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1
C How to Program, 7/E 7th Edition Paul Deitel
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Introduction to Computers,
the Internet and the Web
The chief merit of language is
clearness.
—Galen
Our life is frittered away by
detail. … Simplify, simplify.
—Henry David Thoreau
He had a wonderful talent for
packing thought close, and
rendering it portable.
—Thomas B. Macaulay
Man is still the most
extraordinary computer of all.
—John F. Kennedy
Ob j e cti v e s
In this chapter, you’ll learn:
■ Basic computer concepts.
■ The different types of
programming languages.
■ The history of the C
programming language.
■ The purpose of the C
Standard Library.
■ The elements of a typical C
program development
environment.
■ To test-drive a C application
in Windows, Linux and Mac
OS X.
■ Some basics of the Internet
and the World Wide Web.

2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers, the Internet and the WebSolutions 3
[***Instructor’s Manual***]
Self-Review Exercises
1.1 Fill in the blanks in each of the following:
a) Computers process data under the control of sequences of instructions called computer
.
ANS: programs.
b) is a type of computer language that uses Englishlike abbreviations for ma-
chine-language instructions.
ANS: Assembly language.
c) languages are most convenient to the programmer for writing programs
quickly and easily.
ANS: High-level.
d) The onlylanguage a computer can directly understand is that computer’s .
ANS: machine language.
e) The programs that translate high-level language programs into machine language are
called .
ANS: compilers.
f) With development, individuals and companies contribute their efforts in de-
veloping, maintaining and evolving software in exchange for the right to use that soft-
ware for their own purposes, typically at no charge.
ANS: open-source.
g) C is widely known as the development language of the operating system.
ANS: UNIX
1.2 Fill in the blanks in each of the following sentences about the C environment.
a) C programs are normally typed into a computer using a(n) program.
ANS: editor.
b) In a C system, a(n) program automatically executes before the translation
phase begins.
ANS: preprocessor.
c) The two most common kinds of preprocessor directives are and .
ANS: including other files in the file to be compiled, performing various text replacements.
d) The programcombines the output of the compiler with various library func-
tions to produce an executable image.
ANS: linker.
e) The program transfers the executable image from disk to memory.
ANS: loader.
1.3 Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements (based on Section 1.9):
a) Objects have the property of —although objects may know how to commu-
nicate with one another across well-defined interfaces, they normally are not allowed to
know how other objects are implemented.
ANS: information hiding.
b) In object-oriented programming languages, we create to house the set of
methods that perform tasks.
ANS: classes.
c) With , new classes of objects are derived by absorbing characteristics of existing
classes, then adding unique characteristics of their own.
ANS: inheritance.

d) The size, shape, color and weight of an object are considered of the object’s
class.
ANS: attributes.
Solutions
1.4 Categorize each of the following items as either hardware or software:
a) CPU
ANS: Hardware.
b) C++ compiler
ANS: Software.
c) ALU
ANS: Hardware.
d) C++ preprocessor
ANS: Software.
e) input unit
ANS: Hardware.
f) an editor program
ANS: Software.
1.5 Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements:
a) The process of instructing the computer to solve a problemis called .
ANS: computer programming.
b) What type of computer language uses Englishlike abbreviations for machine-language
instructions? .
ANS: assembly language.
c) The level of computer language at which it’s most convenient to write programs quickly
and easily is .
ANS: high-level language.
d) The only language that a computer directly understands is called that computer's
.
ANS: machine language.
e) Web 2.0 embraces an —a design that encourages user interaction and com-
munity contributions.
ANS: architecture of participation.
1.6 Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements:
a) is now used to develop large-scale enterprise applications, to enhance the
functionality of web servers, to provide applications for consumer devices and for many
other purposes.
ANS: Java.
b) initially became widely known as the development language of the UNIX op-
erating system.
ANS: C.
c) The programming language was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in the early
1980s at Bell Laboratories.
ANS: C++.
1.7 Discuss the meaning of each of the following names:
a) stdin
ANS: stdin (the standard input stream), which is normally the keyboard, but stdin can be
connected to another stream.

