

Also we can generate a 3D model to know the places, which need to be
cut of fill on it. In addition, we can locate the wells and produce a final
map show the exactly location.

Oil Pollution

Petroleum production and petroleum products can contribute to air and
water pollution. Drilling for oil may disturb fragile ecosystems whether
on land or sea. Transporting oil may endanger wildlife and the
environment if it's spilled on rivers or oceans. Leaking underground
storage tanks may pollute groundwater and create noxious fumes.
Processing oil at the refinery may contribute to air and water pollution.
Burning gasoline to fuel our cars contributes to air pollution. Even the
careless disposal of waste oil drained from the family car can pollute
streams, rivers, and lakes.

So there is negative impact of the pollution in the sea and land, for
example in the sea:

1. For human, many countries depend on desalination plants as a
source of drinking water.
2. For marine life, the oil spill or oil seepage will polluted the
vegetation on it which is source of food for marine life.

Also example of oil pollution in land:

1. Soil contamination.

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Contamination of soils is, in most cases, a result of careless use of oil and
chemicals or of mere ignorance. In Finland, typical activities or
establishments that have caused contamination of soils have been the
distribution and storage of fuels, sawmills, impregnation plants, various
industries, depots and garages, greenhouses and shooting ranges.
Moreover, soil material of mixed origin and even waste material have
been used for filling of large areas, mainly along shores.The most
common harmful substances causing the contamination of soils are heavy
metals (e.g. lead and arsenic), oil products, polyaromatic hydrocarbons,
polychlorinated biphenyls, chlorophenols, and pesticides. So if the soil
was polluted , then the vegetation cover will polluted also.

Figure (22): Petroleum product seepage
into soils. of oil
2. Ground water.

Organic compounds can be a major pollution problem in groundwater.
Their presence in water can create a hazard to public health and the
environment. One of the most common sources for BTEX-contamination
of soil and groundwater are spills involving the release of petroleum
products such as gasoline, diesel fuel and lubricating and heating oil from
leaking oil tanks. Because of their polarity and very soluble
characteristics, the organic chemicals (BTEX's) of petroleum products
will be able to enter the soil and groundwater systems and cause serious
pollution problems.

3. Generate hydro carbon gases.

The most of harm gases generate in refining petroleum, such as the Hydro
Carbons, and CH4 (Methane).

34

After knowing the Figure (23): air pollution because of oil industry pollution, I will
oil pollution and the impact of the oil
take the oil spill as example and apply remote sensing and GIS in it.

Spills happen when people make mistakes or are careless and cause an oil
tanker to leak oil into the ocean. There are a few more ways an oil spill
can occur. Equipment breaking down may cause an oil spill. If the
equipment breaks down, the tanker may get stuck on shallow land. When
they start to drive the tanker again, they can put a hole in the tanker
causing it to leak oil.

Remote sensing application in oil pollution

Remote Sensing is a critical element for an
effective response to marine oil spills. Timely
response to an oil spill requires rapid
reconnaissance of the spill site to determine its
exact location, extent of oil contamination
(particularly the thickest portion of the slick) and
verifying predictions of the movement and fate of
oil slicks at sea. This is necessary to effectively
direct spill countermeasures such as mechanical
containment and recovery, dispersant application
and in situ burning, the timely protection of sites
along threatened coastlines and the preparation of
resources for shoreline clean-up. Remote sensing is
useful in several modes of oil spill control,
including large area surveillance, site specific Figure (24): oil spill
monitoring and tactical assistance in emergencies. It is
able to provide essential information to enhance
strategic and tactical decision-making, decreasing response costs by
facilitating rapid oil recovery and ultimately minimizing impacts. For
ocean spills, remote sensing data can provide information on the rate and
direction of oil movement through multi-temporal imaging and input to

35

drift prediction modeling. Observation can be undertaken visually or by
use of remote sensing systems. In remote sensing, a sensor other than
human vision or conventional photography is used to detect or map oil
spills. Remote sensing of oil on land is particularly limited.

Visual observations of spilled oil from the air, along with still and video
photography, are the simplest and most common method of determining
the location and extent (scale) of an oil spill. Remote sensing of spilled oil
can be undertaken by helicopter, particularly over near-shore waters
where their flexibility is an advantage along intricate coastline with cliffs,
coves and islands. For open ocean spills, there is less need for rapid
changes in flying speed, direction and altitude, in these instances the use
of low altitude, fixed-wing aircraft have proven to be the most effective
tactical method for obtaining information about spills and assisting in
spill response. For spill response efforts to be focused on the most
significant areas of the spill, it is important to note the relative and
heaviest concentrations of oil. GPS and other aircraft positioning systems
allow pinpointing the oil's location. Photography, particularly digital
photography, is also a useful recording tool and allows others to view the
situation on return to base. Many devices employing the visible spectrum,
including the conventional video camera, are available at a reasonable
cost. Dedicated remote sensing aircraft often have built-in downward
looking cameras linked with a GPS to assign accurate geographic co-
ordinates.

