![said, ‘We will be God’s helpers! We believe in God, and bear thou witness
that we are Muslims. O our Lord! we believe in what thou hast sent down,
and we follow the apostle; write us up, then, with those who bear witness to
him.’”
[The commentators al-Jalālān say Jesus made for his disciples a bat, for it is
the most perfect of birds in make, and it flew while they looked at it; but
when it had gone out of their sight, it fell down dead. That he cured in one
day fifty thousand persons, and that he raised Lazarus (ʿĀzar) from the
dead; also Shem, the son of Noah, who had been dead 4,000 years, but he
died immediately; also the son of an old woman, and the daughter of a tax-
collector.]
Sūrah v. 112–115 : “Remember when the Apostles said: ‘O Jesus, Son of
Mary! is thy Lord able to send down a furnished table to us out of Heaven?’
He said: ‘Fear God if ye be believers.’ They said: ‘We desire to eat
therefrom, and to have our hearts assured; and to know that thou hast
indeed spoken truth to us, and to be witnesses thereof.’ Jesus, Son of Mary,
said: ‘O God, our Lord! send down a table to us out of Heaven, that it may
become a recurring festival to us, to the first of us and to the last of us, and
a sign from thee; and do thou nourish us, for thou art the best of nourishers.’
And God said: ‘Verily, I will cause it to descend unto you; but whoever
among you after that shall disbelieve, I will surely chastise him with a
chastisement wherewith I will not chastise any other creature.’”
[Mr. Sale, in his commentary on this miracle, says (quoting from al-
Baiẓāwī):—“This miracle is thus related by the commentators. Jesus
having, at the request of his followers, asked it of God, a red table
immediately descended in their sight, between two clouds, and was set
before them. Whereupon he rose up, and having made the ablution, prayed,
and then took off the cloth which covered the table, saying, ‘In the name of
God, the best provider of food!’ What the provisions were, with which this
table was furnished, is a matter wherein the expositors are not agreed. One
will have them to be nine cakes of bread and nine fishes; another, bread and
flesh; another, all sorts of food, except flesh; another, all sorts of food,
except bread and flesh; another, all except bread and fish; another, one fish,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-21-320.jpg)
![which had the taste of all manner of food; and another, fruits of paradise;
but the most received tradition is, that when the table was uncovered, there
appeared a fish ready dressed, without scales or prickly fins, dropping with
fat, having salt placed at its head, and vinegar at its tail, and round it all
sorts of herbs, except leeks, and five loaves of bread, on one of which there
were olives; on the second, honey; on the third, butter; on the fourth,
cheese; and on the fifth, dried flesh. They add, that Jesus, at the request of
the apostles, showed them another miracle, by restoring the fish to life, and
causing its scales and fins to return to it; at which the standers-by, being
affrighted, he caused it to become as it was before: that one thousand three
hundred men and women, all afflicted with bodily infirmities or poverty, ate
of these provisions, and were satisfied, the fish remaining whole as it was at
first; that then the table flew up to heaven in the sight of all; and everyone
who had partaken of this food were delivered from their infirmities and
misfortunes; and that it continued to descend for forty days together, at
dinner-time, and stood on the ground till the sun declined, and was then
taken up into the clouds. Some of the Mohammedan writers are of opinion
that this table did not really descend, but that it was only a parable; but most
think the words of the Koran are plain to the contrary. A further tradition is,
that several men were changed into swine for disbelieving this miracle, and
attributing it to magic art; or, as others pretend, for stealing some of the
victuals from off it.”]
IV.—The Mission of Jesus.
Sūrah lvii. 26, 27 : “And of old sent we Noah and Abraham, and on their
seed conferred the gift of prophecy, and the Book; and some of them we
guided aright; but many were evil doers. Then we caused our apostles to
follow in their footsteps; and we caused Jesus the son of Mary to follow
them; and we gave him the Evangel and we put into the hearts of those who
followed him kindness and compassion: but as to the monastic life, they
invented it themselves. The desire only of pleasing God did we prescribe to
them, and this they observed not as it ought to have been observed: but to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-22-320.jpg)
![Sūrah iv. 157 : “And there shall not be one of the people of the Book but
shall believe in him (Jesus) before his death, and in the day of judgment he
shall be a witness against them.”
Sūrah iii. 44 : “And I have come to attest the law which was before me;
and to allow you part of that which had been forbidden you; and I come to
you with a sign from your Lord: Fear God, then, and obey me; of a truth
God is my Lord, and your Lord: Therefore worship Him. This is a right
way.”
V.—The Crucifixion of Jesus.
Sūrah iii. 47–50 : “And the Jews plotted, and God plotted: But of those
who plot is God the best. Remember when God said, ‘O Jesus! verily I will
cause thee to die, and will take thee up to myself and deliver thee from
those who believe not; and I will place those who follow thee above those
who believe not, until the Day of Resurrection. Then, to me is your return,
and wherein ye differ will I decide between you. And as to those who
believe not, I will chastise them with a terrible chastisement in this world
and in the next; and none shall they have to help them.’ But as to those who
believe, and do the things that are right, He will pay them their recompense.
God loveth not the doers of evil.”
Sūrah iv. 155, 156 : “And for their unbelief [are the Jews cursed]—and for
their having spoken against Mary a grievous calumny,—And for their
saying, ‘Verily we have slain the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, an
Apostle of God.’Yet they slew him not, and they crucified him not, but they
had only his likeness. And they who differed about him were in doubt
concerning him: No sure knowledge had they about him, but followed only
an opinion, and they really did not slay him, but God took him up to
Himself. And God is Mighty, Wise!”](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-24-320.jpg)
![[Sale, in his notes on the Qurʾān, says: “The person crucified some will
have to be a spy that was sent to entrap him; others that it was one Titian,
who by the direction of Judas entered in at a window of the house where
Jesus was, to kill him; and others that it was Judas himself, who agreed with
the rulers of the Jews to betray him for thirty pieces of silver, and led those
who were sent to take him. They add, that Jesus, after his crucifixion in
effigy, was sent down again to the earth to comfort his mother and disciples
and acquaint them how the Jews were deceived, and was then taken up a
second time into heaven. It is supposed by several that this story was an
original invention of Moḥammad’s; but they are certainly mistaken: for
several sectaries held the same opinion long before his time. The
Basilidians, in the very beginning of Christianity, denied that Christ himself
suffered, but [asserted] that Simon the Cirenean was crucified in his place.
The Corinthians before them, and the Carpocratians next (to name no more
of those who affirmed Jesus to have been a mere man), did believe the same
thing, that it was not himself, but one of his followers, very like him, that
was crucified. Photius tells us that he read a book entitled The Journeys of
the Apostles, relating the acts of Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas, and Paul;
and among other things contained therein this was one, that Christ was not
crucified, but another in his stead, and that therefore he laughed at his
crucifiers, or those who thought they had crucified him.” The “Cross of
Christ” is the missing link in the Muslim’s creed; for we have in Islām the
great anomaly of a religion which rejects the doctrine of a sacrifice for sin,
whilst its great central feast is a Feast of Sacrifice. It is related by the
Muslim historian al-Wāqidī, that Muḥammad had such repugnance to the
sign of the cross that he destroyed everything brought to his house with that
figure upon it.]
VI.—Divinity and Sonship of Christ, and His Sinlessness.
Sūrah xix. 35, 36 : “That is Jesus the son of Mary, the word of truth (Qaulu
ʾl-Ḥaqq), whereon ye do dispute! God could not take to Himself a son!
Celebrated be His praise! When He decrees a matter He only says to it,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-25-320.jpg)
![last.” Then the Muslims will come to me, and I will ask permission to go
into God’s presence and intercede for them.’” (Mishkāt, book xxiii. ch. xii.)
[In dealing with Muḥammadans the Christian missionary must not treat
their system as though the teachings of Islām were precisely those of the
modern Socinians (we speak of the modern Socinians, for both the Socini,
uncle and nephew, admitted the miraculous conception of Christ, and said
he ought to be worshipped). Islām admits of the miraculous conception of
Christ, and that He is the “Word” which God “conveyed into Mary”; and
whilst the other five great prophets are but “the chosen,” “the preacher,”
“the friend,” “the converser with,” and “the messenger of” God, Jesus is
admitted to be the “Spirit of God.” He is the greatest miracle worker of all
the prophets; and whilst Muḥammad is dead and buried, and saw
corruption, all Muslim divines admit that Jesus “saw no corruption,” and
still lives with a human body in Paradise.
Moreover, it is said in the Ḥadīs̤ that the Ḥaqīqatu ʾl-Muḥammadīyah or the
Nūr-i-Muḥammad, “the essence, or light of Muḥammad,” was created
before all things which were made by God. The pre-existence of the divine
“Word which was made flesh and dwelt amongst us” is not, therefore, an
idea foreign to the Muslim mind.]