b) stdout
ANS: Data is often output to stdout (the standard output stream), which is normally the
computer screen, but stdout can be connected to another stream.
c) stderr
ANS: The standard error stream is referred to as stderr. The stderr stream (normally con-
nected to the screen) is used for displaying error messages. It’s common to route reg-
ular output data, i.e., stdout, to a device other than the screen while keeping stderr
assigned to the screen so that the user can be immediately informed of errors.
1.8 Why is so much attention todayfocused on object-oriented programming?
ANS:
1.9 (Internet in Industry and Research) Figure 1.1 provides examples of how computers and
the Internet are being used in industry and research. Find three additional examples and describe
how each is using the Internet and the web.
ANS: Answers will vary.
1.10 (Cloud Computing) Describe three benefits of the cloud computing model.
ANS: Answers will vary. Information is accessed via the Internet and available on de-
mand—rather than having it stored on your personal computer. Cloud storage or
processing services are generally more cost effective, allowing you to increase or de-
crease resources to meet your needs at anygiven time, rather than purchasing expen-
sive hardware to ensure that you have enough storage and processing power to meet
your needs at their peak levels. Software offered as a service in the cloud allows busi-
nesses to easily manage customer information and access it from their computers or
mobiles devices. These applications are often less expensive and shift the burden of
managing the applications from the business to the service provider, saving businesses
additional money. Another benefit of using software in the cloud is that it ensures
everyone within the business is working on the same version of the software at all
times.
1.11 (Internet Negatives) Besides their numerous benefits, the Internet and the web have several
downsides, such as privacy issues, identity theft, SPAM and malware. Research some of the negative
aspects of the Internet. List five problems and describe what could possibly be done to help solve
each.
1.12 (Watch as an Object) You are probablywearing on your wrist one of the most common
types of objects—a watch. Discuss how each of the following terms and concepts applies to the no-
tion of a watch: object, attributes, behaviors, class, inheritance (consider, for example, an alarm
clock), messages, encapsulation and information hiding.
ANS: The entire watch is an object that is composed of many other objects (such as the
moving parts, the band, the face, etc.) Watch attributes are time, color, band, style
(digital or analog), etc. The behaviors of the watch include setting the time and get-
ting the time. A watch can be considered a specific type of clock (as can an alarm
clock). With that in mind, it is possible that a class called Clock could exist from
which other classes such as watch and alarm clock could inherit the basic features in
the clock. The watch is an abstraction of the mechanics needed to keep track of the
time. The user of the watch does not need to know the mechanics of the watch in
order to use it; the user onlyneeds to know that the watch keeps the proper time. In
this sense, the mechanics of the watch are encapsulated (hidden) inside the watch.
The interface to the watch (its face and controls for setting the time) allows the user
to set and get the time. The user is not allowed to directly touch the internal mechan-
ics of the watch. All interaction with the internal mechanics is controlled by the in-

