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Chapter 08 - The Supervisor as Leader
8-1
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any
manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Chapter 08 The Supervisor as Leader
Multiple Choice
[QUESTION]
1. Leading is the management function of:
A. influencing people to act or not act in a certain way.
B. seeking direction.
C. implementing ideas.
D. setting up groups and allocating resources.
Answer: A
Page: 207
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
2. Which of the following is true about managers and/or leaders?
A. A manager inspires achievement.
B. A leader seeks and follows directions.
C. A leader focuses on initiating ideas and getting them started.
D. A manager inspires willingness by instilling in employees a sense of common purpose, a
belief that together they can achieve something worthwhile.
Answer: C
Page: 207
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
3. A(n) _____ refers to the belief that an individual is the primary cause of what happens to
him/herself.
A. individualistic orientation
B. tolerance for ambiguity
C. polycentric notion
D. internal locus of control
Answer: D
Page: 208
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
4. Stella supervises 12 cashiers at ABC Grocers. Lately, the cashiers have had several instances
of substantial cash shortages, because Stella has not been verifying their initial cash amounts.
When approached by her manager about this situation, Stella replied, “The cashiers are lazy and
just do not care.” Which of the following traits is Stella exhibiting?
A. Sense of humor
B. External locus of control

8-2
C. Empathy
D. Sense of responsibility
Answer: B
Page: 208
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
5. People who blame others or events beyond their control when something goes wrong are said
to have a(n):
A. external locus of control.
B. democratic leadership style.
C. internal locus of control.
D. authoritarian leadership style.
Answer: A
Page: 208
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
6. The leadership style in which the leader allows subordinates to participate in decision making
and problem solving is known as:
A. authoritarian leadership style.
B. laissez-faire leadership style.
C. democratic leadership style.
D. dictatorial leadership style.
Answer: C
Page: 209
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
7. In which of the following leadership styles is the leader uninvolved and lets the subordinates
direct themselves?
A. Authoritarian leadership
B. Democratic leadership
C. Laissez-faire leadership
D. Dictatorial leadership
Answer: C
Page: 210
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
8. A leader who focuses on the jobs to be done and the goals to be accomplished is:
A. empathetic.
B. people-oriented.
C. using a laissez-faire leadership style.
D. task-oriented.

8-3
Answer: D
Page: 210
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
9. Rules followed by Marine Corps officers are “never eat before your troops eat” and “never ask
your troops to do something you wouldn’t do.” This is an example of _____ leadership.
A. authoritarian
B. people-oriented
C. task-oriented
D. laissez-faire
Answer: B
Page: 210
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
10. According to the Managerial Grid, productivity, job satisfaction, and creativity are highest
with a _____ style of leadership.
A. country club management
B. authority–compliance
C. middle-of-the-road management
D. team management
Answer: D
Page: 211
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
11. Which of the following statements about the country club management style of leadership is
true?
A. Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human
elements interfere to a minimum degree.
B. Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out
work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.
C. Interdependence through a “common stake” in organization purpose leads to relationships of
trust and respect.
D. Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable,
friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.
Answer: D
Page: 211
Difficulty: Medium

8-4
[QUESTION]
12. Which style of leadership is being followed when exertion of minimum effort to get the
required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership?
A. Middle-of-the-road management
B. Impoverished management
C. Country club management
D. Authority–compliance
Answer: B
Page: 211
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
13. According to which theory should leaders adjust the degree of task and relationship behavior
in response to the growing maturity of their followers?
A. Life cycle theory of leadership
B. Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership
C. Path–goal theory of leadership
D. X and Y theory of leadership
Answer: A
Page: 213
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
14. In the initial stages, when the followers have not acquired the required maturity which of the
following combinations of task and relationship behavior should a leader opt for?
A. High task and low relationship behavior
B. High task and high relationship behavior
C. Low task and high relationship behavior
D. Low task and low relationship behavior
Answer: A
Page: 213
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
15. The _____ theory of leadership suggests that the primary activities of a leader are to make
desirable and achievable rewards available to organization members who attain organizational
objectives and to clarify the kinds of behavior that must be performed to earn those rewards.
A. contingency
B. X and Y
C. life cycle
D. path–goal
Answer: D
Page: 213
Difficulty: Medium

8-5
[QUESTION]
16. _____ behavior involves telling followers what to do and how they are to do it.
A. Supportive
B. Directive
C. Participative
D. Achievement
Answer: B
Page: 213
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
17. Participative behavior involves:
A. telling followers what to do and how they are to do it.
B. setting a challenging goal for a follower to meet, and expressing confidence that the follower
can meet this challenge.
C. seeking input from followers about methods for improving business operations.
D. recognizing that above all, followers are human beings.
Answer: C
Page: 213
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
18. _____ behavior involves setting a challenging goal for a follower to meet, and expressing
confidence that the follower can meet this challenge.
A. Supportive
B. Directive
C. Participative
D. Achievement
Answer: D
Page: 214
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
19. Which style of leadership involves putting other people’s needs, aspirations, and interests
above one’s own?
A. Top-down hierarchical leadership
B. Authoritarian leadership
C. Entrepreneurial leadership
D. Servant leadership
Answer: D
Page: 214
Difficulty: Medium

8-6
[QUESTION]
20. _____ is based on the attitude that the leader is self-employed.
A. Traditional leadership
B. Transformational leadership
C. Entrepreneurial leadership
D. Servant leadership
Answer: C
Page: 214
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
21. When the supervisor involves employees in making decisions, he or she cannot always be
sure of the outcomes. Supervisors differ in their level of comfort with this uncertainty, which
refers to their:
A. personal leadership strengths.
B. level of confidence in employees.
C. tolerance for ambiguity.
D. knowledge and experience.
Answer: C
Page: 216
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
22. In choosing a leadership style, one needs to consider values, level of confidence in
employees, and tolerance for ambiguity. These attributes describe:
A. situation characteristics.
B. leader characteristics.
C. subordinate characteristics.
D. manager characteristics.
Answer: B
Page: 215
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
23. Which of the following is a subordinate characteristic in choosing a leadership style?
A. Knowledge and experience
B. Time available
C. Effectiveness of the group
D. Values
Answer: A
Page: 215
Difficulty: Medium

8-7
[QUESTION]
24. In choosing a leadership style, one needs to consider the type of organization and the
effectiveness of the group. These attributes describe:
A. situation characteristics.
B. manager characteristics.
C. subordinate characteristics.
D. leader characteristics.
Answer: A
Page: 215
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
25. If a department, team, or other work group has little experience in making its own decisions,
the supervisor:
A. should use a democratic leadership style.
B. may find that an authoritarian approach is easier to use.
C. may effectively use a participatory decision-making approach.
D. should delegate decisions to groups.
Answer: B
Page: 218
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
26. People who want a lot of direction will most likely welcome _____ leadership.
A. laissez-faire
B. collaborative
C. servant
D. authoritarian
Answer: D
Page: 216
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
27. Employees who are eager to assume responsibility will most likely appreciate _____
leadership.
A. dominant
B. bureaucratic
C. authoritarian
D. laissez-faire
Answer: D
Page: 216
Difficulty: Easy

