Sem 2 Building Construction Project 1

CONTENTS
Hong Seo Taek 1.0 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO THE SITE
Lau Hui Ming 2.0 SITE & SAFETY
Esther Oo 3.0 PRELIMINARY WORKS
Ng Jer Vain 4.0 FOUNDATION
5.0 SUBSTRUCTURE
7.0 ROOF Jonathan Lim
8.0 SUMMARY Hong Seo Taek
2.1 PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT
2.1.1 SITE SAFETY
2.2 PLANTS AND MACHINERY
Pg 3
Pg4-7
Pg8-12
Pg13-18
Pg19-20
Pg 21-30
Pg 31-34
Pg35-36
Pg 37-43
Pg 46-53
Pg 54
Pg 55-56
6.0 DOORS & WINDOWS Soh Yong Zhou
4.1 FOUNDATION TYPE & CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
4.2 FOUNDATION TYPES
3.1 SOIL INVESTIGATION AT SITE
3.2 EXTERNAL WORKS
3.3 SETTING OUT
3.4 TEMPORARY SERVICES
3.5 DRAINAGE & SEWERAGE
5.0 BEAM & COLUMN Shreya Wilson
5.1 WALLS Lee Kylie
5.4 STAIRCASE Shreya Wilson
5.1.1 WALL SYSTEMS
5.1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE WALLS
5.1.3 PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS
5.1.4 TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION
5.1.5 MASONRY WALLS
5.0.1 BEAM TYPE
5.0.2 COLUMN TYPE
5.0.3 BENEFITS OF RCC BEAMS & COLUMNS
5.0.4 FORMWORK FOR BEAMS & COLUMNS
5.0.5 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
5.4.1 STAIRCASE TYPE
5.4.2 TERMINOLOGY
5.2 CONCRETE SLABS Hong Seo Taek
5.2.1 CONCRETE SLABS (GENERAL)
5.2.3 SLAB DETAILS
5.2.4 FORMWORK
OTHERS:
COVER PAGE : ESTHER OO
CONTENTS PAGE: ESTHER OO
CHECKING OF REPORT: SHREYA WILSON & ESTHER OO
6.1.1 DOORS
6.1.2 DOORS ON SITE
6.1.3 ANATOMY OF DOOR
6.1.4 METHODS OF DOOR INSTALLATION
6.1.5 DOUBLE TEMPERED GLASS DOOR
6.1.6 DOUBLE SOLID CORE FLUSH DOOR
6.2.1 WINDOWS
6.2.2 WINDOWS ON SITE
6.2.3 ANATOMY OF WINDOWS
6.2.4 CONSTRUCTION METHOD
6.2.5 ALUMINIUM FIXED WINDOW
7.1 DIAGRAMMATIC ROOF INTRODUCTION
7.2 ALAM IMPIAN SHOW UNIT ROOFING
7.3 ROOF CONSTRUCTION AND FUNCTIONS
7.4.1 REFERENCE: ROOF SYSTEMS
7.4.2 REFERENCE: ROOF MATERIALS
SUMMARY OF ASSIGNMENT
REFERENCES

1.0
INTRODUCTION TO THE SITE
1.1 Alam Impian Show Unit Olivina Type C-1
TTDI Alam Impian is a rapidly growing township that is made up of close-
knit communities centred on exquisite parks. The unique arrangement of
the homes is designed to foster strong community ties. A show unit that
promotes the modern contemporary residence the Olivina Type C-1,
locating at TTDI Alam Impian, Shah Alam with an another block of
completed show unit beside it. The construction period is approximately
set to 1 month, fast construction is demanded for early bird marketing.
The development of actual consists of 3 blocks: Block A is a 15-storey
high rise with 143 units. Block B is a 8-storey low rise with 50 units. Block
C is a 9-storey low rise with 92 units.
1.2 Tamarind Square
Tamarind Square, a mixed complex of residential and commercial designed
with a theme of recreation of old sense of neighbourhood, where interaction
between individuals and communities creates strong bond between people
over the generation, locating in Cyberjaya near Multi Media University
(MMU). Construction phases are divided in to 4 phases while the current
process still remains on phase one which is aimed to be completed by end
of this year (2016) and rest of the construction is aimed to be done in couple
of years. In phase 1&2, construction of residential/office area (high-rise)
taking the main part of the phase.
PREPARED BY HONG SEOTAEK
STUDENT ID 0322045
3

Construction work is a dangerous land-based job. Construction accidents always happen everyday. For
examples: falls from height, trapped by something collapsing or overturning, struck by a moving vehicle, contact
with electricity or electrical discharge, struck by a flying/falling object during machine lifting of materials, contact
with moving machinery or material being machined, exposure to a hot or harmful substance and etc.
2.1. PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT (PPE)
Serves as an importance because its providing a safer workplace including providing instructions, procedures, training and supervision to encourage people to work safely and
responsibly. Safety is a major issue for day labourers and skilled labourers. Each year, accidents happen frequently in the construction industry and often times it is due to the
absence of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) or failure to wear the provided PPE.
1. Safety glasses: Made up of tempered glass. They will not shatter and cause eye
damage.
2. Gloves: Protect hands from splinters and rough materials. Tend to catch on rough
building materials.
3. Face Shield: Protect the face from any sparks when machinery is used to cut the
materials.
4. Helmet: Protects user from falling objects and other head injuries.
5. Steel toed boots: Protects the user’s feet from sharp objects such as nails and glass
fragments on the ground.
6. Harness: Must be functioning whenever the user is at a high working level or platform.
It has to have a tie-off point to save the user from falling great heights
7. Ear plugs: Prevents cumulative hearing loss due to the noise produced everyday in the
construction site.
8. Dust mask: Protects their respiratory system from dusts on the construction site.
2.0
SITE AND SAFETY PREPARED BY LAU HUI MING
STUDENT ID 0323827
4

2.1.1 SITE SAFETY
1. Sign boards: To warn and remind workers and visitors of the hazards on
site. Posting safety signs in the area is one of those ways. This will able to
alert individuals of possible hazards and the precautionary measures they
need to take when they work in construction site. A construction hazards
sign could have prevented the man from suffering the injury he did.
3.Security Protection : The materials on site need to be protected during non-
working hours and admission to the construction site should be prohibited unless
accompanied by the safety officer.
● Fencing: It deﬁnes the limit of the site or compound and acts as a deterrent
to the would-be trespasser or thief.
2. Elevated area
A. Scaffolding
A temporary structure used to support a work crew and materials to aid in the
construction, maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all other man made
structures. Scaffolding is also used in adapted forms for formwork and shoring,
grandstand seating, concert stages, access/viewing towers, exhibition stands, ski
ramps, half pipes and art projects.
PREPARED BY LAU HUI MING
STUDENT ID 0323827
5
● Safety net: Personal harness with lanyard and tie off points should be worn
for workers at high working areas.
● Hoardings: These are close-boarded fences or barriers erected adjacent to a
highway or public footpath to prevent unauthorised persons obtaining access
to the site, and to provide a degree of protection for the public from the dust
and noise associated with building operations

C. Handling and storage area: The materials are tied and packed or stacked in
one area. It involves diverse operations such as hoisting tons of steel with a crane;
driving a truck loaded with concrete blocks; carrying bags or materials manually;
and stacking palletized bricks or other materials such as drums, barrels, kegs, and
lumber. In addition to raw materials, these operations provide a continuous flow of
parts and assemblies through the workplace and ensure that materials are
available when needed.
2.2 PLANTS AND MACHINERY
The term ‘plant’ refers to machinery, equipment and apparatus used for an industrial activity. Typically In construction, ‘plant’ refers to heavy machinery and equipment used during
construction works
1. Transporting Vehicle
A. Dump truck: A truck used for transporting loose material such as sand,
gravel, or dirt for construction.
2. Earth moving & excavating equipment
A. Multi-purpose excavator: Used for hammering, drilling, trenching, boring, wall
and pavement milling, flail mowing, ditch cleaning and many other functions even
in difficult access areas.
D. Trash removal: Debris and rubble from the demolition phase of a project or
simply the accumulation of packaging, cut-offs, and assorted debris from the
actual building work, it all has to be cleaned up and properly disposed of
STUDENT ID 0323827
6