VII.—The Trinity.
Sūrah v. 76–79 : “They misbelieve who say, ‘Verily, God is the Messiah,
the son of Mary’; but the Messiah said, ‘O children of Israel! worship God,
my Lord and your Lord; verily, he who associates aught with God, God
hath forbidden him Paradise, and his resort is the Fire, and the unjust shall
have none to help them.’ They misbelieve who say, ‘Verily, God is the third
of three, for there is no God but one; and if they do not desist from what
they say, there shall touch those who misbelieve amongst them grievous
woe. Will they not turn again towards God and ask pardon of Him? for God
is forgiving and merciful.’ The Messiah, the son of Mary, is only a prophet!](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-28-320.jpg)
![and al-Masīḥ and Maryam; or “Do not say God is Three,” meaning that
there are Three Aqānīm (اقانيم
) or Essences—Ab (Father), Ibn (Son),
and Rūḥu ʾl-Quds (Holy Spirit), and interpreting it thus: Ab, the Ẕāt or
Essence; Ibn, the ʿIlm or Knowledge; and Rūḥu ʾl-Quds, the Ḥayāt or Life
of God.
Ḥusain (a.h. 900) quotes al-Baiẓāwī, and offers no opinion of his own.
The Jalālān (a.h. 911) say “Three” means Allāh and ʿĪsā and his Mother.
The word generally used by Muḥammadan writers for the Trinity is at-
Tas̤ līs̤ (التثليث
). [trinity.]
VIII.—The Second Coming of Jesus.
The Qurʾān has no definite teaching on the subject, but the Traditions have.
(See Mishkātu ʾl-Maṣābīḥ, book xxiii. ch. vi.)
Abū Hurairah relates that the Prophet said, “I swear by God, it is near, when
Jesus, son of Mary, will descend from the heavens upon your people, a just
king, and he will break the cross, and will kill the swine, and will remove
the poll-tax from the unenfranchised; and there will be great wealth in his
time, so much that nobody will accept of it; and in that time, one prostration
in prayer will be better than the world and everything in it.”
And Abū Hurairah said, “If ye doubt about this coming to pass, then read
this verse (Sūrah iv. 157 ), and there shall not be one of those who have
received the Scriptures who shall not believe in Him (Jesus) before His
death.”
Abū Hurairah again relates that the Prophet said, “I swear by God, Jesus
son of Mary will come down, a just king; he will kill the swine, and break](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-30-320.jpg)
![the cross, and remove the poll-tax from the unenfranchised; and camels will
not be rode in his time on account of the immensity of wealth, and man’s
being in want of nothing; and verily enmity, hatred and malice will go from
man; and verily, Jesus will call people to wealth, and nobody will take it.”
Jābir relates that the Prophet said: “A section of my people will always fight
for the true religion, and will be victorious, unto the resurrection. Then
Jesus son of Mary will come down; and the prince of my people will say to
him, ‘Come in front, and say prayers for us.’And he will say to him, ‘I shall
not act as Imām, because some of you are princes over others.’And Jesus
will say this from respect to my people.”
ʿAbdu ʾllāh ibn ʿAmr relates that the Prophet said: “Jesus will come down
to the earth, and will marry and have children, and will stay on the earth
forty-five years, and then die, and be buried in my place of burial; and I and
Jesus shall rise up from one place, between Abū-Bakr and ʿUmar.”
[hujrah.]
IX.—His Exaltation in Heaven.
There is some difference of opinion as to where Jesus Christ now is. All
Muslim divines agree that “he saw no corruption,” but they differ as to the
exact stage of celestial bliss in which he resides in the body. According to a
tradition by Qatādah (Mishkāt, book xxiv. ch. vii.), Muḥammad said, on the
night of the Miʿrāj or celestial journey, he saw John and Jesus in the second
heaven. The Jalālān agree with this tradition. But in the commentary known
as the Jāmiʿu ʾl-Bayān (vol. i. 656) it is said he is in the third region of
bliss; whilst some say he is in the fourth.
X.—The Disciples of Jesus.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-31-320.jpg)
![The disciples of Jesus are called in the Qurʾān al-Ḥawārīyūn, a word which
seems to be derived from an Ethiopic root, signifying “to send,” but which
al-Baiẓāwī says means “white ones,” and that it was given to the disciples
of Jesus either because they were holy and sincere men or because they
wore white clothes. It is noticeable that not one of the twelve apostles is
mentioned by name in the Qurʾān. In the story told of disciples visiting the
city (of Antioch), three disciples are mentioned, and commentators say they
were John, Jude and Simon. [See Sūrah xxxvi. 13, 19 —habib the
carpenter.] John the Baptist and his father Zacharias are mentioned.
(Sūrahs xix. 7 , xxi. 90 .)
JETHRO. [shuʿaib.]
JEWELS. Arabic Jauhar (جوهر
), pl. Jawāhir. According to the
Hidāyah a thief is liable to suffer amputation of the hand for stealing jewels,
such as a ring set with emerald, ruby, or chrysolite, as such are rare articles,
and are not held to be of an indifferent nature, neither are they undesirable.
(Vol. ii. p. 93.)
A sillim sale [sillim], or a sale in trust, of jewels and marine shells, is not
lawful, because the unities of these vary in their value. (Vol. ii. p. 539.) In
the partition of property, jewels must not be divided by the Qāẓī, but by
mutual arrangement in the family, because of the great difference in the
actual value of jewels. (Vol. iv. 13.)
JEWS, JUDAISM. The Jews are mentioned in the Qurʾān and Traditions
under the names of Yahūdī (يهودى
), pl. Yahūd, and Banū Isrāʾīl (بنو](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-32-320.jpg)
![Cain’s and Abel’s sacrifices, the death of Abel; Noah’s preaching, the Ark
built, the deluge, the tower of Babel; Abraham, the friend of God, his call
from idolatry, Isaac the son of promise, Sarah’s incredulity, Hagar and
Ishmael, the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son, Lot and the cities
of the plain; Jacob and the tribes, Joseph sold into Egypt, Potiphar’s wife,
Joseph tempted, the dreams of the baker and butler, and of the king; Moses,
his preservation in infancy, kills an Egyptian, flies to Midian, works
miracles in the presence of Pharaoh, manna from heaven, the giving of the
law, Aaron’s rod, the golden calf, the passage of the Red Sea; Job’s
patience; Balaam cursing the Israelites; David’s psalms, his sin and
repentance; Solomon’s wisdom, the Queen of Sheba, the building of the
temple; Jonah’s preaching, his escape from the fish: these and many other
incidents, evidently taken from the Old Testament, and worked up into a
narrative with the assistance of Talmudic interpretations, form the chief
historical portion of the Qurʾān.
(d) Many of the doctrines and social precepts of the Qurʾān are also from
Judaism. The Unity of God, the ministry of angels, the inspired law, the law
of marriage and divorce, domestic slavery, the day of Sacrifice, prayer and
ablution, the lex talionis, the degrees of affinity, the stoning of the adulterer,
and many other injunctions, are precisely those of the Mosaic code, with
some modifications to meet the requirements of Arabian social life.
Whilst, therefore, Muḥammad took little of his religious system from
Christianity, he was vastly indebted to Judaism both for his historical
narratives and his doctrines and precepts. Islām is nothing more nor less
than Judaism plus the Apostleship of Muḥammad. The teachings of Jesus
form no part of his religious system. [christianity.]
(e) The Quraish charged Muḥammad with want of originality in his
revelations. For even at the end of his career, and when he was uttering his
latest Sūrahs, “they said, as our verses were rehearsed to them—‘This is
nothing but tales of yore.’” (Sūrah viii. 31 .) “And when it was said to
them, What is it your Lord sent down? They said, ‘Old folk’s tales.’”
(Sūrah xvi. 25 .) The Quraish even charged him with having obtained
assistance, “They said it is only some mortal who teaches him.” And](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-36-320.jpg)
![heaven and earth.4 Both in the Qurʾān and Talmud we find seven hells as
the appointed abode for the damned, and each hell has seven gates in both
documents.5 The entrance of Jahannam is marked, according to the Sukkah,
by two date-trees, between which smoke issues; and the Qurʾān speaks of a
tree in hell [zaqqum] of which the damned are to eat, and of which many
terrible things are related.6 In the Talmud the prince of hell demands supply
for his domain, and a similar request is made in the Qurʾān.7 Between the
seven heavens and the seven hells is an intermediate place [aʿraf], for
those who are too good to be cast into hell and too imperfect to be admitted
into heaven.8 This intermediate abode is, however, so narrow, that the
conversations of the blessed and the damned on either side may be
overheard. Again, the happiness of Paradise [paradise] is similarly
described in both Talmud and Qurʾān;9 also the difficulty of attaining it.