8-8
[QUESTION]
28. Organizations that use self-managing work teams generally encourage a variety of employee
characteristics that are associated with the successful use of democratic leadership and a low
degree of:
A. task-oriented behavior.
B. people-oriented behavior.
C. relations-oriented behavior.
D. community-oriented behavior.
Answer: A
Page: 217
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
29. A structured task—that is, one with a set procedure to follow—is best managed by a(n):
A. relations-oriented leader.
B. authoritarian leader.
C. people-oriented leader.
D. democratic leader.
Answer: B
Page: 218
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
30. A manager should use a relatively democratic leadership style only when:
A. enough time is available.
B. a task is structured.
C. decisions need to be made quickly.
D. a work group has little experience in making its own decisions.
Answer: A
Page: 218
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
31. Which of the following statements is true of coaches?
A. They delegate responsibility to carry out operations.
B. They are unwilling to share authority.
C. They are a good analogy for an authoritarian leadership style.
D. They impose their own style of doing things on people.
Answer: A
Page: 219
Difficulty: Medium

8-9
[QUESTION]
32. Which of the following statements is true of a supervisor’s relationship with his/her
employees?
A. A supervisor should be friends with employees and involve them in his/her personal life.
B. Today’s supervisor commands rather than empowers employees.
C. A supervisor should treat employees in a way that reflects his/her role as a part of
management.
D. A supervisor who is feared by employees will inspire them to work harder and better and
thereby yield faster results.
Answer: C
Page: 219
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
33. When the supervisor listens carefully and shares pertinent information, and employees do not
think the supervisor is hiding something from them, then the supervisor is:
A. being authoritative.
B. breaching the code of secrecy.
C. being a patronizing leader.
D. building trust.
Answer: D
Page: 221
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
34. The efforts to learn about and match the style of one’s manager are often called:
A. managing down.
B. managing up.
C. managing others.
D. managing change.
Answer: B
Page: 222
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
35. Mark knows that a co-worker has done something that is not in the company’s best interest.
Mark should:
A. go directly to that co-worker and point out the problem.
B. ignore the situation and hope the co-worker does not do it again.
C. tell his boss immediately.
D. inform his other co-workers.
Answer: A
Page: 223
Difficulty: Medium

8-10
True/False
[QUESTION]
36. Internal locus of control is the belief that an individual is the primary cause of what happens
to him/her.
Answer: True
Page: 208
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
37. With authoritarian leadership, the supervisor allows employees to participate in decision
making and problem solving.
Answer: False
Page: 209
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
38. James supervises a staff of highly-trained chemical research scientists. Thus, he does not get
involved and allows the scientists to do what they want. He is using a laissez-faire leadership
style.
Answer: True
Page: 210
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
39. At the opposite extreme from authoritarian leadership is democratic leadership.
Answer: False
Page: 210
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
40. Most organizations expect that their supervisors can combine some degree of task orientation
with some degree of people orientation.
Answer: True
Page: 210
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
41. Position power refers to the extent to which the leader has the support and loyalty of group
members.
Answer: False
Page: 212
Difficulty: Medium

8-11
[QUESTION]
42. Task structure describes any specified procedures that employees should follow in carrying
out the task.
Answer: True
Page: 212
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
43. If a situation involves good leader–member relations, a structured task, and strong position
power, the situation calls for a leader who is people oriented.
Answer: False
Page: 212
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
44. Fiedler’s contingency model assumes that the leader’s behavior should adapt to the situation.
Answer: False
Page: 212
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
45. According to the path-goal theory of leadership, leaders should adjust their degree of task
and relationship behavior in response to the growing maturity of their followers.
Answer: False
Page: 213
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
46. Supportive behavior involves telling followers what to do and how they are to do it.
Answer: False
Page: 213
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
47. Achievement behavior involves seeking input from followers about methods for improving
business operations.
Answer: False
Page: 213
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
48. Ideally, a leader should assign a task that is challenging enough to stretch the follower, but
not so challenging that the follower will be unable to complete the task.
Answer: True

8-12
Page: 214
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
49. The servant leaders’ primary task is to lead rather than serve the people around them.
Answer: False
Page: 214
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
50. Entrepreneurial leadership is based on the attitude that the leader is working for an employer.
Answer: False
Page: 214
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
51. One common characteristic of good leaders is the ability to act as a good role model.
Answer: True
Page: 215
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
54. The more confidence the supervisor has in employees, the more he or she will involve them
in planning and decision making.
Answer: True
Page: 215-216
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
55. Women, as a rule, bring the same set of values and experiences to the workplace as men.
Answer: False
Page: 216
Difficulty: Medium
[QUESTION]
53. Employees who are tolerant of ambiguity will accept a leadership style that gives them more
say in solving problems.
Answer: True
Page: 216
Difficulty: Easy
[QUESTION]
52. People who want a lot of direction will welcome democratic leadership.
Answer: False
Page: 216

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replied, “If we don’t do the business with the bayonet we shall not do it at
all. I shall not load.”—“Let him alone,” said Wellington; “let him go his
own way.” Picton had adopted the same grim policy with the third division.
As each regiment passed him, filing into the trenches, his injunction was,
“No powder! We’ll do the thing with the could iron.”
A party of Portuguese carrying bags filled with grass were to run with
the storming party and throw the bags into the ditch, as the leap was too
deep for the men. But the Portuguese hesitated, the tumult of the attack on
the great breach suddenly broke on the night, and the forlorn hope went
running up, leaped into the ditch, a depth of eleven feet, and clambered up
the steep slope beyond, while Napier with his stormers came with a run
behind them. In the dark for a moment the breach was lost, but found again,
and up the steep quarry of broken stone the attack swept.
About two-thirds of the way up, Napier’s arm was smashed by a grape-
shot, and he fell. His men, checked for a moment, lifted their muskets to the
gap above them, whence the French were firing vehemently, and forgetting
their pieces were unloaded, snapped them. “Push on with the bayonet,
men!” shouted Napier, as he lay bleeding. The officers leaped to the front,
the men with a stern shout followed; they were crushed to a front of not
more than three or four. They had to climb without firing a shot in reply up
to the muzzles of the French muskets.
But nothing could stop the men of the light division. A 24-pounder was
placed across the narrow gap in the ramparts; the stormers leaped over it,
and the 43d and 52d, coming up in sections abreast, followed. The 43d
wheeled to the right toward the great breach, the 52d to the left, sweeping
the ramparts as they went.
Meanwhile the other two attacks had broken into the town; but at the
great breach the dreadful fight still raged, until the 43d, coming swiftly
along the ramparts, and brushing all opposition aside, took the defense in
the rear. The British there had, as a matter of fact, at that exact moment
pierced the French defense. The two guns that scourged the breach had
wrought deadly havoc among the stormers, and a sergeant and two privates
of the 88th—Irishmen all, and whose names deserve to be preserved—
Brazel, Kelly, and Swan—laid down their firelocks that they might climb
more lightly, and, armed only with their bayonets, forced themselves
through the embrasure among the French gunners. They were furiously