B. Crawler Excavators : Utilitarian machines that can dig trenches, load trucks,
lift pipe, and handle attachments, such as hydraulic breakers, shears, and
grapples.
3. Construction Equipments
A. Ready mixed concrete trucks: These are used to transport mixed concrete to
sites from a mixing plant or depot. The trucks are fitted with a water tank, typically
with a capacity of around 1000 litres, to avoid the concretesetting en route to the
site.
B. Tilting-drum mixers: These use a conical drum rotating on a movable axis to
mix small amounts of concrete on-site. The materials are discharged from the
tilting drum once mixed. Hydraulic rams are used to control the tilting action.
Typical outputs are around 200 litres per batch.
4. Material Handling Equipments
A. Supporting static tower crane: This is similar to a self-supporting tower crane
but is used where high lifts are required. To gain additional stability, the tower is
tied at suitable intervals to the face of the structure, from a minimum distance of 2
metres. This will induce additional stresses in the structure which must be
accommodated in the design and this is likely to incur additional costs.
B. Truck-mounted cranes: Are mounted on a truck or lorry specially
adapted to carry an increased load. TAs this type of crane is very transportable
and has a short site preparation time they are commonly used for short hire
periods
5. Forklift Truck
Straight mast forklift: Predominantly used as part of the materials and goods
storage process, or for moving materials and goods where the height of the
structure does not exceed three storeys.
STUDENT ID 0323827
7

PRELIMINARY WORKS
Refers to any external work on the construction site before the commencement of the actual construction, it serves as a
purpose for future construction progress to run smoothly.
The integrity of the building structure depends ultimately on its stability and strength under loading the soil and rock underlying the foundation. The main purpose
is to ensure that there aren’t any chemical or physical conditions on the site that might damage the building.
3.1 SOIL INVESTIGATION (SITE SUITABILITY)
STEP 1: To investigate the subsoil strata
for fine-grained soil at site 1, the standard
penetration test is then set up (Figure a)
BOREHOLE – Hand auger
primarily used to obtain
subsoil samples for
identification,
classification and
ascertaining the subsoil’s
characteristics and
properties.
STEP 2: Recording the number of blows required by a
hammer to advance a standard soil sampler (Figure b).
The penetration resistance (N-value) is then calculated
based on the recorded numbers of blows per ft.
3.0
FINE-GRAINED SOIL AT SITE
LOCATION PLAN OF BOREHOLES
No. Procedure Consequences
1 Inadequate cleaning of the borehole Sludge may be trapped in the sampler and compressed as the
sampler is driven, increasing the blow count & preventing
sample recovery.
2 Overdriving the sampler Inaccurate recording of blow counts
ISSUES FACED DURING THE PROCEDURE
8
Figure (a) Figure (b)
PREPARED BY ESTHER OO
STUDENT ID 0326915

STEP 3:TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED
TOPOGRAPHY, THE LAND THAT IS
ADDED TO THE SITE IS THEN
MARKED AS ‘FILL’
3.2 EXCAVATION WORKS
works involving the moving or processing of parts of the earth's surface through the quantities of soil
Before the excavation for the proposed foundation is
commenced, the site shall be cleared of vegetation.
Processes whereby the surface of the earth is excavated with constructional equipments and machineries
CUT & FILL TECHNIQUE
STEP 1: IDENTIFYING THE
TOPOGRAPHY.
Site Section
This technique is used to spread & level an area before the foundation is placed by using a
multipurpose excavator as they are ideally suited for smaller building firms with low excavation plant
utilisation requirements.
STEP 2: THE AREA TO BE CUT &
FILLED IS THEN ESTIMATED
The amount of existing area that must be
added and removed is then estimated.
Then, the area between the lines is
calculated to find the cut and fill areas for
each section.
3.2.1 GRUBBING OUT BUSHES/TREES 3.2.2 EARTHWORK
STEP 4: TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED
LAND TOPOGRAPHY, THE LAND THAT
IS REMOVED FROM THE SITE IS
MARKED AS ‘CUT’
Work can then commence to properly
level the site and construct our building.
3.2.2 CUT & FILL PROCEDURE
9
STUDENT ID 0326915

STEP 5: FINAL LINE IS SET OUT
STEP 3: FIRST RIGHT ANGLE TO THE
FRONTAGE LINE IS SET OUT
STEP 2: FRONTAGE LINE IS SET OUTSTEP 1: BUILDING LINE IS SET OUT
3.3 SETTING OUT
The building is set out (Figure c) to clearly define the outline of the
excavation and the centre line of the walls, so that construction can be
carried out exactly according to the plan. Undertaken once the site has
been cleared or any debris or obstructions and any reduced level
excavation work is finished.
SETTING OUT PROCEDURE
The building is set out to establish a baseline in which all
the setting out can be related. The centre lines of the
walls are marked by stretching strings across wooden
pegs (Figure c,d,e) driven at the ends.
THEODOLITE
The centre lines of the perpendicular
walls are marked by setting out the
right angle with a theodolite.
STEP 4: SECOND RIGHT ANGLE TO THE
FRONTAGE LINE IS SET OUT
10
Figure (c)
Figure (d) Figure (e)
STUDENT ID 0326915

3.4 TEMPORARY SERVICES
GUARD HOUSE Tamarind Square
SITE OFFICE Tamarind Square
CONSTRUCTION HOARDING Alam Impian Showroom
TEMPORARY SHELTER Tamarind Square
TEMPORARY SIGNAGES Tamarind Square
ELECTRICAL SUPPLY Alam Impian Showroom
To provide security from any unauthorized personnel & to provide temporary
shelter for the secutiry team
An air-conditioned, insulated & well lit cabin furnished
with chairs & tables suited for any ongoing office
activities
Privacy & accommodation along with water
storage tanks, public baths, cafeterias to provide a
comfortable stay for the workers & their family
Temporary fencing is a prerequisite for developers at any construction site,
ensuring security at the construction site.
This also provides a sensible effort to prevent the unauthorized from
entering the site, reducing the risks of law suits from those injured at the
site.
To promote & advertise the ongoing
construction as well as to provide
information regarding site & safety
displayed in a location immediately adjacent to
the business premises to which the sign relates
Electrical supply needed
for powering the
machineries during the
construction process.
Exposed electrical outlets
could cause hazards at site 11
STUDENT ID 0326915
Interior of site office

3.5 DRAINAGE & SEWERAGE SYSTEM
3.5.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEM (SITE)
3.5.2 SEWERAGE SYSTEM (SITE)
A system to carry away excess waste matter or water
A system of pipelines which carry away
excessive water from the site to a suitable
disposable installation.
A system made up of large pipes which convey waste matters from the point of
production to the point of treatment.
This system used at Tamarind
Square (site 2) avoids the passage
of ground moisture to the interior of
the building,acting as a protection
for the building.
BENEFITS
Prevents entry of excess water to the
interior
Lowers the humidity at site
Provides ground stability
GRID SYSTEM
The pipes at Tamarind Square
are arranged in a grid system
to maximise the coverage of
the branches of drains at site
SUBSOIL DRAINAGE
EFFLUENT SEWERAGE
SITE: Tamarind Square
Tamarind Square
An effluent sewer (Figure g) uses gravity to move waste. Small diameter pipes which adapts to
the contour of the land and are only buried 1-2m underground.
Effluent sewer systems can be installed at a shallow depth and do not require a minimum
wastewater flow or slope to function.
The pipework (Figure g) is
connected to the public
sewer, which then conveys
the discharges to the
nearest local authority
sewage plant.
12
Figure (g)
STUDENT ID 0326915

