Sc2220 Lecture 13 2009

Lecture 13: Review Summary, Key Slides Eric C. Thompson

Overview of the Course Weeks 1-2: Introduction to Gender Studies Weeks 3-4: Biology, Sex, and Gender Weeks 5-6: Cultural Constructions of Gender Weeks 7-9: Social Dynamics of Gender Weeks 10-12: Gender, Social Relations and Social Structure Week 13: Review Yeah… I remember some of that. 

I. INTRODUCTION TO COURSE AND GENDER STUDIES

Sex / Gender / Sexuality Sex refers to the bodies we have as a result of biological processes (e.g. genetics); Genitalia, Hormones, Baldness, Facial Hair, Breasts, etc. Gender refers to social-cultural elaborations of sex ; social practices and cultural roles associated with sex characteristics. Sexuality refers to social-cultural elaborations (especially identities) related to sexual behavior ; activities (ways of ‘having sex’), desires, relational identities (gay, straight, boyfriend, girlfriend, wife, husband, etc.)

Sociology of Women Feminist Sociology Sociology of Gender Franklin pp. xiv & xxvii “ Additive”… sought to make women ‘visible’ in sociology; Research about women’s experience. Reconceptualization of society; Focus on patriarchy and gendering of all aspects of social life; Explicitly political Deconstruction of the category “women”; Focus on gender rather than women ; Including men , masculinities, intersexed , and sexualities . Up to 1970s 1970s-1990s 1990s-present From “Women” to “Gender”

Waves of Feminism* First Wave: 19 th – early 20 th C. Women’s Suffrage (voting rights) Second Wave: 1960s – 1980s Equality in all things: Education, Work, Pay, Dishwashing, etc. Third Wave: 1990s – present Diverse Responses to “Second Wave” Feminism (including but not limited to “Girl Power”) *All based mainly on American history; Similar “waves” have been constructed for Singapore .

Human Heterosexuality shapes Gender If we were asexual we would have no basis for “gender” at all. If we were clownfish, gender would be an aspirational concept (men would aspire to one day become female). Because humans are “fixed” (unchanging) as male or female from birth, we think of gender as a fixed attribute determined by our biology (even though it is not).

But Biology Does Not Determine Gender. Different cultures create many different interpretations of our biology (for example, two, three or more genders). Different societies deal with biology differently (they put male and female bodies to use in different ways). Gender is our cultural interpretations of and social practices associated with our biological system of sexual reproduction.

“ Gender” involves Three Systems: Biological, Social and Cultural Biological system: a product and process of biochemical interactions. Social system: a product and process of relationships and exchanges among individuals (and groups of people). Cultural system: a product and process of relationships among ideas and beliefs expressed though language, images, etc. Commonly in Gender Studies the first is classified as “sex” and the second two as “gender”.

CULTURAL SYSTEMS SOCIAL SYSTEMS BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS DIAGRAM 1: Human Systems, General Integration Each system has some relationship to the other systems.

BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Socio-Cultural SYSTEMS DIAGRAM 6: Gender Systems Example 3: Gender Systems. Interaction between socio-cultural systems and biological systems with respect to gender and sex is substantial. (But this does not mean biology “explains” gender systems.)

III. CULTURAL CONSTRUCTIONS OF GENDER

Gender Socialization: How We Learn Gender (3 Models) Model 1: Direct Teaching/ Rewards & Punishment Model 2: Indirect Teaching/ Identification & Modeling Behavior Adults set the agenda, provide rewards or punishment Children identify with adults/parents of same sex and imitate their behavior

Gender Socialization Model 3 (Maccoby): Peer-to-Peer Socialization Children learn gender roles & behavior from each other

Socialization Involves Complex, Multiple Influences 3. PEER SOCIALIZATION 1. DIRECT TEACHING 2. MODELING BEHAVIOR TV 4. GENERAL CULTURAL INFLUENCES

“ Unpacking” the Gender System (Ridgeway and Correll 2004) Gender is a System of: Gender Beliefs Institutionalized Social Practices “ Unpacking” the Gender System means Critically* examining these Beliefs and Practices * ”Critical” Social and Cultural theory does not mean “criticizing” or bashing; it means carefully and reflectively examining.

A Few Things We “Unpacked” Hegemonic Masculinity; Masculinity “in Crisis” Women in Advertising and Popular Culture Transitions through Time; Differences from Place to Place (Gender changes over time in every society and is different everywhere.) Images of Beauty – how they vary across time and in different places; implications for “objectification” (esp. of women)

Patri- and Matri- (Some Terminology) Patri- (male) Matri- (female) -archy (rule, govern) -lineal (in the line of) -local (residence, location) Patriarchy: society in which power is disproportionately held by men Examples: Matrilineal: society in which property, names, status, etc. is inherited through women Patrilocal: society in which married couples live with the man’s side of the family *These are all different things; a society can be matrilineal but patriarchal

Patrilineal, Patrilocal Rules produce Patriarchal Relationships Women are dependent on men. Their social status (and livelihood) depends on marrying a husband and producing sons. Girls are of little value to their families; they are “married off” and join husband’s family. Structurally and functionally , the system provides an incentive for women to support it (becoming a mother-in-law); even though it is systemically oppressive to women.