Making a Difference Exercises 5
5 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers, the Internet and the Web
terface to the watch. The data members stored in the watch are hidden inside the
watch and the member functions (looking at the face to get the time and setting the
time) provide the interface to the data.
Making a Difference Exercises
1.13 (Test-Drive: Carbon Footprint Calculator) Some scientists believe that carbon emissions,
especially from the burning of fossil fuels, contribute significantly to global warming and that this
can be combatted if individuals take steps to limit their use of carbon-based fuels. Organizations and
individuals are increasingly concerned about their “carbon footprints.” Websites such as TerraPass
www.terrapass.com/carbon-footprint-calculator/
and Carbon Footprint
www.carbonfootprint.com/calculator.aspx
provide carbon footprint calculators. Test-drive these calculators to estimate your carbon footprint.
Exercises in later chapters will ask you to program your own carbon footprint calculator. To pre-
pare for this, use the web to research the formulas for calculating carbon footprints.
1.14 (Test-Drive: Body Mass Index Calculator) By recent estimates, two-thirds of the people in
the United States are overweight and about half of those are obese. This causes significant increases
in illnesses such as diabetes and heart disease. To determine whether a person is overweight or obese,
you can use a measure called the bodymass index (BMI). The United States Department of Health
and Human Services provides a BMI calculator at www.nhlbisupport.com/bmi/. Use it to calculate
your own BMI. An exercise in Chapter 2 will ask you to program your own BMIcalculator. To pre-
pare for this, use the web to research the formulas for calculating BMI.
1.15 (Gender Neutrality) Manypeople want to eliminate sexism in all forms of communication.
You’ve been asked to create a program that can process a paragraph of text and replace gender-spe-
cific words with gender-neutral ones. Assuming that you’ve been given a list of gender-specific
words and their gender-neutral replacements (e.g., replace “wife” with “spouse,” “man” with “per-
son,” “daughter” with “child” and so on), explain the procedure you’d use to read through a para-
graph of text and manually perform these replacements. How might your procedure generate a
strange term like “woperchild?” In Chapter 4, you’ll learn that a more formal term for “procedure”
is “algorithm,” and that an algorithm specifies the steps to be performed and the order in which to
perform them.
1.16 (Privacy) Some online e-mail services save all e-mail correspondence for some period of
time. Suppose a disgruntled employee were to post all of the e-mail correspondences for millions of
people, including yours, on the Internet. Discuss the issues.
1.17 (Programmer Responsibility and Liability) As a programmer in industry, you may develop
software that could affect people’s health or even their lives. Suppose a software bug in one of your
programs causes a cancer patient to receive an excessive dose during radiation therapy and that the
person is severely injured or dies. Discuss the issues.
1.18 (2010 “Flash Crash”) An example of the consequences of our excessive dependence on
computers was the so-called “flash crash” which occurred on May 6, 2010, when the U.S. stock mar-
ket fell precipitously in a matter of minutes, wiping out trillions of dollars of investments, and then
recovered within minutes. Research online the causes of this crash and discuss the issues it raises.
1.19 (Making a Difference Projects) The following is a list of just a few worldwide organizations
that are working to make a difference. Visit these sites and our Making a Difference Resource Center
at www.deitel.com/makingadifference. Prepare a top 10 list of programming projects that you
think could indeed “make a difference.”

Making a Difference Exercises 5
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers, the Internet and the Web
• www.imaginecup.com/
The Microsoft Image Cup is a global competition in which students use technology to tryto solve
some of the world’s most difficult problems, such as environmental sustainability, ending hun-
ger, emergency response, literacy and combating HIV/AIDS. Visit www.imaginecup.com for
more information about the competition and to learn about the projects developed by previous
winners. You can also find several project ideas submitted by worldwide charitable organizations.
For additional ideas for programming projects that can make a difference, search the web for
“making a difference” and visit the following websites:
• www.un.org/millenniumgoals
The United Nations Millennium Project seeks solutions to major worldwide issues such as envi-
ronmental sustainability, gender equality, child and maternal health, universal education and
more.
• www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/
The IBM® Smarter Planet website discusses how IBM is using technology to solve issues related
to business, cloud computing, education, sustainability and more.
• www.gatesfoundation.org/Pages/home.aspx
The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation provides grants to organizations that work to alleviate
hunger, poverty and disease in developing countries. In the United States, the foundation focuss-
es on improving public education, particularly for people with few resources.
• www.nethope.org/
NetHope is a collaboration of humanitarian organizations worldwide working to solve technol-
ogy problems such as connectivity, emergency response and more.
• www.rainforestfoundation.org/home
The Rainforest Foundation works to preserve rainforests and to protect the rights of the indige-
nous people who call the rainforests home. The site includes a list of things you can do to help.
• www.undp.org/
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) seeks solutions to global challenges
such as crisis prevention and recovery, energy and the environment and democratic governance.
• www.unido.org
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) seeks to reduce poverty,
give developing countries the opportunity to participate in global trade, and promote energy ef-
ficiency and sustainability.
• www.usaid.gov/
USAID promotes global democracy, health, economic growth, conflict prevention, humanitari-
an aid and more.
• www.toyota.com/ideas-for-good/
Toyota’s Ideas for Good website describes several Toyota technologies that are makinga differ-
ence—including their Advanced Parking Guidance System, Hybrid Synergy Drive®, Solar Pow-
ered Ventilation System, T.H.U.M.S. (Total Human Model for Safety) and Touch Tracer
Display. You can participate in the Ideas for Good challenge by submitting a short essay or video
describing how these technologies can be used for other good purposes.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content