FOUNDATION
4.0 The elements of an architectural structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure
to the ground
4.1 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS (FROM SITE VISIT)
The type of foundation on our site is pad footing which is a type of shallow
foundation. As the building in construction is a single storey showroom, and the soil
underground is in good condition, it does not require deep foundation. As a result,
the depth of the foundation is not more than 3 metres and it consists of concrete and
reinforced bars.
Beforehand, a soil test would be conducted to determine the type of foundation
to be built. As for our site, it is determined that pad footing is the most suitable
foundation to be built. Not only it is easy to work on, it does not require much
time and effort compared to deep foundations. Firstly,three metres deep of
trenches were excavated for the footings (as shown in Figure 4.1.1). The
topsoil that is removed are piled at one edge of the building site, it is going to
be used later when the ground is smoothed and graded around the building.
(Figure 4.1.2)
After both outside walls of the foundation and
inside of the foundation walls have been marked
with strings, batter boards are set out around the
building position (Figure 4.1.3). They provide
permanent reference points for the position of
the foundation walls, it is important after the
string markings are removed during
construction. Besides, they are used to mark off
the exact position of doors, windows and floors.
Figure 4.1.3
BATTER
BOARD
Step 1: Digging the foundation trench
Step 2 : Set up batter boards
Step 3 : Formwork
After that, a layer of lean concrete is poured
to prepare a clean and firm base for the
footing. Then, the formwork are made, with
boards measuring about 5cm x 30cm. The
boards are supported by studs and braces
so that it does not collapse when the
concrete is being poured into it .The joints
and corners of the formwork are tight to
avoid water leakage as it will weaken the
mixture. (As shown in Figure 4.1.4)
Figure 4.1.4
Figure 4.1.2
FORMWORK
STUD
BRACES
Figure 4.1.1
PREPARED BY NG JER VAIN
STUDENT ID 0326969
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Next, the reinforcement bars ( Figure
4.1.5) are bent and twisted before they
are laid into the formwork. The
reinforcement bars are mostly made of
steel, they are carefully chosen to make
sure they are not rusty as it will weaken
the structure. (Figure 4.1.6)
Figure 4.1.6
STEEL BARS
Step 4: Reinforcement work Step 5: Pouring concrete
The concrete are then mixed and poured
into the formwork. During transportation, it
is important to avoid vibration to the
mixing concrete as it will cause the
aggregates to be separated from the
mixture. The pouring of the concrete has
to be flowing continuously into the trench.
It is then worked up and down with
spading tools to break air pockets in order
to strengthen the structure. The curing of
the concrete takes about one to two
weeks. When the concrete has gained
sufficient strength, the formwork can be
dismantled. (Figure 4.1.7 shows the
completion of the pad footings.)
Figure 4.1.7
4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS (FROM REFERENCE)
Footing is the lowest part of the building and carries the weight, while foundation is
the wall between the footing and the rest of the building.The purpose of having a
foundation is to transfer the superstructure loads to the underlying soil or rock
without overstressing the soil or rock in order to let the building stand steadily on
ground. They are to meet the requirements stated below.
Requirements :
1. To be able to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit these to the
subsoil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement which would
impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
2. Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimised,
specially for the case when superimposed loads are not evenly distributed.
3. Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against
damage or distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the subsoil.
4. Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to
any unexpected future influence.
Figure 4.1.5
Figure 4.2.1. Parts of footings and
foundations
STUDENT ID 0326969
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4.2.1 Types of foundation
The type of foundation used is classified into two categories that are shallow
foundations and deep foundations.
Shallow foundation
It is employed when stable soil of adequate bearing capacity occurs relatively near
to the ground surface. They are placed directly below the lowest part of a
substructure and transfer building loads directly to the supporting soil by vertical
pressure.
Deep Foundation
It is employed when the soil underlying a foundation is unstable or of inadequate
bearing capacity. They extend down through unsuitable soil to transfer building loads
to a more appropriate bearing stratum of rock or dense sands and gravels well
below the superstructure.
Comparison between Shallow Foundation and Deep Foundation
4.2.2 Shallow Foundation
Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation
Used when the soil formation has
adequate strength for a safe bearing
support
Used when the soil has lower shear
strength or is highly compressible
Light, flexible structure: older residential
construction, residential construction
which include a basement and in many
commercial structure
Heavy, rigid structure: other uncommon
building, such as large bridge, tower and
the empire state building
Good soil condition: hard, uniform soil Poor soil condition: liquefaction, soft clay
and sand
Cheaper than deep foundation Typically more expensive than shallow
foundation
Easier construction More complex to construct and requires
more time
Pad footing, Strip footing, Raft foundation Pile foundation
Pad foundations are designed to support high loads
over a limited area. Such foundations are common
where a structural form brings loads to the ground by way of columns. As such,
there are applicable to reinforced concrete, pre-cast concrete and structural steel
design solutions. Depending on ground conditions, pads will be found in a wide
variety of structures - warehousing, low rise industrial plants requiring large clear
areas and high rise office and domestic accommodation with favourable ground
below.
Depending on the nature of the structural solution, the type of pad foundation will
vary. The three main variants are R.C. column (figure 4.2.2) , steel column (figure
4.2.3) and P.C.C column (figure 4.2.4) . All of them need to be in reinforced
concrete. Foundation of this type normally have a rectilinear shape in plan and
can be of some depth where a lot of poor soil overlays, for example, stable rocks.
Pad Foundation
Table 4.2.1 Difference between shallow foundation and deep foundation
Figure 4.2.2 R.C. column Figure 4.2.3 Steel column
Figure 4.2.4 P.C.C. column
STUDENT ID 0326969
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4.2.2 Deep Foundation
Strip Foundation Raft Foundation
As the name implies, strip footings
are long continuous strips, usually
of concrete, created in the ground
at a suitable depth to provide
adequate support for the loads
brought upon them. Such
foundations may or may not be
reinforced, depending on the
ground conditions and the loading
involved.
The loading on this type of foundation
is of a linear pattern. It will arise from
load bearing construction involving brick, block, masonry or other material in low
rise housing, utility buildings or low rise industrial structures.
Figure 4.2.6 Raft foundation
The raft foundation is designed
to “float” on poor ground while
distributing local heavy loads
which come down upon it, to an
acceptable final ground pressure.
It refers to a reinforced concrete
slab that covers the whole area
of a building and usually extends
beyond it.
Best suited for use on soft
natural ground or fill or on ground
that is liable to subsidence as in
mining areas thus eliminating
differential settlement.
Figure 4.2.5 Crpss section
Housing typical strip foundation
Piles can also be divided into three main groups, depending on the construction
metho.
Pile
Foundation
A pile foundation is a system of end-bearing or friction piles, pile caps, and tie beams
for transferring building loads down to a suitable bearing situation.
End Bearing Piles Friction Piles
The bottom end of the pile rests on a
layer of strong soil or rock
Work on the static friction developed
between the surface of the pile and
soil where it is placed.
The pile acts like a column, with the
load bypassess the weak layer and
safely transferred to the strong layer.
Mainly supported by adhesion or
friction action of the soil around the
perimeter of the pile shaft.
Displacement Piles Replacement Piles
Are normally preformed and driven into the
ground,produces very little spoil during construction
and is therefore ideally suited for sites with
contaminated soils.
Have to be excavated to
the required depth. Some
piles may need lining as
the excavation proceeds
to reduce the risk of
collapse.Large Displacement
Piles
Small Displacement
Piles
Include all types of solid
pile, including timber and
precast concrete and
steel or concrete tubes
closed at the lower end
by a shoe or plug.
Include rolled steel
sections, such as H-
piles, open ended tubes
and hollow sections if the
ground enters freely
during driving.
Formed by boring or
other methods of
excavation. The borehole
may be lined with a
casing or casing or tube
that is either left in place
or extracted as the hole is
filled.
Table 4.2.7 Difference between end bearing piles and friction piles
Table 4.2.8 Difference between displacememt piles and replacement piles
STUDENT ID 0326969
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4.2.2.1 Displacement Piling
Advantages Disadvantages
Self testing as driven to refusal Cannot penetrate obstructions
No pile arisings to dispose of Cannot always penetrate desicated clay
Limited access Vibration and noise
High production
Little disturbance
Figure 4.2.9 Piles and pile caps
Table 4.2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of displacement piling
Figure 4.2.11 Process of placing a displacement piling
STUDENT ID 0326969
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4.2.2.1 Replacement Piling
Installed into non cohesive and water
bearing soils
It produces excavated material which
requires removal off site
Effectively vibration free
High production
Restricted access
Table 4.2.12 Advantages and disadvantage of replacement piling
4.2.3 Pile Caps
A pile cap is defined as a thick concrete mat that rests on concrete or timber piles that
have been driven into soft or unstable ground to provide a suitable stable foundation. It
usually forms part of the foundation of a building, typically a multi-story building, structure
or support base for heavy equipment.
Functions of a pile cap:
1. To distribute a single load equally over the pile group and thus over a greater area
of bearing potential
2. To laterally stabilise individual piles thus increasing overall stability of the group
3. To provide the necessary combined resistance to stresses set up by the
superstructure and/or ground movement.
Figure 4.2.14 Cross section of a pile cap
Figure 4.2.15 Plan of a pile cap
showing force being distributed
Figure 4.2.13 Process of placing replacement piling
STUDENT ID 0326969
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BEAMS AND COLUMNS
Refers to horizontal and vertical structures that are simply used for support and help in shifting all the loads to the foundation.
5.0
5.0.1 BEAM TYPE (found on site)
Beams are commonly used as ledges for other forms of
flooring to rest on
5.0.2 COLUMN TYPE (found on site)
Designed to act together with
vertical and lateral reinforcement in
resisting applied forces.
Long slender steel
columns which will
be the main
framework and
support for the glass
façade
Statically indeterminate
multispan beams
1.Reinforced cement concrete has good compressive stress (concrete)
2. High tensile stress (steel)
3.Good resistance from fire and weathering (concrete)
4.Steel bars protected from buckling and twisting at high temperatures
5. Prevention from rusting
6. It is durable monolithic character of reinforced concrete gives it rigidity
7. No maintenance cost
5.0.3 BENEFITS OF RCC BEAMS AND COLUMNS
Two way slab with
beam system
Figure 5.0.1.2 (Detail showing the
reinforcement set up)
Figure 5.0.1.1 (Beams present at
tamarind square project)
Figure 5.0.2.2 (round columns
used in the interiors of the
Tamarind square)
Figure 5.0.2.1 (H steel
column used at TTDI
project)
Figure 5.0.2.3 (sectional detail of
connection between column and beams )
PREPARED BY SHREYA MARIA WILSON
STUDENT ID 0322173
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Figure 5.0.5.1 (column formwork process)
Figure 5.0.5.2
5.0.5 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS (beams and columns)
STAGE 1: Thick steel bars arranged vertically,thinner steel
bars wrap around the vertical steel bars to hold them firmly
in place
Making internal skeletal structure for the columns
STAGE 2: 4 pieces of timber planks are put together
which forms the formwork of the columns. The planks
are sealed using yorkes that stop the leaking of the
concrete and hold it in place
STAGE 3: 3-5 days for columns while beams
curing takes 7-10 days depending on weather
and due to being horizontal the gravity pull
Shoring is necessary as
formwork can’t take the structural
strength so steel legs are added
under the beams and slab to give
it support
5.0.4 FORMWORK FOR BEAMS AND COLUMNS
Columns with steel reinforcement visible
which is placed inside the concrete to
give stability and strength
Using scaffolding they are
providing the support for
the concrete to cure
instead of using proper
shoring methods
Figure 5.0.5.3 (tamarind square using
formwork for beams)
Figure 5.0.4.1 (Formwork for beam)
Figure 5.0.4.2 (Plan of rectangular
formwork)
Figure 5.0.4.3 (Plan of round beam
formwork)
Figure 5.0.4.4 (Elevation on formwork
showing the yokes)
STUDENT ID 0322173
20