The Talmud declares that it is as easy for an elephant to enter through the
eye of a needle; the Qurʾān substituting a camel for an elephant.10 That the
dead live in the sight of God is stated in both documents in the same terms,
and that there is no admission to the actual presence of the Almighty before
the Day of Judgment and the resurrection of the dead.11 The signs of the
last day as given in the Qurʾān are borrowed equally from the Scriptures
and the Talmud.12 [resurrection.]
The lengthened descriptions in the Qurʾān of the future resurrection and
judgment are also tinged with a Talmudical colouring. That the several
members of the human body shall bear witness against the damned, and that
idols shall share in the punishment of their worshippers, is stated in both the
Talmud and Qurʾān.13 The time of the last judgment Muḥammad declined
to fix, resting upon the Jewish or Scriptural sentence, that “one day with
God is like a thousand.”14 The Jews, in speaking of the resurrection of the
dead, allude to the sending down of rain; the Qurʾān also affirms that this
means of quickening the dead will be employed.15 Further still, the
Talmudical idea that the dead will rise in the garments in which they were
buried, likewise has been adopted by Islām.16 The Jewish opinion was that
“all the prophets saw in a dark, but Moses in a clear mirror.”17 In the
Qurʾān, God sends down His angelic messenger, Gabriel, as “the Holy](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-38-320.jpg)
![Ghost,” with revelations; and this very notion of Gabriel being considered
the Spirit of God seems to be borrowed from the Jews.18
Again, the demonology of the Qurʾān is chiefly taken from the Talmud.
Three properties the demons have in common with angels, and three with
men—they have wings like angels, they can fly from one end of the world
to the other, and know things to come. But do they know future events? No,
but they listen behind the veil. The three properties in common with men
are: they eat and drink, indulge in physical love, and die.19 This Jewish idea
was adopted in the Qurʾān, and spun out ad libitum; for instance, whilst
listening once to the angelic conversations, they were hunted away with
stones. Their presence in places of worship is admitted both in the Talmud
and the Qurʾān; thus it happened that “when the servant of God stood up to
invoke Him, the Jinns all but pressed on him in the crowd.”20 [genii.]
Amongst the moral precepts which are borrowed from the Talmud, we may
mention that children are not to obey their parents when the latter demand
that which is evil.21 Prayer may be performed standing, walking, or even
riding;22 devotions may be shortened in urgent cases, without committing
sin;23 drunken persons are not to engage in acts of worship;24 ablutions
before prayer are in special cases enforced, but generally required both in
the Talmud and the Qurʾān;25 each permit the use of sand instead of water
[tayammum], when the latter is not to be procured.26 The Talmud prohibits
loud and noisy prayers, and Muḥammad gives this short injunction:—“Cry
not in your prayers”;27 in addition to this secret prayer, public worship is
equally commended. The Shema prayer of the Jews is to be performed
“when one is able to distinguish a blue from a white thread,” and this is
precisely the criterion of the commencement of the fast in the Qurʾān.28
[ramazan.]
The following social precepts are likewise copied from Judaism: a divorced
woman must wait three months before marrying again29 [divorce];
mothers are to nurse their children two full years; and the degrees of affinity
within which marriages are lawful.30 [marriage.] The historical incidents
which Muḥammad borrowed from Judaism are embodied, regardless of the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-39-320.jpg)
![the angels esteeming him a second deity, God put His hand upon him and
reduced him to a thousand yards!34 [adam.]
The account given in the Qurʾān of Cain’s murder is borrowed from the
Bible, and his conversation with Abel, before he slew him,35 is the same as
that in the Targum of Jerusalem, generally called pseudo-Jonathan. After the
murder, Cain sees a raven burying another, and from this sight gains the
idea of interring Abel. The Jewish fable differs only in ascribing the
interment to the parents: “Adam and his wife sat weeping and lamenting
him, not knowing what to do with the body, as they were unacquainted with
burying. Then came a raven, whose fellow was dead: he took and buried it
in the earth, hiding it before their eyes. Then said Adam, I shall do like this
raven, and, taking Abel’s corpse, he dug in the earth and hid it.”36 The
sentence following in the Qurʾān—“Wherefore we commanded the children
of Israel, that he who slayeth a soul, not by way of retaliation, or because he
doeth corruptly in the earth, shall be as if he had slain all mankind; but he
who saveth a soul alive shall be as if he saved all souls alive,” would have
no connection with what precedes or follows, were it not for the Targum of
Onkelos, in the paraphrase of Gen. iv. 10 , where it is said that the blood of
Cain’s brother cried to God from the earth, thus implying that Abel’s
posterity were also cut off. And in the Mishnah Sanhedrin, we find the very
words which the Qurʾān attaches to the murder, apparently with sense or
connection.37 [abel, cain.]
Noah stands forth as the preacher of righteousness, builds the ark, and is
saved, with his family;38 his character is, however, drawn more from
Rabbinical than Biblical sources. The conversations of Noah with the
people, and the words with which they mocked him whilst building the
ark,39 are the same in Talmudical writings as in the Qurʾān; and both
declare that the generation of the flood was punished with boiling water.40
[noah.]
The next patriarch after the flood is Hūd, who is none other than Eber;
another sample of the ignorance of Muḥammad. In the days of Hūd the
tower is constructed; the “obstinate hero,” probably Nimrod, takes the lead;](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-41-320.jpg)
![the sin of idolatry is abounding; an idol is contemplated as the crowning of
the tower; but the building is overthrown, the tribes are dispersed, and
punished in this world and in the world to come.41 These particulars are
evidently borrowed from scripture and Rabbinical writings. In the Qurʾān,
however, the dispersion is caused by a poisonous wind, and not by the
confusion of tongues. The significance which the Qurʾān gives to Hūd is
again in perfect accordance with Rabbinical Judaism: “Eber was a great
prophet, for he prophetically called his son Peleg (dispersion), by the help
of the Holy Ghost, because the earth was to be dispersed.”42 Among all the
patriarchs, Abraham was most esteemed by Muḥammad, as being neither
Jew nor Christian, but a Muslim. That he wrote books is also the belief of
the Jewish doctors.43 His attaining the knowledge of the true faith, his zeal
to convert his generation; his destruction of the idols; the fury of the people;
their insisting on his being burned, and his marvellous deliverance: all these
particulars in the life of Abraham, as given by the Qurʾān, are minutely
copied from Jewish fictions.44 [hud, abraham.]
The Qurʾān states that the angels whom Abraham received appeared as
ordinary Arabs, and he was astonished when they declined to eat. According
to the Talmud, they also “appeared to him no more than Arabs;”45 but
another passage adds: “The angels descended and did eat. Are they, then,
said to have really eaten? No! but they appeared as if they did eat and
drink.” As a proof of Muḥammad’s uncertainty respecting the history of
Abraham, we add, that the doubt regarding their having a son in their old
age is expressed in the Qurʾān by Abraham instead of Sarah, and she is
made to laugh at the promise of a son, before it was given. Again, the
command to offer his son is given to Abraham before Isaac is born or
promised, so that the son who was to be offered up could be none other than
Ishmael, who was spoken of immediately before as the “meek youth!”
Muḥammadan divines are, however, not agreed whether Ishmael was to be
offered up, although it is reported by some that the horns of the ram, which
was sacrificed in his stead, were preserved at Makkah, his dwelling-place!
[ishmael.] We may account for Muḥammad’s reckoning Ishmael among the
prophets and patriarchs, from his being considered the patriarch of the
Arabs and the founder of the Kaʿbah.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-42-320.jpg)
![Among the sons of Jacob, Joseph occupies the pre-eminence. His history is
mainly the same as in the Bible, embellished with the fabulous tradition of
the Jews. Among these is the assumption that Joseph “would have sinned
had he not seen the evident demonstration of his Lord.” That this is
borrowed is clear from the following fable: Rabbi Jochanan saith, “Both
intended to commit sin: seizing him by the garment, she said, Lie with
me.… Then appeared to him the form of his father at the window, who
called to him, Joseph! Joseph! the names of thy brothers shall be engraven
upon the stones of the Ephod, also thine own: wilt thou that it shall be
erased?”46 This is almost literally repeated by a Muslim commentary to the
Sūrah xii. 24 . The fable of Potiphar’s wife inviting the Egyptian ladies to a
feast, to see Joseph, because they had laughed at her, and of their being so
overcome with admiration of Joseph,47 that they accidentally cut their
hands in eating fruit, is exactly so related in a very ancient Hebrew book,
from which Muḥammad doubtless derived it. The story about the garment
being rent, and the setting up of an evidence of guilt or innocence
respecting it, is also borrowed, to the very letter from the same source.48 In
this Sūrah it is also stated, that “the devil made him (Joseph) forget the
remembrance of his Lord,” in perfect harmony with the Jewish tradition,
“Vain speech tendeth to destruction; though Joseph twice urged the chief
butler to remember him, yet he had to remain two years longer in prison.”49
The seeking protection from man is here represented as the instigation of
Satan. [joseph.]