attacked, and Swan’s arm was hewed off by a saber stroke; but they stopped
the service of the gun, slew five or six of the French gunners, and held the
post until the men of the 5th, climbing behind them, broke into the battery.
So Ciudad Rodrigo was won, and its governor surrendered his sword to
the youthful lieutenant leading the forlorn hope of the light division, who,
with smoke-blackened face, torn uniform, and staggering from a dreadful
wound, still kept at the head of his men.
In the eleven days of the siege Wellington lost one thousand three
hundred men and officers, out of whom six hundred and fifty men and sixty
officers were struck down on the slopes of the breaches. Two notable
soldiers died in the attack—Craufurd, the famous leader of the light
division, as he brought his men up to the lesser breach; and Mackinnon,
who commanded a brigade of the third division, at the great breach.
Mackinnon was a gallant Highlander, a soldier of great promise, beloved by
his men. His “children,” as he called them, followed him up the great
breach till the bursting of a French mine destroyed all the leading files,
including their general. Craufurd was buried in the lesser breach itself, and
Mackinnon in the great breach—fitting graves for soldiers so gallant.
Alison says that with the rush of the English stormers up the breaches of
Ciudad Rodrigo “began the fall of the French empire.” That siege, so fierce
and brilliant, was, as a matter of fact, the first of that swift-following
succession of strokes which drove the French in ruin out of Spain, and it
coincided in point of time with the turn of the tide against Napoleon in
Russia.
But, as already noted, the climax of the war occurred at Vittoria.
Wellington, overtaking the French at that place, inflicted on them a defeat
which drove in utter rout one hundred and twenty thousand veteran troops
from Spain. There is no more brilliant chapter in military history; and, at its
close, to quote Napier’s clarion-like sentences, “the English general,
emerging from the chaos of the Peninsular struggle, stood on the summit of
the Pyrenees a recognized conqueror. From those lofty pinnacles the
clangor of his trumpets pealed clear and loud, and the splendor of his genius
appeared as a flaming beacon to warring nations.”
The victory not only freed Spain from its invaders; it restored the spirit
of the allies. The close of the armistice was followed by a union of Austria
with the forces of Prussia and the Czar; and in October a final overthrow of

Napoleon at Leipzig forced the French army to fall back in rout across the
Rhine. The war now hurried to its close. Though held at bay for a while by
the sieges of San Sebastian and Pampeluna, as well as by an obstinate
defense of the Pyrenees, Wellington succeeded in the very month of the
triumph at Leipzig in winning a victory on the Bidassoa which enabled him
to enter France. He was soon followed by the allies. On the last day of 1813
their forces crossed the Rhine; and a third of France passed, without
opposition, into their hands. For two months more Napoleon maintained a
wonderful struggle with a handful of raw conscripts against their
overwhelming numbers; while in the south, Soult, forced from his
intrenched camp near Bayonne and defeated at Orthes, fell back before
Wellington on Toulouse. Here their two armies met in April in a stubborn
and indecisive engagement. But though neither leader knew it, the war was
even then at an end. The struggle of Napoleon himself had ended at the
close of March with the surrender of Paris; and the submission of the capital
was at once followed by the abdication of the emperor and the return of
Ferdinand.
After the convulsions it had endured, Spain required a period of firm but
conciliatory government; but the ill-fate of the country gave the throne at
this crisis to the worst of her Bourbon kings. Ferdinand VII. had never
possessed the good qualities which popular credulity had assigned to him,
and he had learned nothing in his four years’ captivity except an aptitude for
lying and intrigue. He had no conception of the duties of a ruler; his public
conduct was regulated by pride and superstition, and his private life was
stained by the grossest sensual indulgence.
But Spain was not allowed to work out its own salvation. Europe was
dominated at this time by the Holy Alliance, which disguised a resolution to
repress popular liberties and to maintain despotism under a pretended zeal
for piety, justice and brotherly love. At the Congress of Verona (October,
1822), France, Austria, Russia and Prussia agreed upon armed intervention
in Spain, in spite of the protest of Canning on the part of England. Spain
was to be called upon to alter her constitution and to grant greater liberty to
the king, and if an unsatisfactory answer were received France was
authorized to take active measures. The demand was unhesitatingly refused,
and a French army, 100,000 strong, at once entered Spain under the Duke of
Angouleme (April, 1823). No effective resistance was made, and Madrid
was entered by the invaders (May 23). The Cortes, however, had carried off

the king to Seville, whence they again retreated to Cadiz. The bombardment
of that city terminated the revolution and Ferdinand was released (October
1). His first act was to revoke everything that had been done since 1819.
The Inquisition was not restored, but the secular tribunals took a terrible
revenge upon the leaders of the rebellion. The protest of the Duke of
Angouleme against these cruelties was unheeded. Even the fear of revolt,
the last check upon despotism, was removed by the presence of the French
army, which remained in Spain till 1827. But Spain had to pay for the
restoration of the royal absolutism, as Canning backed up his protest against
the intervention of France by acknowledging the independence of the
Spanish colonies.
Ferdinand VII. was enabled to finish his worthless and disastrous reign
in comparative peace. In 1829 he married a fourth wife, Maria Christina of
Naples, and at the same time he issued a “Pragmatic Sanction” abolishing
the Salic law in Spain. No one expected any practical results from this edict,
but a formal protest was made against it by the king’s brothers, Carlos and
Francisco, and also by the French and Neapolitan Bourbons. In the next
year, however, the queen gave birth to a daughter, Isabella, who was
proclaimed as queen on her father’s death in 1833, while her mother
undertook the office of regent.
Don Carlos at once asserted his intention of maintaining the Salic law,
and rallied round him all the supporters of absolutism, especially the
inhabitants of the Basque Provinces. Christina was compelled to rely upon
the Liberals, and to conciliate them by the grant of a constitution, the
estatuto real, which established two chambers chosen by indirect election.
But this constitution, drawn up under the influence of Louis Philippe of
France, failed to satisfy the advanced Liberals, and the Christinos split into
two parties, the Moderados and Progresistas. In 1836 the latter party
extorted from the regent the revival of the constitution of 1812. All this time
the government was involved in a desperate struggle with the Carlists, who
at first gained considerable successes under Zumalacarregui and Cabrera.
But the death of Zumalacarregui in 1835 and the support of France and
England ultimately gave the regent the upper hand, and in 1839 her general,
Espartoro, forced the Basque Provinces to submit to Isabella. Don Carlos
renounced his claims in favor of his eldest son, another Carlos, and retired
to Trieste, where he died in 1855.