WALLS
Refers to the vertical constructions of a building that enclose, separate, and protect its interior spaces. They may be loadbearing
structures of homogenous or composite construction designed to support imposed loads from floors and roofs, or consist of a
framework of columns and beams with nonstructural panels attached to or filling in between them.
5.1
5.1.1 WALL SYSTEMS
Below are the components which make up a complete wall systems.
STRUCTURAL FRAMES
a) Concrete frames
b) Non-combustible steel frames
c) Timber frames
d) Steel and concrete frames
Structural frames can support and accept a variety of nonbearing or curtain wall
systems.
CONCRETE AND MASONRY BEARING WALLS
a) Concrete and masonry walls qualify as noncombustible construction and rely
on their mass for their load carrying capability.
b) While strong in compression, they require reinforcing to handle tensile
stresses.
c) Height-to-width ratio, provisions for lateral stability, and proper placement of
expansion joints are critical factors in wall design and construction.
d) Wall surfaces may be left exposed.
METAL AND WOOD STUD WALLS
a) Studs carry vertical loads while sheathing or diagonal bracing stiffens the
plane of the wall.
b) Stud walls are flexible in form due to the workability of relatively small pieces
and the various means of fastening available.
PREPARED BY LEE KYLIE
STUDENT ID 0326655
21

5.1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE WALLS
● Advantages : Consistent quality of strength, durability and finish.
Eliminates the need for on-site formwork.
● The precast wall panels may be conventionally reinforced or
prestressed ofr greater structural efficiency, reduced panel
thicknesses, and longer spans.
● Precast wall panels may be of solid, composite, or ribbed construction.
● A variety of quality controlled surface textures and patterns are
available.
Solid
Panels
Precast concrete wall panels are cast and steam-cured in a plant off site, transported to the construction site,
and set in place with cranes as rigid components.
Composite
Panels
Ribbed
Panels
STUDENT ID 0326655
22

5.1.3 PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS
BLOCKWORK
- A walling unit exceeding the BS dimensions specified for bricks
- Its height should not exceed either its length or 6 times its thickness
- Types : 1. Clay blocks
2. Precast concrete blocks
PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS
- Type used in : Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
AAC products are made using slurry mix containing
cement, sand, lime and aerating agent. The slurry is
poured and moulded to form lightweight blocks, panels
and lintels upon which are cured in autoclave. The high-
pressure steam-curing mechanism in the autoclave
facilitates the curing process of the moulded lightweight
concrete, producing physically and chemically stable
products that weigh about 1/5 of normal concrete. AAC
products contain millions of tiny non-connecting air
pockets yielding superior thermal insulation property.
Aerated concrete
- produced by introducing air or gas into the mix so
that, when set, a uniform cellular block is formed
- Usual method: 1) introduce a controlled amount of
fine aluminium powder into the mix
2) this reacts with the free
lime in the cement to give off hydrogen, which is
3) quickly replaced with air
and so provides the aeration
- Common face format sizes: 400 mm X 200 mm, 450
mm X 225 mm
- Common thickness : 75, 90, 100, 140, 190, 215 mm
- Manufacturing process by STARKEN®:
STUDENT ID 0326655
23

- Concrete blocks are laid in
what is essentially
stretcher bond and joined
to other walls by block
bonding or by leaving
metal ties or strips
projecting from suitable
bed courses.
- Precaution : concrete
blocks shrink on drying
out, therefore they should
not be laid until the initial
drying shrinkage has
taken place (usually about
14 days under normal
drying conditions) and
should be protected on
site to prevent them from
becoming wet, expanding
and causing subsequent
shrinkage, possibly
resulting in cracking of
blocks and any applied
finishes such as plaster.
5.1.4 TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION PREPARED BY LEE KYLIE
STUDENT ID 0326655
24

5.1.4 TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION
A method of casting reinforced concrete wall panels on site in a horizontal position, then tilting them up into their final position.
The principal advantage is the elimination of the costs associated with constructing and stripping vertical wall forms. This cost savings is offset by
the cost of the crane required to lift the completed wall panels into place.
Projections and the pickup
devices are cast into the
upper face.
The concrete ground slab for
the building under construction
usually serves as the casting
platform, although earth,
plywood or steel molds can
also be used.
The slab must be designed
to withstand the truck
crane load if the lifting
operation requires the
presence of the crane on
the slab.
The casting
platform should be
level and smoothly
troweled. A bond
breaking agent is
used to ensure a
clean lift.
Reveals and recessed
steel plates may be
cast into the underside
of the panels.
Once the wall
panels are cured
to sufficient
strength, they are
lifted with a crane
and set on the
footings or piers.
They are then
temporarily
braced until
connections can
be made to the
remaining part of
the structure.
The wall panels must be
designed to withstand the
stresses of being lifted and
moved, which can exceed the
in-place loads.
STUDENT ID 0326655
25

5.1.5 MASONRY WALLS
Masonry walls consist of modular building blocks bonded together with mortar to form walls that are durable, fire-
resistant, and structurally efficient in compression.
Bricks: Heat-hardened clay
units
Concrete blocks : Chemically-
hardened units
Other masonry units: Structural
clay tile, structural glass block,
and natural or cast stone.
STUDENT ID 0326655
26

UNREINFORCED MASONRY WALLS
Solid masonry walls may be constructed of either solid or hollow masonry units laid
contiguously with all joints solidly filled with mortar.
STUDENT ID 0326655
27

REINFORCED MASONRY WALLS
Reinforced masonry walls use steel reinforcing bars placed in thickened joints or cavities
with a fluid grout mixed of portland cement, aggregate, and water for greater strength in
carrying vertical loads and increased resistance to buckling and lateral forces
REINFORCED CONCRETE UNIT MASONRY
REINFORCED GROUTED MASONRY
Reinforced grouted masonry should conform to the
requirements for plain grouted masonry
STUDENT ID 0326655
28