Practical oil spill detection is still performed
by visual observation, which is limited to
favorable sea and atmospheric conditions and
is inoperable in rain, fog, or darkness. Visual
observations are restricted to documentation
of the spill because there is no mechanism for
positive oil detection. Very thin oil sheens are
also difficult to detect especially in misty or
other conditions that limit vision. Oil can be
difficult to see in high seas and among debris
or weeds where it can blend in to dark Figure (25): A satellite image of the same
November 20, 2004 event. This SAR image
backgrounds such as water, soil, or shorelines. shows tanker, Prestige, 100 km off the
Many naturally occurring substances or Spanish coast. Photo by European Space
phenomena can be mistaken for spilled oil. Agency.
These include sun glint, wind shadows and
wind sheens, biogenic or natural oils from fish and plants, glacial flour
(finely, ground mineral material usually from glaciers), and oceanic or
riverine fronts where two different bodies of water meet. The usefulness
of visual observations is limited, however, it is an economical way to

36

document spills and provide baseline data on the extent and movement of
the spilled oil.

An estimate of the quantity of oil observed at sea is crucial. Observers are
generally able to distinguish between sheen and thicker patches of oil.
However gauging the oil thickness and coverage is rarely easy and is
made more difficult if the sea is rough. All such estimates should be
viewed with considerable caution. The table below gives some guidance.
Most difficult to assess are water-in-oil emulsions and viscous oils like
heavy crude and fuel oil, which can vary in thickness from millimeters to
several centimeters.

Approximate
Approximate
Oil Type Appearance Volume
Thickness
(m³/km²)
Oil Sheen Silver >0.0001 mm 0.1
Iridescent
Oil Sheen >0.0003 mm 0.3
(rainbow)
Crude and Brown to
>0.1 mm 100
Fuel Oil Black
Water-in-oil
Brown/Orange >1 mm 1000
Emulsions

Remote sensing equipment mounted in aircraft is increasingly being
used to monitor, detect and identify sources of illegal marine discharges
and to monitor accidental oil spills. Remote sensing devices used include
the use of infra-red (IR) video and photography from airborne platforms,
thermal infrared imaging, airborne laser fluourosensors, airborne and
satellite optical sensors, as well as airborne and satellite Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR). SAR sensors have an advantage over optical
sensors in that they can provide data under poor weather conditions and
during darkness. Remote sensors work by detecting properties of the sea
surface: color, reflectance, temperature or roughness. Oil can be detected
on the water surface when it modifies one or more of these properties.
Cameras relying on visible light are widely used, and may be
supplemented by airborne sensors which detect oil outside the visible
spectrum and are thus able to provide additional information about the oil.
The most commonly employed combinations of sensors include Side-
Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) and downward-looking thermal IR and
ultra-violet (UV) detectors or imaging systems. All sensors must be

37

calibrated and require highly trained personnel to operate them and
interpret the results.

Satellite-based remote sensing systems can also detect oil on water. The
sensors on board are either optical, detecting in the visible and near IR
regions of the spectrum, or use radar. Optical observation of spilled oil by
satellite requires clear skies, thereby severely limiting the usefulness of
such systems. SAR is not restricted by the presence of cloud and is a more
useful tool. However, with radar imagery, it is often difficult to be certain
that an anomalous feature on a satellite image is caused by the presence of
oil. Consequently, radar imagery from SAR requires expert interpretation
by suitably trained personnel to avoid other features being mistaken for
oil spills. To date, operational use of satellite imagery for oil spill
response has not been possible because limited spatial resolution, slow
revisit times, and often long delays in receipt of processed image.
However, satellite imagery can be used later to complement aerial
observations and provide a wider picture of the extent of pollution.

The present inability to reliably detect and map oil trapped in, under, on,
or among ice is a critical deficiency, affecting all aspects of response to
oil spills in ice. Although there is still no practical operational system to
remotely detect or map oil-in-ice, there are several technology areas
where further research into ground-based remote sensing could yield
major benefits. Examples include ground-penetrating radar, optical beams
for river spills and vapor detection (e.g. gas-sniffer systems) for oil
trapped in and under ice.