Christina now tried to sever herself from the Progresistas, and to govern
with the help of the moderate party who enjoyed the patronage of Louis
Philippe. But England, jealous of French influence at Madrid, threw the
weight of her influence on to the side of the Radicals, who found a powerful
leader in Espartero. In 1840, Christina had to retire to France, and Espartero
was recognized as regent by the Cortes. But his elevation was resented by
the other officers, while his subservience to England made him unpopular,
and in 1848 he also had to go into exile. Isabella was now declared of age.
Christina returned to Madrid, and the Moderados under Narvaez obtained
complete control over the government. This was a great victory for France,
and Louis Philippe abused his success by negotiating the infamous
“Spanish marriages.” A husband was found for Isabella in her cousin,
Francis of Assis, whose recommendation in French eyes was the
improbability of his begetting children. On the same day the queen’s sister,
Maria Louisa, was married to Louis Philippe’s son, the Duke of
Montpensier. By this means it was hoped to secure the reversion of the
Spanish throne for the House of Orleans. The scheme recoiled on the heads
of those who framed it. The alienation of England gave a fatal impulse to
the fall of Louis Philippe, while the subsequent birth of children to Isabella
deprived the Montpensier marriage of all importance.
Spanish history during the reign of Isabella II. presents a dismal picture
of faction and intrigue. The queen herself sought compensation for her
unhappy marriage in sensual indulgence, and tried to cover the
dissoluteness of her private life by a superstitious devotion to religion and
by throwing her influence to the side of the clerical and reactionary party.
Every now and then the Progresistas and Moderados forced themselves into
office, but their mutual jealousy prevented them from acquiring any
permanent hold upon the government. In 1866, Isabella was induced to take
vigorous measures against the Liberal opposition. Narvaez was appointed
chief minister; and the most prominent Liberals, Serrano, Prim and
O’Donnell, had to seek safety in exile. The Cortes were dissolved, and
many of the deputies were transported to the Canary Islands. The
ascendency of the court party was maintained by a rigorous persecution,
which was continued after Narvaez’s death (April, 1868) by Gonzales
Bravo.
Common dangers succeeded at last in combining the various sections of
the Liberals for mutual defense, and the people, disgusted by the scandals

of the court and the contemptible camarilla which surrounded the queen,
rallied to their side. In September, 1868, Serrano and Prim returned to
Spain, where they raised the standard of revolt and offered the people the
bribe of universal suffrage. The revolution was speedily accomplished and
Isabella fled to France, but the successful rebels were at once confronted
with the difficulty of finding a successor for her. During the interregnum
Serrano undertook the regency and the Cortes drew up a now constitution
by which a hereditary king was to rule in conjunction with a senate and a
popular chamber.
As no one of the Bourbon candidates for the throne was acceptable, it
became necessary to look around for some foreign prince. The offer of the
crown to Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen excited the jealousy of
France, and gave Napoleon III. the opportunity of picking a quarrel, which
proved fatal to himself, with the rising state of Prussia. At last a king was
found (1870) in Amadeus of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel,
who made an honest effort to discharge the difficult office of a
constitutional king in a country which was hardly fitted for constitutional
government. But he found the task too hard and too distasteful, and
resigned in 1878.
A provisional republic was now formed, of which Castelar was the
guiding spirit. But the Spaniards, trained to regard monarchy with
superstitious reverence, had no sympathy with republican institutions. Don
Carlos seized the opportunity to revive the claim of inalienable male
succession, and raised the standard of revolt in the Basque Provinces, where
his name was still a power. The disorders of the democrats and the approach
of civil war threw the responsibility of government upon the army. The
Cortes were dissolved by a military coup d’etat; Castelar threw up his office
in disgust; and the administration was undertaken by a committee of
officers. Anarchy was suppressed with a strong hand, but it was obvious
that order could only be restored by reviving the monarchy. Foreign princes
were no longer thought of, and the crown was offered to and accepted by
Alfonso XII., the young son of the exiled Isabella (1874).
His first task was to terminate the Carlist war, which still continued in
the north, and this was successfully accomplished in 1876. Time was
required to restore the prosperity of Spain under a peaceful and orderly
government and to consolidate by prescription the authority of the restored
dynasty. Unfortunately a premature death carried off Alfonso XII. in 1885,

before he could complete the work which circumstances laid upon him. The
regency was intrusted to his widow, Christina of Austria, and the birth of a
posthumous son (May 17, 1886), who is now the titular king of Spain, has
excited a feeling of pitying loyalty which may help to secure the Bourbon
dynasty in the last kingdom which is left to it.

CHAPTER IX
C O L O N I A L S P A I N
COLUMBUS—SIGHTING OF SAN SALVADOR—RETURN
OF COLUMBUS—FOUNDING OF AN EMPIRE—MEXICO
AND PERU—THE WEST INDIES—GERMS OF REBELLION
In August, 1492, Columbus sailed on his voyage of discovery. In
September, 1898, his remains were conveyed from the New World to the
Old. Between those two dates an empire rose and fell. The causes which led
to the one and the effects which precipitated the other may now be
conveniently considered.
In earlier years Cadiz was a famous seaport. Her sons were immemorial
explorers. The presentiment of a land across the sea was theirs by intuition.
Constantly they extended their expeditions, and would have extended them
still further had not the Church interfered. The spirit of enterprise, checked
as heretical, revived centuries later in a neighboring land. It was Portugal
that it inspired. There the work of exploration and discovery was resumed.
The island of Madeira was reached in 1420, the Azores annexed in 1431.
But it was along the African coast that Portuguese effort was mainly
directed. Tradition asserted that the entire continent had been
circumnavigated centuries before by voyagers from Phœnicia; but, as no
details were recorded, the adventure was regarded as something more than
dubious. However, the west coast began now to be systematically explored.
Nuno Tristao entered the Senegal River in 1445; a year later Diniz Dias, a
fellow-navigator, sailed as far as Cape Verd. The equator was not crossed
until 1471; the Congo was revealed in 1484; and in 1486 the crowning feat
of all was accomplished, when Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Stormy
Cape, soon to become known as the Cape of Good Hope, and opened up
communication with the East by water, instead of overland or by the
indirect route of the Red Sea, which necessitated the transshipment of all
merchandise conveyed that way.
The expedition to the west which Columbus ultimately directed was
conceived by him in 1474, and unfolded to John II., king of Portugal, by

whom, however, it was rejected; whereupon Columbus dispatched his
brother Bartholomew to enter into negotiations with Henry VII. of England,
and after assuring himself that neither Genoa nor Venice was likely to lend
him a willing ear, much less ready help, he repaired to the south of Spain in
1485.
Had Bartholomew not fallen into the hands of pirates, and so been
prevented from reaching his destination for several years, it is more than
probable that the credit as well as the profit of the discovery of America
would have fallen at once to England, as Henry had both the means and the
inclination to indulge in some such venture, provided it was not too costly,
and showed any reasonable prospect of success. As it was, Christopher was
left to pursue his pleadings before the Spanish Court.
It was an unfortunate time to put forward any proposals calculated to
divert the wealth and strength of the kingdom beyond its own borders; for
Ferdinand and Isabella were then in the very midst of the campaign which
ended in the final overthrow of the Moorish dominion, in the Peninsula.
Ultimately, however, after the fall of Granada and eighteen years of
waiting, his proposals were accepted by Isabella and his hopes realized. A
royal edict constituted him perpetual and hereditary admiral and viceroy of
any territories discovered, together with a tenth of any profits derived
therefrom. With this edict and funds advanced by the receiver of
ecclesiastical revenues, Columbus hastened to the port of Palos. There, two
brothers by the name of Pinzon aiding, he got together a crew of a hundred
and twenty men, a scratch armada of three leaky tubs—the “Santa Maria,”
the “Pinta” and the “Nina”—and, on the 3d of August, 1492, weighed
anchor for pastures new.
Columbus, as admiral of the fleet, commanded the “Santa Maria”; the
two Pinzons, Martin Alonzo and Vicente Yanez, the “Pinta” and “Nina”
respectively. The expressed object of the voyage was to convert the Grand
Khan, supposed to be the great potentate of the Far East, to Christianity;
and Columbus never doubted but that in due course he would arrive at
Japan, or Zipangu, as it had been named by the Venetian explorer, Marco
Polo, who had reached it by an overland route more than a century before,
and had described its wonders, together with those of Cathay or China,
through which he passed on his way. The one condition imposed was, that
the squadron should not touch at any place on the African continent,