MASONRY WALL SECTIONS
These wall sections illustrate how concrete, steel, wood floor and roof systems are supported by and tied to
reinforced brick masonry wall and reinforced concrete masonry wall.
Reinforced Brick Masonry Wall
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Wall
STUDENT ID 0326655
29

MASONRY BONDING
When building with bricks it is necessary to lay the bricks to some recognised pattern or
bond in order to ensure stability of the structure and to produce a pleasing appearance. In
our case study of Alam Impian Show Unit Olivina Type C-1, the type of masonry bonding
identified is the common stretcher bond.
All bricks in this bond are
stretchers, with the bricks in each
successive course staggered by
half a stretcher. Headers are used
as quoins on alternating stretching
courses in order to achieve the
necessary off-set.
It is the simplest repeating pattern,
and will create a wall only one-half
brick thick. Such a thin wall is not
stable enough to stand alone, and
must be tied to a supporting
structure. This practice is common
in modern buildings, where
stretcher bonded brickwork may be
the outer face of a cavity wall, or
the facing to a timber or steel-
framed structure.
STUDENT ID 0326655
30

5.2.1 CONCRETE SLABS (GENERAL)
Basic construction of flooring layer of superstructure, a primary structure to define the sense of space
1.Introduction to Concrete Slabs
Concrete slab is a very popular and common method of
flooring construction method, especially for area with
warm/tropical climate (figure 5.2.0) and stable in soil condition.
It is usually in form of 4 main layers, the base layer with sand
and gravel which is then covered by a layer of polyethylene as
a method of vapour barrier. On top of it, rebar wire mesh is
placed as a reinforcement. Finally a layer of concrete slab
which forms the primary flooring.
Figure 5.2.0 World Climate
Map
Durability
-extremely long lasting, resistant to nearly everything
(heat, electricity, pressure, etc)
Hardness
-the strength of concrete could be a disadvantage when
it comes to children and elderly’s safety
Low maintenance cost
-due to high resistance, minimum hygienic maintenance
is required In every 3~6month)
Coldness
-concrete do not holds heat, which requires additional
insulation to be constructed
Environmentally Friendly
-no carbon footprint is produced during the production
of concrete slab as no new material is produced
Moisture
-concrete is very resistant but moisture and humidity is
vital as it may crack into the concrete
2.Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete Slabs
3.Types of Concrete Slabs
Figure 5.2.1 Basic Layering of
Concrete Slab
Figure 5.2.2
Figure 5.2.3
Figure 5.2.4
Monolithic Slab (figure 5.2.2)
-monolithic slab is a slab foundation that is connected to the footing of foundation
which is dug and placed underground below the flooring level
Post Tensioned Slab (figure 5.2.3)
-a type of monolithic slab which rebar wire meshes run through the concrete slab,
pulled and stretched afterwards to strengthen the slab
Stem Wall Slabs (figure 5.2.4)
-type of slab which edged of the slab is supported by the stem wall foundation, while
the middle part of the slab is place directly on the ground level
STUDENT ID 0322045
31

5.2.2 CONCRETE SLAB CONSTRUCTION PROCESS (OF THE SITE)
Method of pouring the concrete to the site according to the formwork and leveling it flat
3.Laying the First Layer (sub base)
-the first layer of gravel is placed on top of the stone base
to hold the concrete slab
2.Formwork
-wooden formwork is created around the area chosen
which creates boundary and mould for concrete pouring
5.Mixing and Pouring
-after preparation, concrete is mixed with cement, sand
and gravel in ratio of 1:2:4. Mixed concrete is then poured
directly in to the mould (site)
1.Preparation of Site
-clearing of the area chosen to prevent interference of
pouring concrete. Then a layer of flat stone base is placed
to elevate the area of construction
6.Screeding and Leveling
-poured concrete is spread equally using shovels and
rakes which is then screeded by wood plank and screeding
tool
4.Reinforcement
-on top of gravel, sheet of polyethylene and elevated wire
mesh is placed for vapour proofing and strengthening of
concrete slab
Stone pavement
32
STUDENT ID 0322045

5.2.3 SLAB DETAILS (OF THE SITE)
Basic construction of flooring layer of superstructure, a primary structure to define the sense of space
5.2.3.1 Monolithic Slab
-4 layered monolithic slab could be identified on site with figure 5.2.31 and figure
5.2.32
Figure 5.2.31 (sectional detail) Figure 5.2.32 (perspective)
5.2.3.2 Subbase Layer
-layers of aggregates under the main layer of concrete slabs that supports
construction of load-bearing walls by spreading the load equally to the ground
Gravel Stone Pavement Soil
Figure 5.2.33 (sub base layering)
5.2.3.3 Polyethylene Sheeting
-polyethylene the most common known plastic in sheet form that is laid on top of sub
base layer taking the role of vapour resistance and prevention of *capillary break as
shown in figure 5.2.34
Figure 5.2.34(polyethylene function)
*Capilary break is a break in sab that is created by capillary action which is an anti-
gravitational movement of liquid molecules when during molecular interaction with
solid molecules
Figure 5.2.35 (polyethylene sheet) Figure 5.2.36 (application)
33
STUDENT ID 0322045

5.2.4 Formwork
-minimal and simplified timber formwork (figure 5.2.38) has been done to decrease
the initial cost and reduced the procedures of disassembling the formwork compared
to the common formwork (figure 5.2.37)
Figure 5.2.37
(sectional detail of common formwork)
Figure 5.2.38
(sectional detail of on site formwork)
Figure 5.2.39
(overview of formwork)
Figure 5.2.4
5.2.3.5 Reinforcement
-6X6 reinforcement wire mesh (table 5.2.3) elevated by a chair (on site, it’s halved
pavement) as shown in figure 5.2.42
Figure 5.2.42
Figure 5.2.41
(weld wire mesh)
-figure 5.2.43 and 5.2.44 shows the difference
between the elevating chair for the wire meshes
and how halved pavement is recycled
Figure 5.2.43
(ordinary wire mesh chair)
Figure 5.2.44
(halved pavement)
Table 5.2.3
(welded wire mesh specification table) 34
STUDENT ID 0322045

5.4
5.4.1 STAIRCASE TYPE (found on site) 5.4.2 TERMINOLOGY
STAIRCASE
Structural elements that leads to an opening allowing ease of access or movement between different levels
TERMINOLOGY MEASUREMENTS
Riser 150mm
Tread 200mm, 250mm
Thickness stairs side 100mm
No. steps (total Height+ slab) / riser
Total stairs height 3300, 3600, 3900, 4200, 4500mm
Step width 900mm, 1200mm
Gap between 50mm
Landing width Step width and gap together
HALF-LANDING
STAIRS
This project uses
stairs that change
their direction through
180 opposite
directions AND less
space is provided
between the flights in
plan for railing.
Figure 5.4.1 (plan of half-landing stair)
Figure 5.4.1.2
(Located at the side of
the building.These
staircase protrude out.
2 flights per floor )
Figure 5.4.1.4
(Staircase which doesn’t follow
any standard type with railing as
placed in an open area and has
low height.)
Figure
5.4.1.3(Staircase with
4 flights in one floor
range and beside it
area for lift )
Figure 5.4.2.1 (Terms of a half landing stairs)
STUDENT ID 0322173
35

5.4.3 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS (timber formwork for concrete stairs)
STAGE 1: calculate stairs
dimension,determine
foundation dimension and Set
riser and run with framing
square
STAGE 3:Push stringers to close
gap
Reinsert pivot bottom screw
STAGE 2:(build the form) Set
brackets using spacers
Rotate brackets
Fix bracket with one fixer screw per
bracket
STAGE 4: Pouring and setting of the
concrete in the form created. Before
pouring the concrete reinforcing mesh
is laid in position.
- Maximum rise is 190 mm.
- Minimum going is 255 mm.
- One going plus two rises should equal 585 mm to 625 mm.
Concrete mix usually specified as 1:1.5:3/3-10 mm
aggregate (25-30 N/mm2) • Minimum cover of concrete
over reinforcement 15mm or bar diameter, to give a 1-hour
fire resistance • Waist thickness between 100-2500 mm
(depending on stair type) • Mild steel or high yield steel
bars as reinforcement
Setup of stairs after concrete sets (section)
Figure 5.4.3.1 (Timber being measured to
cot the stringer)
Figure 5.4.3.2 (base of the formwork
being constructed)
Figure 5.4.3.3 (formwork set ready to pour
concrete)
Figure 5.4.3.4 (concrete poured on top
and curing taking place)
Figure 5.4.3.5 (sectional detail showing the reinforcement
of concrete stair)
STUDENT ID 0322173
36