The Qurʾān causes Jacob to tell his sons to enter at different gates, and the
same injunction is given by the Patriarch in the Jewish writings: “Jacob said
to them, Enter not through one and the same gate.”50 The exclamation of
the sons of Israel, when they found the cup in Benjamin’s sack—“Has he
stolen? so has his brother also”—are clearly a perversion of the words
which the Jewish traditions put into their mouths: “Behold a thief, son of a
female thief!” referring to the stealing of the Seraphim by Rachel.51
Muḥammad, again, acquaints us that Jacob knew by divine revelation that
his son Joseph was still alive, and Jewish tradition enables us to point out
whence he obtained the information. We read in the Midrash Jalkut, “An
unbeliever asked our master, Do the dead continue to live? your parents do](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-43-320.jpg)
![not believe it, and will ye receive it? Of Jacob, it is said, he refused to be
comforted; had he believed that the dead still lived, would he not have been
comforted? But he answered, Fool, he knew by the Holy Ghost that he still
really lived, and about a living person people need no comfort.”52
Muḥammad made but scanty allusions to the early patriarchs, Joseph only
excepted; but concerning Moses, it was his interest to be more profuse in
his communications, possibly from the desire to be considered like him, as
he is generally thought to have taken that prophet as his model. Among the
oppressions which Pharaoh exercised towards the Jews, are named his
ordering their children to be cast into the water. Moses, the son of ʿImrān
was put into an ark by his mother; Pharaoh’s wife, observing the child,
rescues him from death, and gives him back to his mother to nurse. When
Moses was grown up, he sought to assist his oppressed brethren, and kills
an Egyptian; being the next day reminded of this deed by an Hebrew, he
flees to Midian, and marries the daughter of an inhabitant of that country.53
When about to leave Midian, he sees a burning bush, and, approaching it,
receives a call to go to Egypt to exhort Pharaoh, and perform miracles; he
accepts the mission, but requests the aid of his brother Aaron.54 Pharaoh,
however remains an infidel, and gathers his sorcerers together, who perform
only inferior miracles; and, in spite of Pharaoh’s threats, they become
believers.55 Judgment falls upon the Egyptians; they are drowned, whilst
the Israelites are saved.56 A rock yields water. Moses receives the law,57
and desires to see the glory of God.58 During Moses’ absence, the Israelites
make a golden calf, which he destroys, and reducing it to powder, makes
them drink it.59 After this, Moses chooses seventy men as assistants.60 The
spies sent to Canaan are all wicked with the exception of two: the people
being deceived by them, must wander forty years in the desert.61 Korah, on
quarrelling with Moses, is swallowed up by the earth.62 [korah.] The
marvellous journey of Moses with his servant is not to be omitted in this
summary of events.63 Among the details deserve to be mentioned, that
Hāmān and Korah were counsellors of Pharaoh.64 It is not surprising that
Muḥammad should associate Hāmān with Pharaoh as an enemy of the Jews,
since he cared little when individuals lived, provided they could be
introduced with advantage. Korah, according to Jewish tradition, was chief](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/5528-250315082616-467a508d/85/Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Kendall-Solutions-Manual-44-320.jpg)
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- 5. Chapter 6 Systems Analysis and Design Instructor’s Manual 6-1 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall Chapter 6 Agile Modeling and Prototyping Key Points and Objectives 1. Prototyping is an information-gathering technique useful for supplementing the traditional systems development life cycle. 2. Prototypes are useful in seeking user reactions. 3. There are four conceptions of prototypes: A. Patched-up prototypes B. Nonoperational scale models C. First full-scale models D. Prototypes which contain only some of the essential system features 4. Prototyping may be used as an alternative to the systems development life cycle. 5. Guidelines for developing a prototype are: A. Work in manageable modules. B. Build the prototype rapidly. C. Modify the prototype in successive iterations. D. Stress the user interface. 6. One disadvantage of prototyping is that managing the prototyping process is difficult because of its rapid, iterative nature. A second disadvantage is that incomplete prototypes may be regarded as complete systems. Clear communication of the prototype timetable with users is essential. 7. One advantage of prototyping is the potential for changing the system early in its development. A second advantage is the opportunity to stop development on an unworkable system. A third advantage is the possibility of developing a system that closely addresses users’ needs and expectations. 8. Sometimes COTS software may be the quickest way to create a prototype. 9. Systems analysts must work systematically to elicit and evaluate users’ reactions to the prototype. There are three ways the user is involved: A. Experimenting with the prototype B. Giving open reactions to the prototype C. Suggesting additions to and/or deletions from the prototype
- 6. Chapter 6 Agile Modeling and Prototyping 6-2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 10. Rapid application development (RAD) is an object-oriented approach to systems development. 11. There are three broad phases to RAD: A. Requirements planning phase B. RAD design workshop C. Implementation phase 12. RAD is used when: A. The team includes programmers and analysts who are experienced with it. B. There are pressing business reasons for speeding up the portion of application development. C. The project involves a novel ecommerce application and RAD gives a competitive advantage by producing results quickly. D. Users are sophisticated and highly engaged with the organizational goals of the company. 13. Agile modeling is used to plan quickly, develop and release software quickly, and revise software quickly. 14. There are four values that are important to agile modeling: A. Communication B. Simplicity C. Feedback D. Courage 15. It is important to maintain an attitude of humility when doing agile modeling. 16. The basic principles of agile modeling are: A. Satisfy the customer through delivery of working software. B. Embrace change, even if introduced late in development. C. Continue to deliver functioning software incrementally and frequently. D. Encourage customers and analysts to work together daily. E. Trust motivated individuals to get the job done. F. Promote face-to-face conversation. G. Concentrate on getting software to work. H. Encourage continuous, regular, and sustainable development. I. Adopt agility with attention to mindful design. J. Support self-organizing teams. K. Provide rapid feedback. L. Encourage quality. M. Review and adjust behavior occasionally. N. Adopt simplicity. 17. The activities of agile modeling are: A. Coding B. Testing
- 7. Chapter 6 Systems Analysis and Design Instructor’s Manual 6-3 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall C. Listening D. Designing 18. The four resource control variables in agile modeling are: A. Time B. Cost C. Quality D. Scope 19. The four core practices in agile modeling are: A. A short release time B. Working a 40-hour week C. Having an onsite customer D. Pair programming 20. An agile modeling process has the following steps: A. Listen for user stories from the customer. B. Draw a logical workflow model for the user story. C. Create new user stories based on the logical model. D. Develop some display prototypes. E. Use feedback from the prototypes and logical workflow diagrams to develop the system until a physical model is created. 21. User stories are written that consist of a dialogue between developers and users. 22. An agile modeling approach called Scrum is based on team development within a strict time frame. 23. There are a number of lessons learned from agile modeling. 24. There are seven strategies for improving the efficiency in knowledge workers: A. Reduce interface time and errors. B. Reduce process learning time and dual processing losses. C. Reduce time and effort to structure tasks and format outputs. D. Reduce nonproductive expansion of work. E. Reduce data and knowledge search and storage time and costs. F. Reduce communication and coordination time and costs. G. Reduce losses from human information overload.