claimed to be under Portuguese jurisdiction, as that would have led to
immediate hostilities between the two countries.
The details of the voyage are sufficiently familiar to dispense with
narration here. It will suffice to note that after seventy days the island of
San Salvador, as it was then named, hove in sight; that on the 28th of
October, sixteen days later, Cuba was discovered, and that on the 6th of
December Hayti was reached.
Several circumstances then made it advisable for Columbus to return to
Spain without further delay. He had seen enough to be convinced that a
much larger force than he had under his command would be necessary to
make the subjugation of these newly acquired territories effective; news of
the discovery might reach Europe before him, and be taken advantage of by
some other sovereign than the one to whom he was devoted; and he had
now sufficient treasure of various kinds to convince the most skeptical of
the complete success of his enterprise. After constructing a small fort, and
leaving a portion of the crew, at their own desire, to garrison it until he
should return, he set sail for home with the “Nina” on the 4th of January,
1493.
Reaching Palos on the 13th of March, Columbus was immediately
summoned to Barcelona, where Ferdinand and Isabella were then
domiciled, made a triumphal entry into the city, and, on his arrival at the
royal residence, was welcomed by the king and queen in person, who
commanded him to be seated by their side, while he related the account of
his adventures.
Meanwhile the report of the discovery had spread. Portugal sought to
take advantage of it through the theory that all heathen countries were in the
gift of the Pope, which gift a Bull had already confirmed. But, Spain
protesting, a subsequent Bull confirmed the Portuguese in their existing
possessions, and granted them all territory that should be discovered east of
a line drawn from north to south, one hundred leagues west of the Azores,
while the Spaniards were to enjoy exclusive dominion over everything west
of it.
This was regarded as so unsatisfactory by Portugal that, at its instigation,
negotiations between the two countries were opened, and resulted the
following year in the conclusion of the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which it
was agreed to move the line three hundred and seventy leagues west of the

Azores; a most important change, because by it Portugal subsequently
established its claim to the Brazils, a portion of which was found to fall east
of the line of demarcation, while it could urge the further plea of having
been first in the field, through the accidental deviation of Cabral. At any
rate, the whole world outside Europe was leased in perpetuity to Spain and
Portugal; and had the pretensions of the Holy See in things temporal as well
as spiritual continued to be recognized, neither England, France nor
Germany could to-day own a square yard of territory in the three greatest
continents of the world.
While the negotiations were in progress, preparations for a second
expedition on a vastly greater scale were rapidly pushed forward. The
direction of them was intrusted to a cleric named Fonseca, a capable man of
business, but who for some reason or other conceived a violent dislike to
Columbus, and threw every obstacle in his way. The eagerness to embark
on this second voyage was far more marked than the reluctance exhibited in
the first, and the best blood of Spain pressed into the service. The number of
adventurers was originally limited to a thousand; but the applications were
so numerous, from those who believed that fortunes were waiting to be
picked up in the New World, that this was raised to twelve hundred, and
fifteen hundred actually sailed in seventeen vessels from the Bay of Cadiz
on the 25th of September, 1493. All was keen anticipation during the
voyage, the disappointments only commenced at its termination.
“Into these,” says Mr. R. J. Root, whose account we quote, “there is no
occasion to enter now. The main point of interest is, that a sufficiently large
force of Spaniards had taken part in the enterprise to confirm the possession
of the New World to their country, and defeat any attempts that Portugal
might be likely to make to filch it away. After establishing a settlement at
Isabella on the north of Hayti, or Hispaniola, as it was then named,
Columbus was free to prosecute further explorations, the principal one
being to sail along the southern shores of Cuba; but, after continuing his
voyage to within a few miles of its western extremity, he arrived at the
conclusion that it was the mainland, and reported to that effect—nor was it
until after his death that it was proved to be an island. Everything was
claimed for the Spanish crown; and, as there were absolutely no
competitors, it can well be understood how the entire group of islands
constituting the West Indies became Spanish colonies.

“Various causes compelled Columbus to relinquish his exploration and
return, first to Hispaniola and then to Spain. For one thing, the two vessels
with which he set sail were ill-provisioned. With that confidence in his own
judgment which was so characteristic of the man, he relied upon
encountering at no great distance those civilized or at least semi-civilized,
nations of which he had come in search, but instead he met only the fierce
tribes of Cuba and Jamaica, who offered resistance, not welcome, and
arrows in lieu of food.
“On his return to the colony, affairs were in a most unsatisfactory
condition. The last thing most of the colonists dreamed of when they left
their native shores was work. They had gone out, as they fondly imagined,
to pick up the gold as it lay at their feet, and when they had accumulated
sufficient, meant to return and enjoy it. Though Columbus had never
promised, nor even suggested anything of the sort, his brilliant descriptions
and anticipations were undoubtedly responsible for the ideas so freely
indulged, and the indignation against him rose just as rapidly as hopes were
blasted. Complaints were finding their way to Spain, and lest he should be
prejudiced in the eyes of his sovereigns, he determined to embark thence
and render a personal account of his stewardship.
“The voyage home was, if anything, more protracted, and entailed
greater hardships, than the previous one. Columbus arrived at Cadiz on the
1st June, 1496, and met with a warmer reception than he had dared to hope
for. But intrigue was busy, and his arch-enemy Fonseca, who was by this
time in almost undisputed control of colonial affairs, threw numerous and
persistent obstacles in the way of his fitting out another expedition. The
stories told by returned colonists of the want and suffering they had endured
were not conducive to others volunteering for the service, and it was only
on the 30th May, 1498, that the admiral was again able to set sail from San
Lucar with a small fleet of six vessels, manned almost entirely by convicts
specially released.
“A more southerly course was taken than on either of the previous
occasions, and the first place touched was the island of Trinidad. Sailing
round it from the southwest, the ships were suddenly caught and swept
along by a mighty current, which Columbus discovered to be of fresh water,
and rightly judged to be poured out of some vast river. He had, in fact,
reached the coast of South America, and was in the waters of the Orinoco as
they rushed to mingle with the ocean. The natives proved of a more friendly