23
Several of the column shafts at the Jefferson Memorial have grooves that
follow the inclusion traces in the marble, where the mineral inclusions have
weathered out and been lost.

A close look at some of the weathered grooves in the columns shows that
small bits of mica and pyrite remain.

24
The National Park Service began a survey of the condition of this
memorial and the Lincoln Memorial in 1992. The results will be used to
help make decisions on treatment, cleaning, and preservation. The
information gathered from the survey will serve as a known baseline for
the condition of the stone, so that future changes in the condition of
the buildings can be assessed. In May 1990, a part of one of the
column capitals (called a volute) broke off and fell onto the northwest
portico. This failure raised concern about all the volutes at the
Memorial, so several other cracked volutes were removed, and studies
are being conducted to determine why they cracked. Because of where
and how the volute broke, it is unlikely that acid rain or air pollution
contributed to the failure. The broken pieces will probably be replaced,
but only when the reason for their failure is understood, so that an
appropriate replacement technique can be chosen.
Part of one of the column capitals at the Jefferson Memorial broke off and
fell onto the portico in 1990.
The next stop is the Lincoln Memorial, 1.8 kilometers (a little more than a
mile) northeast of the Jefferson Memorial.

Lincoln Memorial—Site 6
The Lincoln Memorial, dedicated in 1922, is made of marble from
Colorado. This building has few alteration crusts, in part because it
receives regular cleaning and in part because of the design of the
building. Except for the features around the entablature (the edge of
the roof), there are few sheltered areas where alteration crusts can
accumulate. With the aid of binoculars, you can see some alteration
crusts along the underside of the roof overhang; in these places the
marble is very badly crumbled under the alteration crusts. Some
columns show preferential weathering or loss of inclusions, but some of
this damage might be from graffiti removal. The most visible dissolution
feature is sugaring, where the stone has lost its polish and the surface
now feels rough. Visitors have affected this popular memorial too;
several of the columns, especially the limestone columns inside the
chamber, show darkening and rounding of edges where visitors have
touched them over the years.
One interesting feature at the Lincoln Memorial is differences in stone
condition that must come from variations in the stone. At several places
around the outside of the memorial, adjacent blocks of marble show
very different surface roughness. Since the blocks of stone have the
same orientation with respect to wind, rain, and pollution, the
difference in condition cannot be due to exposure and must be related
to basic characteristics in the stone that was used.

25
The Lincoln Memorial is made of marble and was dedicated in 1922.

Under the roof overhang is one of the few places at the Lincoln Memorial
where alteration crusts have developed on the marble.

Some columns at the Lincoln Memorial have flattened chalky areas where
inclusions have weathered differently from the surrounding calcite.