- 8. Chapter 6 Agile Modeling and Prototyping 6-4 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 25. There are six risks involved when adopting a new information systems approach: A. The culture of the organization and the culture of the systems development team B. Timing C. Cost D. Client’s reactions E. Measuring impact F. The individual rights of programmers and analysts Consulting Opportunity 6.1 (p. 159) Is Prototyping King? Even though Paul and Ceil are enthusiastic about a prototype, it is still not advisable to develop one. The computerized warehouse inventory and distribution information system are very straightforward, and not suitable for prototyping because the outcome of the system as a solution is well-known and predictable. Furthermore, there is a tight budget. To justify prototyping, the novelty and complexity of the problem and solution must be considered. The environmental context for the system should also be evaluated when deciding whether to prototype. Systems that exist in a changing environment are good candidates for prototyping. Help Paul and Ceil understand that their system can be successfully developed without a prototype. Tell them that prototyping is not necessary and would only slow down the whole project. Additionally, it would cost much more to prototype. The students should write a letter to this effect. Consulting Opportunity 6.2 (p. 160) Clearing the Way for Customer Links The problem of designing a Web site for sale items lends itself well to either the patched-up prototype or the nonoperational prototype, but not to the first-of-a-series prototype or the selected features prototype. The patched-up prototype would be useful because the system could be put together and used, and then modified without all the final features that would make it efficient, such as fast loading graphics or efficient data storage. The prototype could be modified and different combinations of Web elements could be experimented with. The nonoperational prototype would also be useful to elicit feedback but without building the necessary database behind the Web site. The advantage of this type of prototype is the simplicity of creating the Web pages but without the complex coding required to maintain the Order and Customer databases. The first-of-a-series prototype creates a full-scale model of the system, which would be replicated at different locations, which is unnecessary on the Web. The selected features prototype may not be the best choice, because the full set of linked Web pages needs to be prototyped. Consulting Opportunity 6.3 (p. 161)
- 9. Chapter 6 Systems Analysis and Design Instructor’s Manual 6-5 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall To Hatch a Fish As a fourth member, I would point out the importance of building the prototyping rapidly. One of the main purposes of a prototype is that it enables users to see and use the system early in the system life cycle instead of waiting for a finished system to gain hands-on experience. Sam must be egged on: no extra features should be added to the hatchery system before giving it to the managers to experience. Getting early feedback allows successive iterations to more nearly approach user requirements. This iterative procedure will gain more user involvement and feedback early in the development, therefore more acceptance. On the other hand, if the prototype is delayed and cannot meet the deadline, users may become discouraged. They may lose faith in the systems analyst. However, there is one tradeoff: the managers may expect something more than just a basic system as a prototype. Consulting Opportunity 6.4 (p. 162) This Prototype Is All Wet Based on Sandy’s observation of Will’s reactions to the output, the following changes should be considered: (1) The formats of the output must be flexible enough to accommodate the needs of individual users. The current system is unwieldy. Users are not receiving the right kinds of information. (2) Routing of the outputs should be improved. To calm Lather’s fears about having the prototype “taken away,” explain that a prototype is not a finished product. On the contrary, it is an opportunity for users to experiment with it and suggest changes to meet their needs better. It is necessary to communicate the purpose of prototyping to users to prepare them for its evolutionary use before it is tried. Users should understand that prototyping is only valuable when users are honestly involved and that changes are a part of the prototyping process. Lather should be convinced that he should not accept something less than what is needed. HyperCase Experience 6 1. Make a list of the user stories Contessa Silverstone shared as examples. “Instructors enter hours that they have worked and per diem expenses from a remote training site.” “A training project, along with its milestones and tasks, may be initiated from any location.” “When a new project that is not a training project has been added, the Training Unit will receive notification of the new project, including contact details.” 2. Locate the prototype currently proposed for use in one of MRE’s departments. Suggest a few modifications that would make this prototype even more responsive to the unit’s needs. Snowden Evans’ office
- 10. Chapter 6 Agile Modeling and Prototyping 6-6 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall The prototypes currently proposed for use in one of MRE’s departments is located on the computer in Snowden Evans’ office. The prototype contains a main menu and menus for editing project information, performing queries, and for reports. The following options are available: Edit Menu Query Menu Report Menu Edit Project/Milestones Edit Milestones/Tasks Edit Projects Edit Milestones Edit Tasks Edit Assignments Edit Requirements Edit Resources Edit Leaders Query Projects and Milestones Query Requirements Query Milestones and Tasks Query Resources Query Tasks Query Leaders Query Assignments Schedule Report Budget Report The prototypes could be improved by the following (note that you or the students may find other ways to improve them): A. When a number has been entered, such as a project number, a matching description should be displayed (not entered). One example is the Project Number entered on the Edit Milestones screen. It may be the wrong number and the user would not be aware of this. The Project Description should display, not be entered, next to the number. The Leader Name on the Edit Milestones screen should also be displayed. B. There should be some extra buttons on the edit screens, such as Undo and Help. C. There is missing information on some of the screens. Students would realize this only after showing the screens to users and receiving feedback from them. The repository information (data dictionary entries, Chapter 10) contains additional fields for many of the screens. D. Provide units of measure for important fields. An example would be the Assignment Scheduled Duration on the Edit Assignments screen. Is the time entered in hours or days? Are dates in MM/DD/YYYY format or a different format? E. Provide formatting characters when appropriate, such as slashes in date fields. F. Examine which fields should be converted into buttons, check boxes, or pull-down lists. For example, instead of entering a Project Number on the Edit Milestones screen, have the user select the project from a pull-down list. G. Examine the alignment of fields and captions. Is it aesthetically pleasing? H. Clarify the meaning of data displayed on query screens by changing codes to meanings. An example can be found on the Query Resources screen. The Resource Basis is displayed as a code, not the code meaning. I. Examine the alignment of fields on reports. Should the style of the report change to
- 11. Chapter 6 Systems Analysis and Design Instructor’s Manual 6-7 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall replace the caption on the left of the field with columns? Kathy Blandford’s office The Client Project Information prototype A. Might include percent complete for tasks and milestones. B. It might be useful to have a drop-down list of projects for the client. Thomas Ketcham’s office The Client Project Status Report A. Might include the percent complete for tasks and milestones. Resource Project/Task Hours report A. Increase the size of the Task Description field. B. Move the Hours and Date field closer to the Task Description. Roger Rabin’s office Employee Task Assignments A. Might include telephone number and email address for the resource. B. Because the information is viewed by either project or task priority, one of these elements should be moved to the left of the display. Todd Taylor’s office Add Client A. Country should be a drop-down list. B. The Leader Name should be a drop-down list. Add New Project A. Put lines around groups of radio buttons. B. Include a caption for the business area (Training, Engineering, and so on). C. Include the Leader Name as well as the Leader Number. D. Leader Name should be in a drop-down list. E. Priority Code should be a drop-down list.
- 12. Chapter 6 Agile Modeling and Prototyping 6-8 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall F. Client Name should be a drop-down list. Add Project Milestone The question to ask for this Web form is how to handle multiple milestones. Should they all be added at one time, or should each milestone be added and then add all the tasks for the milestone. New Task Information A. Because the milestone is being added, should the Task Actual Start Date and Task Completion Date fields be on this Web form? B. Should Precedent Task and Requirement Description be drop-down lists? 3. Using a word processor, construct a nonoperational prototype for a Training Unit Project Reporting System. Include features brought up by the user stories you found. Hint: See sample screens in Chapters 11 and 12 to help you in your design. The prototype created will vary from student to student (or from team to team). Have the students refer to Chapters 8, 15, and 16 for the appropriate material. Suggestions are: A. Project History Report, presenting summary information about the project. B. Project budget or time exception report, this would list all projects over budget or behind schedule. C. Project Resource Query, where a resource person’s number is entered and the amount of time allocated for the person displays. D. Project progress query, listing the point that the project is currently at, along with milestones already accomplished. Answers to Review Questions 1. What four kinds of information is the analyst seeking through prototyping? Four kinds of information sought through prototyping are: a. Initial reaction of users and management to the prototype b. User suggestions about changing the prototyped system c. Possible innovations for the prototype d. Revision plans for which parts of the system need to be done first, or which branches of an organization to prototype next 2. What is meant by the term patched-up prototype? A “patched-up prototype” is a working system whose components and interfaces are patched together. This prototype may be inefficient, or it may contain only basic features. 3. Define a prototype that is a nonworking scale model.
- 13. Chapter 6 Systems Analysis and Design Instructor’s Manual 6-9 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall A prototype that is a “nonworking scale model” is one which is not operational, except for certain features to be tested. 4. Give an example of a prototype that is a first full-scale model. An example of a “first full-scale model” is a system to be installed in one location, tested and modified as necessary, and later implemented in other locations. 5. Define what is meant by a prototype that is a model with some, but not all, essential features. A prototype with some essential features is a working prototype that contains only a few important features. With the acceptance of these features, later essential features are added in a modular fashion. 6. List the advantages and disadvantages of using prototyping to replace the traditional systems development life cycle. The advantages of using prototyping to replace the traditional systems development life cycle are that it can reduce development time and cost, it can more easily handle changing user requirements, and it helps users more fully understand what their requirements are. Disadvantages of prototyping include the possibility of a system being developed before it is thoroughly understood, and the possibility that a system accepted by a specific group of users may not be acceptable to all users. 7. Describe how prototyping can be used to augment the traditional systems development life cycle. Prototyping can be used to augment the traditional systems development life cycle by actively bringing users into the requirements determination through the use of a prototype. Instead of accomplishing the SDLC and prototyping in discrete steps, each phase goes through several iterations until the analyst and users agree that the system is complete. 8. What are the criteria for deciding whether a system should be prototyped? Criteria for deciding whether a proposed system should be prototyped include: novel and complex systems, which are addressing unstructured or semi-structured problems in a nontraditional way; also, systems for which the environment changes rapidly are good candidates. 9. List four guidelines the analyst should observe in developing a prototype. Four guidelines to observe in developing a prototype are: (a) work in manageable modules, (b) build the prototype rapidly, (c) modify the prototype in successive iterations, and (d) stress the user interface. 10. What are the two main problems identified with prototyping? The two main problems with prototyping are (a) the difficulty of managing prototyping as a project within the larger systems effort and (b) users and analysts may adopt an inadequate prototype as a completed system.