disposition as well as of superior type to those encountered in many of the
islands; and as they possessed gold, and also something still more precious,
pearls, every encouragement was given them to trade. They were just as
eager after the trumpery toys of the Old World as the inhabitants of San
Salvador had been the first time they were ever exhibited in the New, and
we may be sure the bargains made were very profitable to the Spaniards.
Still, these were not the people Columbus had come in search of, and his
inquiries and labors were diligently directed to the discovery of a passage
which should lead him still further west to the dominions of the Grand
Khan.
“After some time vainly spent in exploring the coast with this object, an
affection of the eyes compelled him to desist and make once more for
Hispaniola, where he had left his brother Bartholomew as governor during
his absence. A strange welcome awaited him, however. In response to the
continued complaints of the colonists, a commissioner had been dispatched
from Spain to inquire into their grievances, and certain powers were
intrusted to him to assume authority in the island in case of necessity.
Deeply impressed with a sense of his own importance, Francisco Bobadilla,
the officer appointed, immediately on his arrival began to act in the most
reckless and arbitrary manner; and the discoverer of the New World,
without any warning, found himself arrested, loaded with chains, thrown
into prison, and finally sent home to Spain in this ignominious fashion.
“Great was the public, still greater the royal indignation, when he arrived
in this sorry plight; every effort was made to soothe the feelings so deeply
wounded by this dire insult, and Bobadilla would have paid dearly for his
temerity had he survived to answer for his misdeeds. But news had reached
Spain of the wonderful riches of the Gulf of Paria some time before the
arrival of Columbus, and the malignant and untiring Fonseca, in direct
contravention of the charter conveying the rights to the admiral, stimulated
private enterprise to follow in the track, taking the utmost possible
advantage of whatever information he had gained in his official capacity,
and imparting it to others. An expedition was fitted out under Alonzo de
Ojeda, one of the most dare-devil adventurers who ever quitted the shores
of his own or any other country, and whose marvelous exploits in
Hispaniola had already excited the wonder and admiration of men long
accustomed to feats of skill and courage. Accompanying him was Amerigo
Vespucci, a Venetian navigator, who strangely enough was destined to give

his name to the whole of the vast continent which he was about to visit for
the first time, though he never accomplished anything of practical
importance in it. Several other ships were fitted out, including a caravel of
fifty tons’ burden by Pedro Alonzo Nino, which performed the most
lucrative voyage of any vessel or squadron equipped up to that time, and
returned home well freighted with pearls and other costly treasure. This was
quite sufficient to stimulate ambition as well as greed, and when Columbus
arrived he had the mortification of learning that others were actively
exploiting his preserves.
“While these events were happening, another enterprise was undertaken
quite beyond the cognizance of the Spanish authorities. Bartholomew
Columbus, it will be remembered, had proceeded on a mission to Henry
VII. some years previous; and when the English monarch learned that the
most sanguine anticipations had been realized, he was anxious to share in
the results. As early as 1495 he endeavored to equip and dispatch a
squadron of his own, but it was not until two years later that Sebastian
Cabot, despite the existence of the Papal Bull, set sail from Bristol. Steering
a direct westerly course, he struck the coast of Newfoundland, and leisurely
sailed south almost to the extreme point of Florida, ere he resumed his
homeward journey. The Spanish government naturally protested against this
infringement of its rights, and Henry found it politic to listen, as he was
then in close alliance, and engaged in negotiating the marriage between his
son and Katharine of Aragon, which subsequently proved so pregnant to the
religious and ecclesiastical destinies of England. It was at a later period, and
under totally different circumstances, that the Anglo-Saxon race was to
occupy and overrun the northern continent.
“Columbus himself was spared to undertake one more voyage, and this
time it was to be confined exclusively to the continent, he being absolutely
forbidden to land at Hispaniola, where Nicolas Ovando, with a force of all
sorts and conditions of men, numbering two thousand five hundred, had
been installed as governor; and so jealous was he of any interference with
his prerogatives that, when the admiral was driven by stress of weather to
take shelter in the harbor of San Domingo, he was ordered to quit instantly.
“This proved the most disastrous of all his voyages. After exploring the
coasts of Honduras and Central America generally, in search of the non-
existent channel, until the provisions were in such a state that they could
only be eaten in the dark, it was decided to land, despite the fierce

opposition of the natives, and plant a permanent settlement under
Bartholomew, who accompanied his brother. This, however, had to be
abandoned; and on the way back the only remaining vessel ran aground in
Dry Harbor in Jamaica, and became a total wreck, the most incredible
suffering, aggravated by constant mutiny, being experienced, until the
remnant of the crew was eventually relieved.
“Columbus having shown the way to the mainland, as well as the
islands, it was left to others to reveal the vast extent and natural wealth of
what he had discovered, and he died on the 20th May, 1506, in complete
ignorance of many of the most important facts which his genius and
tenacity permitted to be made known for the first time to the civilized
world.
“Columbus and his immediate followers hit upon the most unpromising
part of the American Continent, where the damp, hot atmosphere, with its
resulting rank and profuse vegetation, makes human existence intolerable if
not wellnigh impossible. As the land was known to contain gold, however,
the most persistent efforts were made to settle in it, and two regular
governments were established under Alonzo de Ojeda and Diego de
Nicuessa respectively. Nothing but disaster resulted for many a long year,
and the greatest difficulties were experienced in extending or enlarging
them in any direction but coastwise.
“Narrow as the isthmus is in the part selected, it appeared impenetrable,
until eventually the magic word gold encouraged a few bold spirits to
overcome every obstacle. Wherever the adventurers went inland they heard
of a great sea and vast abundance of the precious metal in an unknown land
beyond. After incredible hardships, Vasco Nunez de Balboa and a handful
of followers forced their way through the thickets and swamps, scaled the
mountain range which runs like a backbone along the isthmus, and were
rewarded for their pains when they reached the summit by the sight of the
great southern sea lying at their feet. This occurred on the 26th September,
1513, and on the following day the party descended the western slopes;
Vasco Nunez, as its leader and commander, taking possession of the Pacific
Ocean on behalf of the King of Spain, with all the ceremonies and
formalities customary on those occasions.
“How to take advantage of it was the question. Far south, beyond where
vision could reach, lay the golden land. They were without ships or means