26
The marble guttae on the roof overhang are crumbling and falling apart
underneath blackened alteration crusts.
Buildings along 17th Street, NW
Some notable examples of stone deterioration are included in this part of our tour.
We will begin this segment at the northeast corner of 17th Street and Constitution
Avenue, with the Capitol Gatehouse. We will then cross 17th Street and examine
several buildings along 17th Street as we walk north towards Pennsylvania Avenue.
The total distance is about three-fourths of a kilometer (half a mile).
Capital Gatehouse—Site 7

The Capitol Gatehouse, now located at 17th Street and Constitution
Avenue, is made of the same sandstone used in the White House and the
center part of the Capitol, but it was left unpainted. Deterioration of this
stone is due to the clay it contains, not to the effects of acid rain.
This small sandstone building was built around 1828 at the west
entrance to the Capitol. In 1880 it was moved (along with a twin and
four gateposts) to its present site. This building is made of the same
sandstone that was used in the central part of the Capitol and in the
White House. Three types of deterioration are readily visible at the
gatehouse: spalling, pock marks, and preferential weathering of clay
layers in the stone. This stone may be more degraded than stone in the
Capitol or the White House, because of variations in stone quality and
maintenance to the buildings and because it has never been painted.

27
This kind of sandstone was soon found to be a poor building stone because
of its tendency to spall. (detail on Capitol Gatehouse)
To continue, we will cross 17th Street and examine parts of several buildings
as we walk north.
Organization of American States Building—Site 8

The Organization of American States Building is made of marble and was
dedicated in 1910.
This marble building was dedicated in 1910. Two sculptures in the front
of the building show some alteration crusts in sheltered areas and
dissolution in exposed areas. In back of the building the marble
balusters on the patio are covered with blackened crusts, especially on
the sides facing the garden. In many places the crusts have blistered or
spalled off, exposing new surfaces to alteration. In general, the patio
sides of the balusters are in much better condition than the sides that
face the garden, perhaps because washing of the patio has washed off
the gypsum crusts on that side of the balusters.

Blackened gypsum crusts may blister and spall off, exposing a crumbling
stone surface to further pollution.

28
Continue north through the garden and parking lot and cross C Street to the
Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) Buildings.
DAR—Constitution Hall—Site 9
DAR—Constitution Hall is made of limestone and was built in the 1930’s.
The main damage on this limestone building, built in the 1930’s, is the
blackening of the side balustrade from algae or fungi. The stone is
porous and therefore retains moisture, thus encouraging growth of
organisms. The limestone in this building is quite uniform and shows
little preferential dissolution, except in a few places. On the top of the
balustrade along C Street, for example, some of the calcite matrix has
dissolved from around the fossil fragments, and some holes are filled
with calcite crystals.

29
Some of the blackening on limestone surfaces may be from algae or fungi
that readily grow in the rough surface in Washington’s warm, humid
climate.
Continue east along C Street to Memorial Continental Hall.
DAR—Memorial Continental Hall—Site 10

Memorial Continental Hall, built in 1909, is part of the Daughters of the
American Revolution building complex.
Carvings at the base of the columns on the south side of Memorial
Continental Hall show that carved details and sharp edges remain on
sheltered areas.

30
The porch area on the south side of this marble building built in 1909 is
a good place to look at some contrasts in marble deterioration. Parts of
the balustrade have been replaced, as shown by differences in color
and surface roughness of the stone. The exposed stone surface
along the top of the balustrade is rougher than the surfaces in
more sheltered areas. The columns on this porch are carved around the
base, so you can examine the effects of exposure to rain on the carving
details. The more exposed carvings have lost their sharp edges and
definition compared to the sheltered carvings. The bases of the
columns contain small amounts of pyrite, which is more resistant to
weathering than is the calcite in the marble surrounding the pyrite. The
sheltered part of the window-sill support on the west side of the porch
shows an alteration crust, a dull gray accumulation on the stone
surface.

On an exposed portion of the carving on the columns at Memorial
Continental Hall, the edges of the marble have rounded and the surface has
roughened.

Pyrite grains stand in relief where calcite and micas have weathered out of
the marble at Memorial Continental Hall.