- 14. Chapter 6 Agile Modeling and Prototyping 6-10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 11. List the three main advantages in using prototyping. The three advantages of prototyping are: (a) the potential for changing the system early in its development, (b) the opportunity to stop development on a system that is not working, and (c) the possibility of developing a system that more closely addresses users’ needs and expectations. 12. How can a prototype mounted on an interactive Web site facilitate the prototyping process? Answer in a paragraph. Prototyping on the Web can help to facilitate the prototyping process by allowing users at a distance to review the prototype and send comments, using a link to a feedback page, to the analyst. It also allows users to review the prototype when they have time, and on any machine that has Internet capabilities. An additional benefit is that the analyst does not have to install the software on the user’s computer. 13. What are three ways that a user can be of help in the prototyping process? Three ways a user can be of help in prototyping are: (a) experimenting with the prototype, (b) giving open reactions to the prototype, and (c) suggesting additions and/or deletions to the prototype. 14. Define what is meant by RAD. RAD, or rapid application development, is an object-oriented approach to systems development that includes a method of development as well as software tools. 15. What are the three phases of RAD? The three phases of RAD are (a) requirements planning phase, (b) RAD design workshop, and (c) the implementation phase. 16. What are the four values that must be shared by the development team and business customers when taking an agile approach? The four values shared by the development team and business customers that are important when using an agile approach are: a. Communication b. Simplicity c. Feedback d. Courage 17. What are agile principles Give five examples. The five basic principles of the agile approach are (note, examples will vary greatly from student to student): a. Provide rapid feedback. Example: having an onsite customer review the prototype. b. Assume simplicity. Example: start with a simple part of the system, perhaps a query. c. Change incrementally. Example: Use feedback to change a small part of the system and get more feedback.
- 15. Chapter 6 Systems Analysis and Design Instructor’s Manual 6-11 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall d. Embrace change. Example: be open to change and have courage to change based on feedback. e. Encourage quality work. Example: be thorough in the code for the prototype, with attention to detail and aesthetics. 18. What are the four core practices of the agile approach? The four core practices in the agile approach are: a. A short release time b. Working a 40-hour week c. Having an onsite customer d. Pair programming 19. Name the four resource control variables used in the agile approach. The four resource control variables are: a. Time b. Cost c. Quality d. Scope 20. Outline the typical steps in an agile development episode. The typical steps are: a. Scrutinize a user story card, perhaps consulting with an onsite expert. b. Consult the existing group of test cases. c. Write down the next task on the to-do list. d. Write a test case for the things that you are trying to find out. e. Finish and run the test case. f. Debug the test case. g. Move to the next test case. h. Move to the next item on the to-do list. i. Load the updated release and the changes. j. Debug and fix the code. k. Rerun until it works. l. Release the code. 21. What is a user story? Is it primarily written or spoken? State your choice, then defend your answer with an example. User stories are a dialogue between developers and users. They are written stories. Examples will vary depending on the student experience. The chapter has a shopping example. 22. List software tools that can aid the developer in doing a variety of tests of code. Software testing tools may include: JUnit
- 16. Chapter 6 Agile Modeling and Prototyping 6-12 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall ComUnit VBUnit Nunit HttpUnit Rational Visual Test Tools 23. What is Scrum? Scrum is an agile approach that has a teamwork focus. The project leader has some influence on detail, but not much. The systems team works within a strict time frame. 24. Name the seven strategies for improving efficiency in knowledge work. a. Reduce interface time and errors. b. Reduce process learning time and dual processing losses. c. Reduce time and effort to structure tasks and format outputs. d. Reduce nonproductive expansion of work. e. Reduce data and knowledge search and storage time and costs. f. Reduce communication and coordination time and costs. g. Reduce losses from human information overload. 25. Identify six risks in adopting organizational innovation. Risks of adopting organizational innovation are: a. The type of organizational culture b. The timing or when to innovate with the adoption of new systems development methodologies c. The cost involved in education and training of systems analysts and programmers d. Client reactions to the system development efforts e. How to measure impact of the new methods f. Considering the individual rights of the programmers and analysts Problems 1. As part of a larger systems project, Clone Bank of Clone, Colorado, wants your help in setting up a new monthly reporting form for its checking and savings account customers. The president and vice presidents are very attuned to what customers in the community are saying. They think that their customers want a checking account summary that looks like the one offered by the other three banks in town. They are unwilling, however, to commit to that form without a formal summary of customer feedback that supports their decision. Feedback will not be used to change the prototype form in any way. They want you to send a prototype of one form to one group and to send the old form to another group. a. In a paragraph discuss why it probably is not worthwhile to prototype the new form under these circumstances. b. In a second paragraph discuss a situation under which it would be advisable to prototype a new form. a. It is not worthwhile to prototype the new form, because the purpose of a prototype is to provide users the opportunity to suggest improvements and innovations. The bank, on the
- 17. Chapter 6 Systems Analysis and Design Instructor’s Manual 6-13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall other hand, is not interested in changing the form. The bank’s approach to determining the form is a plausible strategy, but it is not a prototype. b. Only if the bank is interested in user input in designing the form would prototyping be a viable alternative. 2. C. N. Itall has been a systems analyst for Tun-L-Vision Corporation for many years. When you came on board as part of the systems analysis team and suggested prototyping as part of the SDLC for a current project, C. N. said, “Sure, but you can’t pay any attention to what users say. They have no idea what they want. I’ll prototype, but I’m not ‘observing’ any users.” a. As tactfully as possible, so as not to upset C. N. Itall, make a list of the reasons that support the importance of observing user reactions, suggestions, and innovations in the prototyping process. b. In a paragraph, describe what might happen if part of a system is prototyped and no user feedback about it is incorporated into the successive system. a. The following is a list of reasons why prototyping is important: 1. Through gathering reactions of users about the prototype, many perspectives about the system will be obtained, including whether there will be difficulty in selling or implementing it. 2. Suggestions from users can point out the ways of refining the prototype, changing it, or “cleaning it up” so that it better fits users’ needs. 3. Innovations that have not been thought of prior to interaction with the prototype can add new features to the current one. 4. Prototyping helps to preview the future system and helps to identify priorities for what should be prototyped next. This approach will help set priorities and in turn redirect plans inexpensively, with a minimum of disruption. b. If no user feedback is incorporated into the successive system, user needs will not be adequately addressed. In addition, users will think that their suggestions were not considered. They will not be as helpful in the future. 3. “Every time I think I’ve captured user information requirements, they’ve already changed. It’s like trying to hit a moving target. Half the time, I don’t think they even know what they want themselves,” exclaims Flo Chart, a systems analyst for 2 Good 2 Be True, a company that surveys product use for the marketing divisions of several manufacturing companies. a. In a paragraph, explain to Flo Chart how prototyping can help her to better define users’ information requirements. b. In a paragraph, comment on Flo’s observation: “Half the time, I don’t think they even know what they want themselves.” Be sure to explain how prototyping can actually help users better understand and articulate their own information requirements. c. Suggest how an interactive Web site featuring a prototype might address Flo’s concerns about capturing user information requirements. Use a paragraph. a. Prototyping of information systems is a worthwhile technique for quickly gathering specific information about users’ information requirements. It is a way to get beyond just verbally characterizing user information needs.
- 18. Chapter 6 Agile Modeling and Prototyping 6-14 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall Systems analysts obtain initial reactions from users and management; user suggestions about changing the prototype or cleaning it up are obtained; innovations may be suggested; and revision plans for which parts of the systems are to be done first, or which branches of an organization to prototype next, can be made. b. When incorporated into the systems development life cycle, prototyping allows the analyst to bring the user into requirement determination. Users will be able to articulate needs that could not have been articulated without the presence of a prototype. Prototyping allows the user to experience the system, and not rely solely on abstract verbalizing. c. An interactive Web site featuring a prototype would greatly assist defining the information requirements because the corporation surveys product use for several different manufacturing companies. The prototypes would be reviewed by each company, changes made, and reviewed again, until all companies agree on the final version. 4. Harold, a district manager for the multioutlet chain of Sprocket’s Gifts, thinks that building a prototype can mean only one thing: a nonworking scale model. He also believes that this way is too cumbersome to prototype information systems and thus is reluctant to do so. a. Briefly (in two or three paragraphs) compare and contrast the other three kinds of prototyping that are possible so that Harold has an understanding of what prototyping can mean. b. Harold has an option of implementing one system, trying it, and then having it installed in five other Sprocket locations if it is successful. Name a type of prototyping that would fit well with this approach, and in a paragraph defend your choice. a. Prototyping means more than just a nonworking scale model. It is also defined as constructing a patch-up prototype; it can either be a working model which has all necessary features, but is not efficient; or a basic model that will eventually be enhanced. Another type of prototype is a full-scale model that is fully operational, used most commonly in situations where several similar information systems are planned. Yet another conception of a prototype is as a model of a system that has some, but not all, of the essential system features. This prototype uses self-contained modules as building blocks, so that if prototyped features are successful, they can be kept and incorporated into larger, finished systems. b. A full-scale model would be a good prototype to be used. This approach will allow realistic interaction with the system, yet minimize the cost of overcoming any problems that may surface with the new system before implementing it in all locations. 5. “I’ve got the idea of the century!” proclaims Bea Kwicke, a new systems analyst with your systems group. “Let’s skip all this SDLC garbage and just prototype everything. Our projects will go a lot more quickly, we’ll save time and money, and all the users will feel as if we’re paying attention to them instead of going away for months on end and not talking to them.” a. List the reasons you (as a member of the same team as Bea) would give her to dissuade her from trying to scrap the SDLC and prototype every project. b. Bea is pretty disappointed with what you have said. To encourage her, use a paragraph to explain the situations you think would lend themselves to prototyping.