Doors and windows are/can be parts of important component of walls. Doors often provides approach from the outside into the interior of a building as well
as passage between interior spaces. Windows are primarily allowing light and air ventilations into an area and space.
6.0
DOORS & WINDOWS
6.1.1 Doors
Doors and doorway provide accessibility between spaces and areas. There
are several kinds of doors with different purposes and made by different
materials
6.1.3 Anatomy of Door
A - Wall Top Plate
B - Cripple Stud
C - Header
D - King Stud
E - Jack Stud
F - Wall Sole Plate
1 - Casing 6 -
Bottom Rail
2 - Top Raid 7 - Hinges
3 - Mullion 8 - Jamb
4 - Lock Trail 9 - Stop
5 - Panel 10 - Sill
6.1.2 Doors on site
1650
1650
2200
3000
Double Tempered Glass Door
( ENTRANCE )
Double Solid Core Flush Door
( EMERGENCY EXIT ) 37
PREPARED BY SOH YONG ZHOU
STUDENT ID 0322123

6.1.4 Methods of door installation
There are several methods of door installation, which are
- Rebated and lift-up door system
- Traditional System
- Sub Frame system
Rebated and lift-up door
system
Door Panel
Lift up hinge
Main Frame
Sub Frame
Architrave
Rebated and lift-up door system creates a tiny gap between the door and the frame, which
provide an acoustic effect. One of the advantages of lift-up door system is it makes users
easier to uplift door panel with the use of lift-up hinge
Sub Frame System
Prevent damages to the main frame and save cost and time from undesirable
abortive work
Door Panel
Traditional System
Door Panel
Main Frame
Sub Frame
Architrave
Wall
Wall
Main Frame
Architrave
This method is constructed before the plastering in the wall or
installing the wall tiles
38
STUDENT ID 0322123

6.1.5 Double Tempered Glass Door
Double Tempered Glass Door is
made with two designated cut
tempered glasses. It is not only
creating accessibility between
spaces. Besides, it also provides
light to go through from one
space to another. It also creates
a visual effect that helps the
area within it looks wider and
bigger than it actually is
Installation Process
A - Overpanel Patch
D - Top Patch
B - Pull Handles
E - Corner Lock
C - Floor Spring
Begin the brick work and leave a calculated
distance for the framework
Fill the spaces between bricks into solid
rectangular size with concrete and
Insert the overpanel patch with the steel
structure by the top of the door frame
Screw floor spring down into the ground
Attach the
tempered glass
to the overpanel
patch and floor
spring by just
connecting the
top and bottom
patch with them
39
STUDENT ID 0322123

6.1.6 Double Solid Core Flush Door
Double Solid Core Flush Door
is commonly and widely used
as an emergency exit overall
in Malaysia. It is not classified
as Fire proof door. However,
there are some features
designed as part of the door to
keep users safe.
A - Fireproof Lock B - Fireproof lock and
handle
C - Fireproof stainless steel hinge D - Fireproof seal
Verify and confirm the length of
exact location of the double solid
core flush door. Once have the
measurement done, leave out the
measured space and start the
brick and form work.
After stacking up all the bricks, fill
the empty space between bricks
with concrete and into roughly the
size of the doorframe. The next
step is insert lintel to prevent the
bricks to collapse
Door frame and fire proof hinge
are inserted to the measured
concrete hole and secure with
concrete nails
Insert the fire proof seal around
the door frame and cover the
edge with cement plaster40
STUDENT ID 0322123

6.2.1 Windows
Windows are designed as another elements along with the
wall besides doors. The functions of windows are
undeniable important to space. The primary function of
window is to provide a mean for admission of lights to the
interior of buildings
6.2.2 Windows on site
2000
450
400
1800
Awning Windows
(Provide Air
Ventilation)
Aluminium frame
casement window
with fixed glass
window
( 0% Air
Ventilation)
6.2.3 Anatomy of Window
A - Header B - Trimmer Stud C - King Stud D - Sill
E - Trimmer Stud (Lower Position) F - Jack Stud (Cripple Stud)
Rough Opening Jack Stud
6.2.4 Methods of constructing windows
1. Cast-in window system 2. Lug System 3. Sub-frame
system
43
STUDENT ID 0322123

6.2.5 Aluminium Fixed Window (Picture)
Picture windows are fixed windows that can’t be opened. It allows light
to come through the space. However, there is no air ventilation
allowed to get in. Picture winders are often used in combination with
operating windows.
Installation (micro)
A calculated size of window frame is
left during the brickwork.
Fill the spaces in between bricks with
concrete and mold to the dimension
of fixed window. Inserting the lintel to
prevent the brick damage
The window is inserted into the
concrete hole.Grip the concrete edge
with metal strip and secure with
concrete nails
Exterior Interior
A -
Tempered
glass
B -
Sealant
C -
Aluminium
Frame
D -
Drilling
(Concrete)
Drill 44
STUDENT ID 0322123

6.2.6 Aluminium Frame Casement Awning Window
Awning windows pivot at the top
and it may have outward or inward
swinging sash, the most commonly
found in Malaysia is outward
swinging sash awning window.
Awning windows are either
operated with a roto-gear or push-
out lever in order to keep 50% of
fresh air getting in but in the
meantime still able to keep the rain
out.
Anatomy of Awning Window
A - Sash B - Hinge Slide C -
Hinge Back
D - Jamb E - Retainer Clip F - Hinge Arm
A calculated size of window frame is
left during the brickwork.
Fill the spaces in between bricks with
concrete and mold to the dimension
of awning window. Inserting the lintel
to prevent the brick damage
The window is inserted into the
concrete hole.Grip the concrete edge
with metal strip and secure with
concrete nails
45
STUDENT ID 0322123

Figure 1
RAINWATER/SUNLIGHT
LATERAL
WIND
REACTION OF FORCE
TRANSFER THROUGH
COLUMNS
Figure 2
Figure 2: Besides acting as a sheltering component from rain and heat, a
roof must also be robust to resist those forces such as lateral wind pressure,
seismic movements and uplifting wind forces.
The roof is a structure that spans across a space that carries its own weight as well as anything that is attached to it. It’s primary purpose is to shelter the
interior spaces of the building from external forces.
7.0
ROOF TYPE & CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
7.1 Diagrammatic Roof Introduction
Figure 1: The roof is typically connected structurally to the support
system of building i.e bearing walls and columns to which the weight
would transfer down to the foundation system.
PREPARED BY JONATHAN
LIM
STUDENT ID 0321119
Panorama of flat roof structure at Alam Impian Show Unit site during roof construction process
46

Figure 4
The roofing system is the primary shelter for the interior spaces of
the building. The roof is meant to protect the Olivina Residences-
Type C1 show unit that is intended to be built at the site.
7.2 Alam Impian Show Unit Roofing
Figure 3: The flat roof design is meant to be taken from the
TTDI showroom office opposite the site as both buildings
correspond with each other.
Figure 4: The flat roof extends out by extending the main truss thus overhanging the roof over the
walls. The architect's intention was to have the roof protect the glass and concrete wall facade that
is meant to be built to reduce cleaning maintenance and direct exposure to sunlight heat
penetration.
Figure 5: The structure has an inclined low-sloped roof due to the height difference of the front and
back columns. Besides, the roof has a 2.0 degree inclined slope allowing storm-water to drain
naturally against gravity towards the back of the building into the gutters that leads to the ground
drainage system.
Figure 5
Figure 6: Proofing to find angle of roof inclination
LIM
STUDENT ID 0321119
47