A dull gray surface on the marble on the window-sill support shows where
an alteration crust is just beginning to develop.

31
At the corner of 17th and C Streets, turn left and walk north along 17th
Street. On our way to the Corcoran Gallery, we will pass the Red Cross
building (marble, 1917). Some of the same types of marble deterioration observed
at other locations are also present here.
Corcoran Gallery—Site 11
The Corcoran Gallery is built mostly of marble.
The Corcoran Gallery is marble with a granite base. It was built in 1879
and enlarged in 1927. Ornate carvings around the roof, doors, and
windows have blackened crusts of gypsum, as do parts of the marble
pedestals supporting the bronze lions at the front door. The marble
bases also have inclusions that stand out above the surrounding calcite,
which has been dissolved away.

32
Marble bases for bronze lions outside the entrance to the Corcoran Gallery
have feldspar inclusions that stand in relief compared to the roughened
surrounding calcite.
Continuing north along 17th Street towards Pennsylvania Avenue, you will
see several modern granite office buildings and the Executive Office building
(formerly the State-War and Navy building), which was built from granite and
completed in 1888. These granite buildings show little deterioration. Turn right onto
Pennsylvania Avenue and proceed to the Renwick Galley on the northeast corner of
the intersection of 17th Streets and Pennsylvania Avenue.
Renwick Gallery—Site 12

The Renwick Gallery, made of brick and sandstone, was completed in 1859.
This building of brick and sandstone, completed in 1859, is interesting
from a stone preservation point of view. The decorative sandstone
panels were badly deteriorated, so in 1968 the panels were saturated
with epoxy to strengthen them. This treatment actually accelerated the
deterioration because when water penetrated behind the epoxy-filled
area, large portions of the treated panels spalled off. A second
renovation attempt was therefore necessary two years after the first,
and the present panels are cast sandstone. A post of the original
sandstone stands at the southeast corner of the building.

33
Casts of ground sandstone and epoxy replaced the original carved
sandstone decorative trim at the Renwick Gallery when a first attempt to
preserve the carved stone failed.
The next part of the tour begins at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue S.
To get there, walk east along Pennsylvania Avenue, past Blair House and
between Lafayette Park and the White House. Lafayette Park has a number of
bronze statues that have been cleaned fairly recently. The White House is built of
sandstone that was painted white; the paint was used in part to improve the
durability of the stone. After you pass the White House, you will come to the
Treasury Building. Turn right onto 15th Street and walk south, towards the
Washington Monument and the Mall. The total distance from the Renwick to the
corner of 15th and Pennsylvania is about three-fourths of a kilometer (half a mile).
Federal Triangle Buildings—Site 13
On the east side of 15th Street, beginning at E Street, is the Commerce
Department building, which was constructed of limestone in the 1930’s.
This building is part of the Federal Triangle, a cluster of Federal office
buildings in the area bounded by Pennsylvania Avenue, Constitution
Avenue, and 15th Street, built primarily during the New Deal
administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Some sculptures on
the buildings were done by participants in the WPA program. These
buildings were cleaned in the 1960’s, probably by sandblasting. Look
for fossils in relief and alteration crusts in some sheltered places on the
carved work. Some of the blackening on this building is from dirt and
organic material trapped or growing in the rough surface of the stone.

All of the Federal buildings that form the Federal Triangle (between
Pennsylvania Avenue, Constitution Avenue, and 15th Street) are made of
limestone.

34
Continue south on 15th Street to Constitution Avenue. From the corner of 15th
Street and Constitution, follow some of the foot paths half a kilometer (three tenths
of a mile) to the Washington Monument.
Washington Monument—Site 14
This monument was begun in 1848, but it was not finished until 1885;
the change in color about 150 feet up marks a change in the type of
marble used to face the monument. Although it is made of marble, its
smooth, straight shape and the massive blocks used in this monument
have minimized the effect of acid precipitation. Dissolution does occur
in a few areas, but the amount of stone material lost from dissolution is
insignificant compared to the mass of the stone.