- 19. Chapter 6 Systems Analysis and Design Instructor’s Manual 6-15 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall a. The SDLC should not be scrapped for every project because some systems may be prematurely shaped before the problem or opportunity being addressed is thoroughly understood. Also, using prototyping as an alternative may result in using a system that is accepted by specific group of users but which is inadequate for overall system needs. In many situations, prototyping can be successfully integrated with the SDLC approach. For well-understood systems, a straight SDLC approach has proven its worth. b. In novel or complex situations, prototyping is an ideal mechanism for better understanding user requirements, and for obtaining user feedback to improve system effectiveness. In addition, prototyping has proven useful when incorporated into the SDLC. This integration is particularly useful in better ascertaining user needs. 6. The following remark was overheard at a meeting between managers and a systems analysis team at the Fence-Me-In fencing company: “You told us the prototype would be finished three weeks ago. We’re still waiting for it!” a. In a paragraph, comment on the importance of rapid delivery of a portion of a prototyped information system. b. List three elements of the prototyping process that must be controlled to ensure prompt delivery of the prototype. c. What are some elements of the prototyping process that are difficult to manage? List them. a. Rapid delivery of the prototype is an essential feature of the development strategy. Rapid delivery ensures rapid incorporation of evolving user needs. Furthermore, rapid delivery strengthens the psychological contract between analysts and users. Without rapid delivery, users remain “fenced in” to the shortcomings of traditional development strategy. b. To ensure prompt delivery of the prototype, it should be decomposed into manageable modules; interaction with users must be maintained; and modifications of the prototype must be controlled. c. Several elements are difficult to control in prototyping. These elements are associated with managing the prototype as part of a larger systems development effort. They include: (1) the tendency to extend prototype development indefinitely (or conversely, to accept the prototype as a finished system), and (2) managing feedback—collecting it periodically, analyzing it, interpreting it, and using it. 7. Prepare a list of activities for a systems development team for an online travel agent that is setting up a Web site for customers. Now suppose you are running out of time. Describe some of your options. Describe what you will trade off to get the Web site released in time. The activities might be: a. Determine the travel dates. b. List the flights. c. Offer cheaper alternatives and a way of reducing the cost. d. Purchase a ticket. e. Select a seat. f. Choose other options, such as a specific type of meal or special needs.
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- 21. said, ‘We will be God’s helpers! We believe in God, and bear thou witness that we are Muslims. O our Lord! we believe in what thou hast sent down, and we follow the apostle; write us up, then, with those who bear witness to him.’” [The commentators al-Jalālān say Jesus made for his disciples a bat, for it is the most perfect of birds in make, and it flew while they looked at it; but when it had gone out of their sight, it fell down dead. That he cured in one day fifty thousand persons, and that he raised Lazarus (ʿĀzar) from the dead; also Shem, the son of Noah, who had been dead 4,000 years, but he died immediately; also the son of an old woman, and the daughter of a tax- collector.] Sūrah v. 112–115 : “Remember when the Apostles said: ‘O Jesus, Son of Mary! is thy Lord able to send down a furnished table to us out of Heaven?’ He said: ‘Fear God if ye be believers.’ They said: ‘We desire to eat therefrom, and to have our hearts assured; and to know that thou hast indeed spoken truth to us, and to be witnesses thereof.’ Jesus, Son of Mary, said: ‘O God, our Lord! send down a table to us out of Heaven, that it may become a recurring festival to us, to the first of us and to the last of us, and a sign from thee; and do thou nourish us, for thou art the best of nourishers.’ And God said: ‘Verily, I will cause it to descend unto you; but whoever among you after that shall disbelieve, I will surely chastise him with a chastisement wherewith I will not chastise any other creature.’” [Mr. Sale, in his commentary on this miracle, says (quoting from al- Baiẓāwī):—“This miracle is thus related by the commentators. Jesus having, at the request of his followers, asked it of God, a red table immediately descended in their sight, between two clouds, and was set before them. Whereupon he rose up, and having made the ablution, prayed, and then took off the cloth which covered the table, saying, ‘In the name of God, the best provider of food!’ What the provisions were, with which this table was furnished, is a matter wherein the expositors are not agreed. One will have them to be nine cakes of bread and nine fishes; another, bread and flesh; another, all sorts of food, except flesh; another, all sorts of food, except bread and flesh; another, all except bread and fish; another, one fish,
- 22. which had the taste of all manner of food; and another, fruits of paradise; but the most received tradition is, that when the table was uncovered, there appeared a fish ready dressed, without scales or prickly fins, dropping with fat, having salt placed at its head, and vinegar at its tail, and round it all sorts of herbs, except leeks, and five loaves of bread, on one of which there were olives; on the second, honey; on the third, butter; on the fourth, cheese; and on the fifth, dried flesh. They add, that Jesus, at the request of the apostles, showed them another miracle, by restoring the fish to life, and causing its scales and fins to return to it; at which the standers-by, being affrighted, he caused it to become as it was before: that one thousand three hundred men and women, all afflicted with bodily infirmities or poverty, ate of these provisions, and were satisfied, the fish remaining whole as it was at first; that then the table flew up to heaven in the sight of all; and everyone who had partaken of this food were delivered from their infirmities and misfortunes; and that it continued to descend for forty days together, at dinner-time, and stood on the ground till the sun declined, and was then taken up into the clouds. Some of the Mohammedan writers are of opinion that this table did not really descend, but that it was only a parable; but most think the words of the Koran are plain to the contrary. A further tradition is, that several men were changed into swine for disbelieving this miracle, and attributing it to magic art; or, as others pretend, for stealing some of the victuals from off it.”] IV.—The Mission of Jesus. Sūrah lvii. 26, 27 : “And of old sent we Noah and Abraham, and on their seed conferred the gift of prophecy, and the Book; and some of them we guided aright; but many were evil doers. Then we caused our apostles to follow in their footsteps; and we caused Jesus the son of Mary to follow them; and we gave him the Evangel and we put into the hearts of those who followed him kindness and compassion: but as to the monastic life, they invented it themselves. The desire only of pleasing God did we prescribe to them, and this they observed not as it ought to have been observed: but to
- 23. such of them as believed gave we their reward, though many of them were perverse.” Sūrah v. 50, 51 : “And in the footsteps of the prophets caused we Jesus, the son of Mary, to follow, confirming the law which was before him: and we gave him the Evangel with its guidance and light, confirmatory of the preceding Law; a guidance and warning to those who fear God;—And that the people of the Evangel may judge according to what God hath sent down therein. And whoso will not judge by what God hath sent down—such are the perverse.” Sūrah ii. 81 : “Moreover, to Moses gave we ‘the Book,’ and we raised up apostles after him; and to Jesus, son of Mary, gave we clear proofs of his mission, and strengthened him by the Holy Spirit. So oft then as an apostle cometh to you with that which your souls desire not, swell ye with pride, and treat some as impostors, and slay others?” Sūrah ii. 254 : “Some of the apostles we have endowed more highly than others: Those to whom God hath spoken, He hath raised to the loftiest grade, and to Jesus the Son of Mary we gave manifest signs, and we strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. And if God had pleased, they who came after them would not have wrangled, after the clear signs had reached them. But into disputes they fell: some of them believed, and some were infidels; yet if God had pleased, they would not have thus wrangled: but God doth what he will.” Sūrah lxi. 6 : “And remember when Jesus the son of Mary said, ‘O children of Israel! of a truth I am God’s apostle to you to confirm the law which was given before me, and to announce an apostle that shall come after me whose name shall be Aḥmad!’ But when he (Aḥmad) presented himself with clear proofs of his mission, they said, ‘This is manifest sorcery!’” Sūrah vi. 85 : “And Zachariah, John, Jesus, and Elias: all were just persons.”