7.3 Roof Construction and Functions
The roof is a flat steel truss type. It is formed by a series of trusses that are
made with two parallel top and bottom chords. They typically have vertical
and diagonal web members forming right angles triangles along its body.
There are three component trusses that make up the
truss structure of the building which are the main truss,
the tie truss and the fascia truss. Illustrations of
mentioned below:
Figure 7: Steel Truss Illustration
Main Truss
Tie Truss
Fascia Truss
These trusses vary in span length, depth and pattern.
Truss panel dimensions and patterns:
Main Truss:
Span Length: 1130mm
Depth: 750mm
Pattern: Vertical and diagonal members
in one direction.
Tie Truss:
Span Length: 1100mm
Depth: 650mm
in one direction.
Fascia Truss:
Span Length: 1067mm
Depth: 1000mm
in two directions.
750
1100
650
1067
1000
LIM
STUDENT ID 0321119
Advantages of using steel roofing:
-Lightweight
-Time efficient
-Meets fire resistance code as non-combustible materials
requirement
-Immune to insect damage and material deterioration
-Easy framing assembly to install drywalls, etc.
-Low-maintenance
Disadvantages of using steel roofing:
-Expensive
-Will corrode/rust if not steel is not treated with anti-corrosion
solution/paint
The construction process is a series of steps involving layering of
trusses and roofing materials.
48

Diagram 1: Sections of typical
truss connections
Fillet welding
all around the
endplate.
Web
Main Truss
Endplate
Tie Truss Endplate
(Extension)
7.3.1 Roof Construction and Functions
MAIN TRUSS
There are 4 main trusses that are placed longitudinally across the
roof plan. The main trusses are the main load bearing bodies that
carry the metal roof decking.
The main trusses are attached to the steel columns and further
extended by adding tie trusses to the opposite side of the
columns. The main trusses were lifted by means of a mobile
telescopic boom crane and then while suspended installed to the
columns. Refer to Diagram 1 for detailing.
Figure 8: Main trusses in place
Diagram 1:
The main truss is
joisted with the
column by fillet
welding an end
plate all around with
four 18mm DIA.
holes at each
corner to the ends
of the truss. Then
attaching the truss
with a bolt and nut
to the web of the
column.
LIM
STUDENT ID 0321119
Main
Trusses
TIE TRUSS
The tie trusses function as tension members to hold back external
or internal forces that might pull the main trusses and columns
apart. There are three tie truss that are placed laterally across the
roof plan. They have shorter vertical and diagonal web members.
The method of installing tie truss is the still using mobile telescopic
boom crane to suspend and then install to column.
Figure 11
FLANGE SIDE
Mild Steel
Plate
Figure 11: The tie truss is
joisted in a similar fashion
with the end plate of two
14mm holes. Then attaching
the truss with bolt and nut to
the flange side of the
column.
Figure 12: Tie trusses are
placed in between columns
horizontally.
49

LIM
STUDENT ID 0321119
LIPPED CHANNEL PURLINS
Lipped channel purlins are placed laterally atop the main trusses.
They are meant to support the main trusses as horizontal members
across them enabling them build wider roofs and to support the
overall weight of the roof decking.
Figure 13:
The lipped channels
function as purlins that
are joisted to the
columns by single or
double cleats with two
14mm holes welded to
the top chord of the
main trusses which are
then bolted to the
column using bolt and
nut.
Figure 13
Lipped Channel Detail for Single Purlin
Lipped Channel Detail for Single Purlin
Cleat welded to
top chord and
bolted to purlin
Cleat welded to
top chord and
bolted to purlin
Bolt
Purlin
Purlin
Main
Truss
Main
Truss
RADIANT SHEETING/MEMBRANE
A woven high-tensile strength radiant sheet membrane is laid out on
the purlin structure that functions as a humid, damp-proof and
moisture barrier. It also has fireproof properties and cooling
performance due to its reflective aluminium face.
Workers would have to use scaffolding to mount the structure and
manually install the membrane over the purlins.
Figure 16:
RadenShield AL+ is made up of a layer of pure aluminium, 2
layers of polymer bonding, 1 layer of HDPE Woven Fabric and 1
layer of metalized polyester.
Figure 15:
The sheets comes
in rolls of 1.25m
width by 48m
length and is
rolled, cut and
stuck laterally
along the roof plan
to cover the whole
roof ensuring there
are no gaps for
any leakages in
the future.
50

METAL CORRUGATED PANELS
Panels of corrugated metal sheets are laid above the covered purlin
structure and joined along side one another by puddle-welding the
roof to the purlins below.
Because of the discontinuity of panels, any leaked water will be
captured by the sheet membrane below.
LIM
STUDENT ID 0321119
FASCIA TRUSS
The fascia truss has a shorter vertical and diagonal web members.
The fascia trusses function as a frame to install Fascia boards that
would cap the rafters and purlins of the roof structure. It is installed
around the perimeter of the roof.
Figure 17
Figure 18:
The construction method
detail is illustrated on the left.
Workers use scaffolding to
climb up to the truss structure
and lay metal corrugated
panels on top.
The panels are overlaid at
one ridge over the other and
is then welded together to the
purlin below.
Figure 19
Figure 20:
Workers again use scaffolding to
mount the structure to install the
fascia truss to the main and tie truss
extensions by welding a mild steel
plate to the sides creating a cleat to
joist it together with bolts and nuts.
Mild Steel
Endplate Cleat
FASCIA
TRUSS
SCAFFOLDING
14mm
holes for
bolt and
nut
51

GUTTERS AND DRAINAGE
Gutter is installed at the rear edge of the sloped roof. Its function is
to catch storm-water runoff when it rains. The gutter is made of
steel metal and downpipes are PVC.
LIM
STUDENT ID 0321119
FASCIA BOARDS
The fascia flashing boards are made of fiber cement material that
are then drilled onto the fascia truss. The fascia boards function as a
transitional building element from a non-roofing to roofing element
while carrying the gutter as roof drainage and as a cover to make the
facade clean and aesthetically pleasing. It is installed around the
perimeter of the roof.
Figure 21
GUTTER INSTALLATION ON FASCIA
TRUSS
Figure 22: The fascia truss acts as a
holder for the gutter while it has a
open web-member body allowing
insertion for downpipes to the gutter.
Figure 23: Polyvinyl Chloride
downpipes to be installed to the
gutter.
Figure 25:
Workers mount the structure with scaffolding and manually install
the fascia boards to the fascia truss.
Figure 24
Inappropriate footing
placement when installing
fascia boards.
52

7.4.1 Reference: Roof Systems
OTHER ROOF SYSTEMS:
Wood Trussed Rafter
They are monoplanar trusses that are prefabricated as each
individual piece is subject to tensile and compressive forces. The
wood trussed roof plan is rectangular in shape and is best used
when a quantity of single truss type and clear spans is required.
LIM
STUDENT ID 0321119
OTHER ROOF SYSTEMS:
Space Frames
They are a combination of three dimensional plate structures that usually
takes on the shape of a triangle. It’s axial tension and compressive strength
depends on the space frame’s linear combination and rigidity of triangle. The
tetrahedron is the simplest unit of the space frames having 4 joints and six
structural members.
Tetrahedron
7.4.2 Reference: roof materials
OTHER ROOF MATERIALS:
Tile Roofing
Tile roofings are typically made with clay or
concrete materials. They are made into tile units
and are made to interlock each other when laid
onto the roof. However, this type of material is
heavy and requires roof framing such as
plywood decking. These tiles are also made into
special units for ridges, hips, rakes and eaves
construction.
OTHER ROOF MATERIALS:
Green Roof
This method of natural roofing is
an engineered soil or growing
medium with a waterproof
membrane underneath. The initial
investment for this method of
roofing is expensive but
beneficial in the long run. The
green roof is able to protect the
waterproof membrane and
roofing element beneath from
ultraviolet rays and temperature
fluctuations that deteriorates the
conventional roofing. Besides, it
also functions to conserve a
previous area of another
building’s footprint, controlling
stormwater runoff and improving
the quality of air and water.
53

8.0
SUMMARY
Construction is a complex process of creating an architectural structure in means of art and technology. Our first construction related assignment is
researching and analyzing the entire construction process based on the case study. Our group was blessed with arranging site visits on two different
construction site that was contacted through Jonathan and Esther’s connection. Two contrasting sites, one being a rapid constructed month project
while another site is planned for 4 years. Our group ignited the research and analysis process by conducting the first site visit to one of our two sites
in Alam Impian, Shah Alam, gave us brief idea on the whole construction site context and process which guided us on planning and delegating tasks
for report writing
Site visiting went smoothly, us being able to visit the smaller site 4 times, observing the entire construction process step by step and visiting a larger
site in between the time period. Observation and recording the process through visual notes, written notes and photo taking was done on site as
well as clearing doubt with construction managers. Based on the resources and data collected, research and analysis is conducted by our group
members individually then compiled with a template which everyone is able to edit to form a whole report.
During the journey of completing this assignment, we have encountered several obstacles. Firstly it took us around a week or more to get contacted
with our site (which first tutorial with no progress). Secondly we did not have much of background knowledge on construction processes as it was
before all the lectures, it took us some time to really understand the processes and elements of the construction site. Finally we took a bit of time
confirming on out task delegation and writing of report, the amount of time we had was limited in the end.
After all, we were able to experience the whole construction process, watching it, hearing it and feeling it with our own body. Reaching deep into the
small details of construction process, understanding and memorizing. This is a very precious experience that we were able to have in the
architecture course. The details we have learnt over this project will be taken into our future assignment and career implementing the technological
and professional knowledge onto designing the building.
STUDENT ID 0322045
54