of conveyance of any sort, and the shore upon which they were now
stranded was dangerous as well as inhospitable. The observant and
ingenious mind of Nunez, inferior only to that of Columbus, evolved the
idea of transporting material across the isthmus for the construction of a
fleet to undertake the subjugation of all countries bordering on the Southern
Sea; and such was the work eventually accomplished, though not by Nunez,
who fell a victim to the jealousy and treachery of Pedrarias Davila, a new
governor dispatched from Spain. It was left to one of his lieutenants,
Francisco Pizarro, to set forth on a definite expedition more than ten years
later; and it was not until nearly twenty years had elapsed that Peru was
discovered, and the rich kingdom of the Incas added to the spoils of the
Castilian monarch.
“Meanwhile, exploration had been busy on the eastern side of the
continent. Cuba, realized at length to be an island, was regularly colonized
in 1511, and the governor, Diego Velasquez, being an enterprising and
ambitious man, dispatched an expedition westward. The great peninsula of
Yucatan was reached, and the officers of the little squadron were struck by
the much higher state of civilization exhibited by the natives than by any
others hitherto met with either in the islands or on the mainland. The news
of this led to the subsequent expedition of Cortes, the story of whose
conquest of Mexico reads more like a fairy tale than the narrative of actual
events and hard realities.
“The years 1519, 1520 and 1521 were occupied by this, the greatest of
all the enterprises undertaken by Spain in the New World. Nor was there
any lack of activity in other directions. Juan Ponce sailed from Porto Rico,
in 1512, in search of a spring whose waters insured perennial youth to
whoever drank of them, and found and annexed Florida instead. More than
one navigator cruised southward as far as the Rio de la Plata, and in 1520
Magellan reached the extremity of the southern continent, and passed
through the straits which bear his name. Nor was Cortes idle after he had
accomplished his great work. North and south he sought to add to the
territory of New Spain, until all the countries of Central America on one
side, and the peninsula of California on the other, were brought under its
sway. In less than half a century from the day Columbus first set foot on
San Salvador, the entire continent, from Labrador to Patagonia, had been
visited, and by far the greater part of it annexed to, and nominally ruled by,
the Castilian crown.

“To return, however, to Hispaniola. The rapid exhaustion which
mismanagement produced there, joined to the absence of gold, led to the
creation of other colonies. The discovery of the fisheries, first at Paria, and
then in the islands of the Pacific, opened up an unexpected source of
wealth; but it was not until Montezuma offered his munificent gifts to
Cortes, to induce the latter to quit the shores of Mexico, that the first great
reservoir of the precious metals was tapped. Still, it must be remembered
that the great stores of gold discovered, first in Mexico, and subsequently in
Peru, did not in themselves imply that these countries were capable of
continuing to produce unlimited quantities. They were the accumulations of
many years, possibly of many centuries; for, as there was no foreign trade,
everything produced which could not be consumed had necessarily to be
preserved or destroyed.
“It may be wondered what value gold possessed in the ideas of these
people. That it was held in nothing like the same esteem as by Europeans is
certain; but in Peru, at any rate, its production and preservation were
assured, from the fact that it was regarded as tears wept by the sun, which
was the god of the people, whose Incas, or rulers, were called the Children
of the Sun. In neither case, then, is it surprising that the treasure was not
clung to with more tenacity. Both Montezuma and Atahualpa set a higher
value upon many other things; and the quantities seized by Cortes and
Pizarro and their respective followers, vast though it appeared in their eyes,
and as it really was in those days, was parted with, with scarcely a pang of
regret. That secured by Pizarro was by far the greater spoil, and was
supposed to be the price of the freedom of the Inca himself, who offered to
fill a room 85 feet by 17, and as high as a man could reach, with gold plate
in exchange for it. He did not quite succeed, because Pizarro treacherously
put him to death before the task was completed, yet the amount realized for
distribution was equivalent to something like three and a half millions
sterling ($17,500,000) of the money of to-day, and enriched the commonest
foot-soldier beyond the dreams of avarice.
“It was silver, not gold, moreover, which eventually made both countries
at once the wonder and the envy of the civilized world. The richest mines
were unknown to the Indians, having only been discovered after the
Spanish conquest. Those of Zacotecas in Mexico were first worked in 1532,
while the more famous Potosi lode in Peru was laid bare in 1545, by a
native scrambling up the side of a mountain in pursuit of some llamas

which had strayed from his flock, and uprooting the shrubs to which he
clung for support.
“In the West Indies, meanwhile, the larger islands, like Porto Rico, Cuba
and Jamaica, were gradually colonized, but the smaller ones were left alone;
it can well be understood that in the absence of any proved deposits of gold
they were scarcely worth attention, and it was sufficient to keep a watch
over them to defend them from the incursions of other nations. With the
conquest of Mexico, however, the center of gravity was moved further west,
and still more so when followed by that of Peru, because the only known
route from the latter was by Panama and across the isthmus.
“These territories were altogether too great for efficient oversight; that of
Mexico stretching from California in the north to Venezuela in the south,
and including not only the West Indies, but the far removed Philippines,
while that of Lima embraced the whole of South America both east and
west of the Andes. The great territories included in the present Republics of
Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay were looked upon as of little value, as
they contained neither gold nor silver; and as every attempt made to settle
them only seemed to end in failure, little attention was given to their affairs.
They became, indeed, a distinct source of loss to Spain, as they were found
useful for purposes of contraband trade; and eventually the gold and silver,
which could not be safely smuggled through the ordinary ports of shipment,
were conveyed across the Andes and down the rivers to places of
embarkation on the Amazon or Rio do la Plata, where foreign ships awaited
the spoil and were ready to barter the coveted produce and manufactures of
Europe in exchange. When these two viceroyalties were eventually
subdivided, it was not into east and west, but north and south, and New
Granada became the center of one; while the territories now included in the
United States were separated from Mexico, and constituted the other.
“In Spain everybody, from the king in his palace to the peasant in his
hut, regarded the colonies simply as a source of revenue and profit to
himself, and when they ceased to be this, they would be useless. The most
stringent regulations were adopted, therefore, against trading or even
communicating among themselves, or of engaging in any industry,
manufacturing or agricultural, which was not indigenous to the country;
indeed, Spain insisted upon supplying everything it could grow or make
which would stand the sea voyage, at its own price. The cultivation of
neither the olive nor the vine was permitted in the New World, and severe

penalties were inflicted upon any one who had the temerity to disobey. Peru
and Chili, however, were specially exempted, owing to their immense
distance, and the damaged condition in which liquids generally arrived
there, but they were not allowed to export the produce to any neighboring
country, and must consume it themselves. The duties of the colonists were,
in fact, strictly limited to obtaining as much gold and silver as they could,
while the Spaniards at home were to take care that they retained as little of
it as possible. For all that, many fortunes were realized, principally by
bullion being smuggled out of the country; and had there not been some
such inducement, few men would have cared to expatriate themselves, and
live amid such uncomfortable surroundings.
“Precisely similar principles were observed in all matters relating to
government. Every office of profit under the crown, almost every
emolument, however trivial, was reserved for persons of pure Spanish birth.
As a consequence, the official class was migratory, and remained in the
colonies no longer than was necessary to accumulate a fortune or a
competence, according to the taste of each individual member of it. Though
there were honest and honorable men to be found among them, notably
those filling the most exalted positions, that did not prevent the vast
majority from preying on the colonists, many of whom, by virtue of the
grants of territory they had received, attained to great influence and wealth.
Their descendants were, nevertheless, debarred from all participation in
either the legislative or executive functions of government, though they
might have nothing but the purest Spanish blood flowing in their veins. Nor
could they become dignitaries of the Church without much difficulty. In the
days when the Holy See found it politic to be on good terms with the
Spanish sovereign, the whole ecclesiastical patronage of the New World
was vested in him and his successors; and though many Popes endeavored
to get this privilege back into their own hands, they always failed, and were
compelled to confirm the nominations of the secular ruler. Both Mexico and
Peru were rapidly overrun with clergy, secular as well as regular, and
monastic establishments sprang up everywhere like mushrooms, yet
preferment was always reserved for their brethren in Spain; and out of
nearly four hundred bishops and archbishops consecrated up to the middle
of the seventeenth century, scarce a dozen were taken from the Spanish-
American community known as Creoles.