The straight shape and massive stones in the Washington Monument
minimize the impact of acid precipitation to this important landmark.

35
Our tour ends here, but there are many more stone buildings and monuments in
Washington and in other cities that may also show the effects of urban pollution
and acid precipitation. However, as seen on this tour, not all of the deterioration of
stone buildings is caused by acid rain. To protect our historic stone buildings and
monuments, we need to limit air pollution that contributes to acid rain
deterioration, and we need to develop effective maintenance and preservation
procedures that will not further harm the stone.

Glossary of Geologic and
Architectural Terms
Antefix—an ornament along the edge of a roof, often shaped like a
shell or shield
Baluster—a post or support for a handrail
Balustrade—a rail and row of supporting posts, especially along a
stair or porch
Bronze—a metal alloy of copper and tin; although brown when fresh,
it weathers to a more commonly seen green color
Calcite—a mineral composed of calcium carbonate: CaCO₃
Column Capital—The top portion of a column. There are three main
types; from least ornate to most ornate, they are Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian
Diabase—a dark-gray to black, fine-textured igneous rock, composed
of the minerals feldspar and pyroxene
Feldspar—a common mineral composed of silica (Si), aluminum (Al),
and calcium (Ca), potassium (K), or sodium (Na): CaAl₂Si₂O₈,
KAlSi₃O₈, NaAlSi₃O₈
Fossil—remains or trace of a plant or animal preserved in a rock from
some past, prehistoric time
Granite—a light or speckled, coarse-grained igneous rock composed of
quartz, feldspar, and mica

Guttae—small, drop-like rounded ornaments under a roof overhang
Gypsum—a mineral composed of hydrated calcium sulfate:
CaSO₄·2H₂O
Igneous—formed from melted or partially molten rock
Inclusion—a mineral phase that is distinct (in composition or
appearance) from the main mineral components of a rock
Limestone—a sedimentary rock, chiefly composed of calcium
carbonate; formed from the shells of marine animals
Marble—a metamorphic rock, chiefly composed of calcium carbonate
Metamorphic—changed; usually by heat or pressure to a different
form but the same composition
Mica—a silicate mineral that forms sheets or layers and contains
aluminum, hydroxyl, and alkali ions: K₂Al₄Si₆Al₂O₂₀(OH,F)₄,
K₂(Mg,Fe)₆Si₆Al₂O₂₀(OH,F)₄
Mineral—a naturally occurring inorganic substance with an ordered
structure; rocks are made of one or more minerals
Portico—a porch, with a roof supported by columns
Pyrite—a mineral (“fool’s gold”) composed of iron sulfide: FeS₂
Pyroxene—a silicate mineral containing two metal oxides: CaMgSi₂O₆,
CaFeSi₂O₆, (Mg,Fe)SiO₃
Quartz—a mineral composed of silicon dioxide, or silica: SiO₂
Sandstone—a sedimentary rock composed chiefly of quartz grains
Sedimentary—formed from particles that were transported by water
or wind and deposited in layers

36
Volute—a scroll-like ornament on an Ionic column capital

Further Reading
Acid rain: The facts, 1988: available from Inquiry Centre, Environment
Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0H3.
Amoroso, G.G., and Fassina, V., 1983, Stone decay and conservation:
New York, Elsevier, 453 p.
Hannibal, J.T., and Park, L.E., 1992, A guide to selected sources of
information on stone used for buildings, monuments, and works of art:
Journal of Geological Education, v. 40, p. 12-24.
Pickering, R.J., 1987, Acid rain: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report
87-399.
U.S. Geological Survey, Building stones of our Nation’s Capital: Reston,
Va., U.S. Geological Survey general-interest publication.
Winkler, E.M., 1973, Stone: Properties, durability in man’s environment:
New York, Springer-Verlag, 230 p.

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