SITE & SAFETY
● Naniey, C. (2010). Live as COMMUNITY..... Mrshighheels.blogspot.my. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://mrshighheels.blogspot.my/2010/02/live-as-community.html
● Construction plant - Designing Buildings Wiki. (2016). Designingbuildings.co.uk. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Construction_plant
● Excavating plant - Designing Buildings Wiki. (2016). Designingbuildings.co.uk. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Excavating_plant
● Julian Torres,. (2016). Construction Trash Removal Can Be Easy. Really!. Info.junk-king.com. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://info.junk-
king.com/2015/10/22/construction-trash-removal-can-be-easy-really/
● Chudley, R. & Greeno, R. (2004). Building construction handbook. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
● Ching, F. & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated. New York: Wiley.
PRELIMINARY
● 12 LOGICAL STEPS TO SELECT SOIL & ROCK PROPERTIES. (2016). CivilBlog.Org. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://civilblog.org/2016/02/04/12-logical-steps-to-
select-soil-rock-properties/
● Duffy, D. (2016). earthwork volume - Forester Network. Forester Network. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://foresternetwork.com/tag/earthwork-volume/
● Experiment on Standard Penetration (With Diagram). (2015). YourArticleLibrary.com: The Next Generation Library. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/soil/experiment-on-standard-penetration-with-diagram/45884/
● BUILDER'S ENGINEER. (2016). Buildersengineer.info. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.buildersengineer.info/
● Duffy, D. (2016). Methods for Estimating Earthwork Volumes. Forester Network. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://foresternetwork.com/daily/construction/jobsite-
infrastructure/taking-the-measure-of-methods-for-estimating-earthwork-volumes/
● Cut and fill. (2016). En.wikipedia.org. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut_and_fill
● Site Preparation. (2016). Home-building-answers.com. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.home-building-answers.com/site-preparation.html
● Mishra, G. (2013). SETTING OUT A BUILDING PLAN ON GROUND. The Constructor. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/tips/setting-out-a-building-
plan-on-ground/5897/
● Self-Help Construction of 1-Story Building: Directions for construction: Setting out (laying out): Batter boards. (2016). Collections.infocollections.org. Retrieved 19 October
2016, from http://collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/uk/d/Jm0006e/5.1.3.html
FOUNDATION
● Donald, C. [donaldcheah]. (2011, October 19). SketchUp Animation - “Casting of a RC Pad Footing” (improved) [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D5ZMhNEqNMY
● Self-Help Construction of 1-Story Building: Directions for construction: Construction of foundation footings. (2016). Collections.infocollections.org. Retrieved 19 October 2016,
from http://collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/uk/d/Jm0006e/5.2.html
● Jia Hui, L. (2016). A Study of Building Foundations in Malaysia (1st ed.). Malaysia. Retrieved from https://eprints.usq.edu.au/635/1/Leow_Jia_Hui-2005.pdf
● Earthwork. 1st ed. washington: N.p., 2016. Print.
● Miller, R. & Miller, M. (2005). Miller's guide to foundations & sitework. New York: McGraw-Hill.
● Allen, E. & Iano, J. (2004). Fundamentals of building construction. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley & Sons.
● Pile Foundations | Types of Piles | Cassions. (2016). Understand Building Construction. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.understandconstruction.com/pile-
foundations.html
WALLS
● Chudley, R. & Greeno, R. (2006). Advanced construction technology. Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall.
● Lyons, A. (2007). Materials for architects and builders. Boston: Elsevier.
● Berhad, C. (2016). Chin Hin Group Berhad. Chinhingroup.com. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.chinhingroup.com/
● Brickwork. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brickwork
7.1 REFERENCES
55

DOORS AND WINDOWS
● Door Anatomy. (2016). Thehardwoodcompany.com. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.thehardwoodcompany.com/door-anatomy.htm
● Handles, Locks, Hinges & Closers from Poole Waite & Co Ltd. (2016). Poolewaite.co.uk. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.poolewaite.co.uk/
● Window Type and Materials (1st ed.). Retrieved from http://www.windowwise.com/file_uploads/Window_Style_Guide.pdf
SLAB
● Concrete slab floors | YourHome. (2016). Yourhome.gov.au. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.yourhome.gov.au/materials/concrete-slab-floors
● Internet Geography | home. (2016). Internetgeography.net. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.internetgeography.net/
● Slabs. (2016). Home-building-answers.com. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.home-building-answers.com/slabs.html
● Lewitin, J. (2016). An In-Depth Look at the Pros and Cons of Concrete Flooring. About.com Home. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://flooring.about.com/od/Flooring-Pros-
And-Cons/a/An-In-Depth-Look-At-Concrete-Flooring.htm
● How to Pour Concrete. (2016). wikiHow. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.wikihow.com/Pour-Concrete
● Alibaba Manufacturer Directory - Suppliers, Manufacturers, Exporters & Importers. (2016). Alibaba.com. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Square-welded-wire-mesh-weight-chart_60322055784.html
● Lotel™ Mesh-Ups Concrete Reinforcing Chairs, 2" Mesh Up For #6, 8, & 10 Gauge Wire, 250 Qty. (2016). Global Industrial. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from
http://m.globalindustrial.com/m/p/building-materials/concrete-masonry-blacktop/concrete-accessory/concrete-reinforcing-chairs2-mesh-up-for-68-10-gauge-wire250-box-qty
BEAMS AND COLUMNS
● Column and Beam system in construction - Basic Civil Engineering. (2015). Basic Civil Engineering. Retrieved 11 October 2016, from
https://www.basiccivilengineering.com/2015/03/column-and-beam-system-in-construction.html
● Presentation on Reinforcing Detailing Of R.C.C Members. (2013). Engineeringcivil.com. Retrieved 4 October 2016, from http://www.engineeringcivil.com/presentation-on-
reinforcing-detailing-of-r-c-c-members.html
ROOF
● Edwards, M. (2016). Flat Roof Construction | How to Build a Flat Roof | Flat Roof Construction Kits | Design and Planning Advice for Flat Roofs. DIY Doctor. Retrieved 19
October 2016, from http://www.diydoctor.org.uk/projects/building_a_flat_roof.htm
● Ching, F. & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated. New York: Wiley.
● Installation Guidelines for Timber Roof Trusses. (2009) (1st ed.). Australia. Retrieved from http://selector.com/media/documents/roof-truss-installation-guide.pdf
● Raising the Roof. (2011) (1st ed.). South Australia. Retrieved from http://www.cbs.sa.gov.au/assets/files/Roof_Trusses.pdf
● A Builder Guide To Truss Usage. (2016) (1st ed.). Retrieved from http://www.cascade-mfg-co.com/files/media/BuildersGuideToTrusses.pdf
● Fischetti, Mark. "Living Cover". Scientific American 298.5 (2008): 104-105. Web. 19 Oct. 2016.
● "Spaceframe Architecture". Pinterest. N.p., 2016. Web. 19 Oct. 2016.
● "Wooden Trussed Rafter / Prefab - GIPEN". Archiexpo.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 19 Oct. 2016.
STAIRCASE
● Stair Construction. (2016). Schools.ednet.ns.ca. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://schools.ednet.ns.ca/avrsb/133/ritchiek/notes/Text/grade10/stairconstruction.htm
● stairs. (1996). Sizes.com. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://sizes.com/home/stairs.htm
● Staircase Terminology A Brief desctiption of items related to staircases. (2016). Stairplan.co.uk. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://www.stairplan.co.uk/terminology.htm
● 10 DIFFERENT TYPES OF STAIRS COMMONLY DESIGNED FOR BUILDINGS. (2015). CivilBlog.Org. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from http://civilblog.org/2015/09/28/10-
7.1 REFERENCES
56

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