“A system so rigid is bound to break. Federation is all very well and may
accomplish much that is beneficial to all concerned. But its first condition is
elasticity, so that every section within its embrace may enjoy full freedom
of expansion. There must be no jealousies, no recriminations, and, above
everything, no attempts to get all and give nothing. These conditions are
possible under an arrangement entered into freely by all parties; they are
unattainable when imposed by the strong upon the weak. That is why Spain
never won the gratitude of its colonies, why each and every one eagerly
seized the opportunity of throwing off the yoke, and fought desperately for
independence, and why, to-day, her colonial power is ended.”

CHAPTER X
T H E F A L L O F A N E M P I R E
THE SUPREMACY OF SPAIN—ENCROACHMENTS OF
OTHER NATIONS—CAUSES WHICH LED TO COLONIAL
REVOLT—BIRTH OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS
—INSURRECTIONS IN CUBA—ROBAMOS TODOS
The population of Hayti at the advent of Columbus was estimated to
have been a million, yet, before many years had elapsed, the colonists were
forcibly depopulating the smaller islands to provide a supply of labor
sufficient for their limited requirements. It was the people of the mainland
who might have been expected and who actually did offer the stoutest
resistance. No more wonderful campaign is recorded in military history
than that conducted by Cortes against the Mexicans, and it may be doubted
whether there was another man living who could have carried it to a
successful issue.
Conspicuous as a general, he was unmatched as a diplomatist, whether in
dealing with his own soldiers, his allies, or his enemies. Who else in that
age would have dreamed, after defeating the Tlascalans against fearful
odds, of enlisting them against their deadly foes the Aztecs, and so
humoring them that they never swerved in their loyalty? Or who could have
traded on the superstition, of Montezuma, so as to gain complete control
over his mind, and extract his treasures, valued at something like seven and
a half million dollars, without a blow? But Montezuma once removed, the
people, who had long been accustomed to render him an unquestioned
obedience, and to submit themselves to his slightest command, were free to
follow leaders who evinced more spirit; and the death of that monarch was
speedily followed by the noche triste with all its attendant horrors. To be
captured alive, as many of the Spanish soldiers were, meant the most
terrible of all ends, for they were hurried away to the temples, and their
palpitating hearts torn from their living bodies, to be offered as a
propitiation to the national deities. Yet even this did not disconcert Cortes
and his brave adherents, who began immediately to concert another plan of

campaign. The difficulties they had first encountered were as nothing
compared to those they had still to face, for they had to deal with a
victorious and determined foe, instead of a beaten and depressed one. Every
obstacle, however, was overcome; and with the energetic assistance of
allies, who little dreamed they were sealing their own doom and forever
sacrificing their independence, the powerful and rich kingdom of Mexico
was finally brought into complete subjection to the Castilian crown.
Of totally different and vastly inferior fiber was the conqueror of Peru.
Pizarro was without either education or address—a rough, ambitious, and
avaricious soldier. He, too, was favored by internal dissensions, of which he
could not possibly have known anything when he set forth on his errand.
After a long period of peaceful and undisputed sway, the Inca dynasty was
split by a feud between two brothers, one of whom, Atahualpa, had just
asserted his superiority by force of arms, when the European conquerors
appeared on the scene. A word from him, and not a man of them would
have escaped alive. But at the critical moment an unaccountable paralysis
overtook him, whether or not arising from a curiosity to see and interview
the strangers it is impossible to say. He realized his danger too late, for
Pizarro, imitating Cortes, seized the person of the Inca, and the rest was
rendered comparatively easy. Accustomed, like Montezuma, to exact
unqualified obedience, he employed his subjects in collecting his ransom
instead of fighting for his deliverance; and when the debt was almost paid,
he found himself doomed to death instead of released from captivity. The
forces of the empire were then scattered, and without a leader who could
assume full authority. Still, many a desperate bid was subsequently made
for freedom, but each time with less prospect of success, as the conquerors
secured a firmer grip upon the country, until the execution of Tapac Amara,
the last direct descendant of the Incas, in 1571, left that solitude which
Cæsar called peace.
But after all it was not the opposition of the Indians, whether of the
islands, of Mexico, or Peru, that proved the greatest danger to Spanish
sovereignty. Enmity to Columbus, who was the accredited representative of
the crown and legal governor of the Indies, did not necessarily infer enmity
to the crown itself; indeed, those who rebelled against him were loud in
their protestations of loyalty. Nevertheless, the turbulent factions fought for
their own hand, and would have been equally opposed to any other
governor who sought to place the necessary restraint upon their license. By

permitting, and even compelling, many of the discontented to return home,
as well as by the temporary removal of Columbus himself, something like
quiet was restored; but it is more than probable that had not the colonists
been largely dependent upon Spain for many necessaries, not excluding
food, they would have cut themselves adrift and refused to submit to the
exactions upon their industry, or rather upon that of the natives from which
they profited. More than once in the early days, the home government had
to stop cautiously, and commissions were dispatched to ascertain where the
grievances lay, and if possible redress them. They were mostly connected
with labor; the majority of the clergy, to their credit be it said, ranging
themselves on the side of humanity, and using all their influence to obtain
ordinances favorable to the natives. This difficulty was smoothed away to a
great extent by the introduction of the African negro, which began as early
as the year 1503.
The followers of Cortes were remarkably loyal to him in prosperity and
adversity alike; and though for a long time he was unaware how his
proceedings would be received at court, he remained consistent in his
devotion to his sovereign. His dispatches breathe an almost effusive
submission to their will and interests, and only his enemies ever laid any
charges against him, while his own actions too obviously refuted them. It
was only when some of his officers were removed from his influence and
intrusted with commissions of their own that they thought of kicking over
the traces, and then it invariably happened that they were not in situations
where any great harm could result. Mexico once subdued, long rendered the
most willing obedience of any of the colonies, partly perhaps because under
the direct influence of good and great viceroys, who acted both with
intelligence and discretion.
It was far otherwise in Peru, where the duplicity of Pizarro in excluding
Almagro from his proper share in the governorship roused the suspicion,
then the ire, and finally the opposition of that honest and gallant soldier.
When Pizarro returned from his visit to Spain, he was either accompanied
or immediately followed by several of his brothers, who, among them,
formed a family compact for the protection and promotion of their own
interests. To rid themselves of the rivalry of Almagro, they obtained for him
the governorship of the country which now comprises the Republic of Chili.
This, however, had still to be conquered, and the obstacles which presented
themselves to the enterprise appeared so insurmountable that Almagro and

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