A critical gap in responding to oil spills is the present lack of capability to
measure and accurately map the thickness of spilled oil on the water.
There are no operational sensors, currently available, that provide
absolute measurement of oil slick thickness on the surface of the water. A
thickness sensor would allow spill countermeasures to be effectively
directed to the thickest portions of the oil slick. Some IR sensors have the
ability to measure relative oil thickness. Thick oil appears hotter than the
surrounding water during daytime. Composite images of an oil slick in
both UV and IR sensors have shown able to show relative thickness in
various areas with the thicker portions mapped in IR and the thin portions
mapped in UV.

So the remote sensing technique helps to monitor the change of the
location for the oil spill, measure the distance, time, the change in size
and shape.

GIS application in oil pollution

38

Oil spills in industrialized cities pose a significant threat to their urban
water environment. The largest city in Canada, the city of Toronto, has an
average 300-500 oil spills per year with an average total volume of about
160,000 L/year. About 45% of the spills was eventually cleaned up.
Given the enormous amount of remaining oil entering into the fragile
urban ecosystem, it is important to develop an effective pollution
prevention and control plan for the city. A Geographic Information
System (GIS) planning model has been developed to characterize oil
spills and determine preventive and control measures available in the city.
A database of oil spill records from 1988 to 1997 was compiled and geo-
referenced. Attributes to each record such as spill volume, oil type,
location, road type, sector, source, cleanup percentage, and environmental
impacts were created. GIS layers of woodlots, wetlands, watercourses,
Environmental Sensitive Areas, and Areas of Natural and Scientific
Interest were obtained from the local Conservation Authority. By
overlaying the spill characteristics with the GIS layers, evaluation of
preventive and control solutions close to these environmental features was
conducted. It was found that employee training and preventive
maintenance should be improved as the principal cause of spills was
attributed to human errors and equipment failure. Additionally, the cost of
using oil separators at strategic spill locations was found to be $1.4
million. The GIS model provides an efficient planning tool for urban oil
spill management. Additionally, the graphical capability of GIS allows
users to integrate environmental features and spill characteristics in the
management analysis.

Conclusion

After write this report and searching on the internet, I think remote

sensing and GIS are very useful tools and we can apply it in many

field, because they help to give a good view and provide a solution

for the problem. At the end I recommended the people who study

39

petroleum must have a background of remote sensing and GIS,

because they will help them in their work.

References

1. http://iws.ohiolink.edu/moti/homedefinition.html
2. http://www.ecstudents.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=4&t=2843
3. http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch5en/appl5en/oiltransportation.html
4. http://www8.garmin.com/aboutGPS/
5. http://infohost.nmt.edu/~mreece/gps/whatisgps.html

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6. http://www.aero.org/education/primers/gps/howgpsworks.html
7. http://thoreau.dnr.state.mn.us/mis/gis/tools/arcview/Training/WebHelp/Courses/
GPS/GPSOverview/Page8.html
8. http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/B1269.htm
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System
10. guide-on-gps.blogspot.com/2008/03/gps-errors.html
11. http://www.spaceandtech.com/spacedata/constellations/glonass_consum.shtml
12. http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid40_gci826721,0
0.html
13. http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/fuels/oil.html
14. http://www.columbia.edu/~ari2102/Oil%20Formation/Oil%20Formation2.html
15. http://www.uae.gov.ae/Government/oil_gas.htm
16. http://ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/fundam/chapter1/01_e.php
17. http://www.agrecon.canberra.edu.au/Remote/Remote.htm
18. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_photography
19. http://www.geospectra.net/lewis_cl/remote/remote.htm
20. http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/crs/geog165/rs_sensors.htm
21. http://ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/tutor/fundam/chapter2/01_e.php
22. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/2f.html
23. http://www.oneplan.org/Water/soiltriangle.shtmlhttp://www.bydesign.com/fossi
lfuels/links/html/oil/oil_move.html
24. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Oil_Prices_in_dollar_and_euro_1998-2007.
gif
25. www.alabastercorp.com/remediation.htm
http://lsa.colorado.edu/summarystreet/texts/petroleum.htm
http://www.environment.fi/default.asp?contentid=131255&lan=en
26. www.cee.vt.edu/.../teach/gwprimer/btex/btex.html
27. http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0215471/oil_spills.htm
28. http://www.mms.gov/tarprojectcategories/remote.htm
http://lsa.colorado.edu/summarystreet/texts/petroleum.htm
29. http://www.environment.fi/default.asp?contentid=131255&lan=en
30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11379137

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