Matrilineal, Matrilocal Rules produce Egalitarian Relationships Women are not dependent on husbands or sons – they own property in their own right. Girls are of value to their parents. Men are not dependent on women; they must “make their fortune” to be eligible husbands – but that wealth is “theirs”. Mother’s-brothers (uncles) are more important figures of authority than fathers.

Range of Matriarchy/Patriarchy All things being equal, we would expect a range of societies – from Highly Matriarchal to Highly Patriarchal. In fact, we find a range of societies from more-or-less Egalitarian to Highly Patriarchal. Societies That Do Not Exist Societies That Do Exist Egalitarian Very Matriarchal Very Patriarchal WHY?

Conditions of Patriarchy (Summarized) #1 Childcare & Investment in Offspring: Human, mammalian offspring create a “baby burden” for women. #2 Sexual Exchange (Baumeister, et al.) Intrinsically valuable female sexuality is exchanged with men for extrinsic resources. #3 Socioeconomic Conditions (Huber) The consequences of sexual exchange vary under different socioeconomic conditions The patriarchal tendency results from the combination of these conditions.

Additional Hypotheses Superior Talents of Men (Strength, Intelligence) Jealousy and Mate Guarding Patriarchy is a result of Capitalism Coercion and Use-of-Force Testosterone Competition Culture and Ideology (Patriarchy as a Conceptual Trap).

Human Relationships Forged On… Affective (“Emotional”) Bonds Bio-chemical; conditioned by positive neuro-chemical feedback (“feelings of love”) Exchange Relationships You have something I want. I have something you want. Let’s make a deal… (“sexual-exchange”) Cultural Imperatives Learned rules and categories provide us with models of how to act vis-à-vis others. (“rules of marriage, dating, etc.”)

“ Socio-sexual System” Human Infant Care – Need for investment of a lot of resources to raise children Sexual Exchange – Social bonding of males (fathers) to females (mothers), which channels resources from males to children (unusual among mammals). This is biologically driven (e.g. by hormones) and culturally shaped (e.g. by rules of marriage). But it is primarily social (relationships of exchange).

Sex Object, Success Object Same? Different? Sexual Exchange implies that Women are “Sex Objects” and Men are “Success Objects” Similarities: The person becomes a “means to an end” (sexual gratification, emotional gratification, wealth/resource accumulation) Differences: Embodied objectification (sex object) vs. “Disembodied” (externalized?) objectification Being “success objects” leads men in general into activities that may be empowering (for some of them); Being a “sex object” does not.

V. GENDER, SOCIAL RELATIONS AND STRUCTURES

Issues in Gender at Work The Double Shift Women working a “double shift” Domestic marginalization of Men The Gender Gap in Wages Choice Theory (women choose to ‘opt out’) Gendered Organization Theory Overt Discrimination

“ Flight from Marriage,” Foreign Brides and Transnational Patriarchy Singaporean women, in large numbers, ‘opt out’ of marriage or leverage their education and employment resources for a “better deal” (professional working women; more than ‘traditional wives’). Singaporean men, in large numbers, look to foreign brides as a means of maintaining “patriarchal privileges” (i.e. having a ‘traditional wife’).

Some Final Points… (that we didn’t have time for last week)

Commodification of “Women’s Work”: The Logic of “Neoliberalism” (Markets) Women’s work is commodified and subject to substantial rationalization and specialization. Traditionally, one woman (wife) provides sex, babies and domestic work for men (husband). With commodification and specialization: Wives (mothers) provide babies. Maids provide domestic work. Sex workers (prostitution; pornography) provide sexual services. Of course, not always in all cases! But, this follows from the “logic” of commodification and specialization. This frees women to pursue their own careers; but also makes marital relationships more tenuous.

“ Classic” (Kandiyoti 1988) and Transnational Forms of Patriarchy Classic: Patriarchal privilege maintained by – Patrilineal inheritance: Men (sons) inherit property; women do not. Patrilocal residence: Women (wives) leave their natal families, live with their husband’s family (cut off from natal family and social network support). Transnational: Patriarchy maintained by – Territorial state sovereignty: nation states control borders; create zones of relative wealth and relative deprivation (“First” and “Third” Worlds) “ Flexible citizenship” – Men from the First World can leverage citizenship (PR and other status) as a resource to negotiate a “patriarchal bargain” with Third World women.* *First world women can and occasionally do leverage citizenship as well in relationships with Third world men (see cases in the Carribean; Allen 2007); but generally, women do not. Why? Refer to “sexual exchange theory”.

Is Singapore a “Patriachal Society”? Yes… and No Generalized “male-biased” policies; but more powerful “human resource” policies that provide a lot of support for women (provided that they are Singaporean citizens… and especially if ‘highly educated’). Confucian ideology of patrilocal, patrilineal ‘classic’ patriarchy; BUT… no longer (never was!) an agricultural society. (Disconnect between culture and economy.) Substantial emergence of “transnational patriarchy” (foreign brides, not to mention maids!) Female citizens are ‘freed’ (to a substantial degree; not fully) from patriarchy; imported “third world” women take their place to maintain “patriarchal privileges”.

Sc2220 Lecture 13 2009

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Sc2220 Lecture 13 2009