- 24. Sūrah iv. 157 : “And there shall not be one of the people of the Book but shall believe in him (Jesus) before his death, and in the day of judgment he shall be a witness against them.” Sūrah iii. 44 : “And I have come to attest the law which was before me; and to allow you part of that which had been forbidden you; and I come to you with a sign from your Lord: Fear God, then, and obey me; of a truth God is my Lord, and your Lord: Therefore worship Him. This is a right way.” V.—The Crucifixion of Jesus. Sūrah iii. 47–50 : “And the Jews plotted, and God plotted: But of those who plot is God the best. Remember when God said, ‘O Jesus! verily I will cause thee to die, and will take thee up to myself and deliver thee from those who believe not; and I will place those who follow thee above those who believe not, until the Day of Resurrection. Then, to me is your return, and wherein ye differ will I decide between you. And as to those who believe not, I will chastise them with a terrible chastisement in this world and in the next; and none shall they have to help them.’ But as to those who believe, and do the things that are right, He will pay them their recompense. God loveth not the doers of evil.” Sūrah iv. 155, 156 : “And for their unbelief [are the Jews cursed]—and for their having spoken against Mary a grievous calumny,—And for their saying, ‘Verily we have slain the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, an Apostle of God.’Yet they slew him not, and they crucified him not, but they had only his likeness. And they who differed about him were in doubt concerning him: No sure knowledge had they about him, but followed only an opinion, and they really did not slay him, but God took him up to Himself. And God is Mighty, Wise!”
- 25. [Sale, in his notes on the Qurʾān, says: “The person crucified some will have to be a spy that was sent to entrap him; others that it was one Titian, who by the direction of Judas entered in at a window of the house where Jesus was, to kill him; and others that it was Judas himself, who agreed with the rulers of the Jews to betray him for thirty pieces of silver, and led those who were sent to take him. They add, that Jesus, after his crucifixion in effigy, was sent down again to the earth to comfort his mother and disciples and acquaint them how the Jews were deceived, and was then taken up a second time into heaven. It is supposed by several that this story was an original invention of Moḥammad’s; but they are certainly mistaken: for several sectaries held the same opinion long before his time. The Basilidians, in the very beginning of Christianity, denied that Christ himself suffered, but [asserted] that Simon the Cirenean was crucified in his place. The Corinthians before them, and the Carpocratians next (to name no more of those who affirmed Jesus to have been a mere man), did believe the same thing, that it was not himself, but one of his followers, very like him, that was crucified. Photius tells us that he read a book entitled The Journeys of the Apostles, relating the acts of Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas, and Paul; and among other things contained therein this was one, that Christ was not crucified, but another in his stead, and that therefore he laughed at his crucifiers, or those who thought they had crucified him.” The “Cross of Christ” is the missing link in the Muslim’s creed; for we have in Islām the great anomaly of a religion which rejects the doctrine of a sacrifice for sin, whilst its great central feast is a Feast of Sacrifice. It is related by the Muslim historian al-Wāqidī, that Muḥammad had such repugnance to the sign of the cross that he destroyed everything brought to his house with that figure upon it.] VI.—Divinity and Sonship of Christ, and His Sinlessness. Sūrah xix. 35, 36 : “That is Jesus the son of Mary, the word of truth (Qaulu ʾl-Ḥaqq), whereon ye do dispute! God could not take to Himself a son! Celebrated be His praise! When He decrees a matter He only says to it,
- 26. ‘BE,’ and it is; and verily God is my Lord and your Lord, so worship Him: this is the right way. But the sects have differed among themselves.” Sūrah iii. 51, 52 : “These signs, and this wise warning do we rehearse to thee. Verily, Jesus is as Adam in the sight of God. He created Him of dust: He then said to him, ‘Be’—and he was.” Sūrah xliii. 57–65 : “And when the Son of Mary was set forth as an instance of divine power, lo! thy people cried out for joy thereat: And they said, ‘Are our gods or is he the better?’ They put this forth to thee only in the spirit of dispute. Yea, they are a contentious people. Jesus is no more than a servant whom we favoured, and proposed as an instance of divine power to the children of Israel; and if we pleased, we could from yourselves bring forth Angels to succeed you on earth: and he shall be a sign of the last hour; doubt not then of it, and follow ye me: this is the right way; and let not Satan turn you aside from it, for he is your manifest foe. And when Jesus came with manifest proofs, he said, ‘Now am I come to you with wisdom; and a part of those things about which ye are at variance I will clear up to you; fear ye God, therefore, and obey me. Verily, God is my Lord and your Lord; wherefore, worship ye him: this is a right way.’ But the different parties fell into disputes among themselves; but woe to those who thus transgressed, because of the punishment of an afflictive day!” Sūrah ix. 30 : “The Jews say Ezra is the Son of God; and the Christians say that the Messiah is the Son of God; that is what they say with their mouths imitating the sayings of those who misbelieved before—God fight them!— How they lie!” Sūrah iii. 72, 73 : “And some truly are there among them who torture the Scriptures with their tongues, in order that ye may suppose it to be from the Scripture, yet it is not from the Scripture. And they say, ‘This is from God’; yet it is not from God: and they utter a lie against God, and they know they do so. It beseemeth not a man, that God should give him the Scriptures and the Wisdom, and the gift of prophecy, and that then he should say to his followers, ‘Be ye worshippers of me, as well as of God’; but rather, ‘Be ye
- 27. perfect in things pertaining to God, since ye know the Scriptures, and have studied deep.’” Sūrah v. 19 : “Infidels now are they who say, ‘Verily God is the Messiah Ibn Maryam (son of Mary)! Say: And who could aught obtain from God, if he chose to destroy the Messiah Ibn Maryam, and his mother, and all who are on the earth together?’” There is a remarkable Ḥadīs̤ related by Anas, which inadvertently proves that, whilst Muḥammad admitted his own sinfulness, as well as that of other prophets, he could not charge our Lord with sin. It is as follows: “The Prophet of God said, ‘In the Day of Resurrection Muslims will not be able to move, and they will be greatly distressed, and will say, “Would to God that we had asked Him to create some one to intercede for us, that we might be taken from this place, and be delivered from tribulation and sorrow?” Then these men will go to Adam, and will say, “Thou art the father of all men, God created thee with His hand, and made thee a dweller in Paradise, and ordered His angels to prostrate themselves before thee, and taught thee the names of all things. Ask grace for us we pray thee!” And Adam will say, “I am not of that degree of eminence you suppose, for I committed a sin in eating of the grain which was forbidden. Go to Noah, the Prophet, he was the first who was sent by God to the unbelievers on the face of the earth.” Then they will go to Noah and ask for intercession, and he will say, “I am not of that degree which ye suppose.” And he will remember the sin which he committed in asking the Lord for the deliverance of his son (Hūd), not knowing whether it was a right request or not; and he will say, “Go to Abraham, who is the Friend of God.” Then they will go to Abraham, and he will say, “I am not of that degree which ye suppose.” And he will remember the three occasions upon which he told lies in the world; and he will say, “Go to Moses, who is the servant to whom God gave His law, and whom He allowed to converse with Him.” And they will go to Moses, and Moses will say, “I am not of that degree which ye suppose.” And he will remember the sin which he committed in slaying a man, and he will say, “Go to Jesus, He is the servant of God, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of God, and the Word of God.” Then they will go to Jesus, and He will say, “Go to Muḥammad who is a servant, whose sins God has forgiven both first and
- 28. last.” Then the Muslims will come to me, and I will ask permission to go into God’s presence and intercede for them.’” (Mishkāt, book xxiii. ch. xii.) [In dealing with Muḥammadans the Christian missionary must not treat their system as though the teachings of Islām were precisely those of the modern Socinians (we speak of the modern Socinians, for both the Socini, uncle and nephew, admitted the miraculous conception of Christ, and said he ought to be worshipped). Islām admits of the miraculous conception of Christ, and that He is the “Word” which God “conveyed into Mary”; and whilst the other five great prophets are but “the chosen,” “the preacher,” “the friend,” “the converser with,” and “the messenger of” God, Jesus is admitted to be the “Spirit of God.” He is the greatest miracle worker of all the prophets; and whilst Muḥammad is dead and buried, and saw corruption, all Muslim divines admit that Jesus “saw no corruption,” and still lives with a human body in Paradise. Moreover, it is said in the Ḥadīs̤ that the Ḥaqīqatu ʾl-Muḥammadīyah or the Nūr-i-Muḥammad, “the essence, or light of Muḥammad,” was created before all things which were made by God. The pre-existence of the divine “Word which was made flesh and dwelt amongst us” is not, therefore, an idea foreign to the Muslim mind.] VII.—The Trinity. Sūrah v. 76–79 : “They misbelieve who say, ‘Verily, God is the Messiah, the son of Mary’; but the Messiah said, ‘O children of Israel! worship God, my Lord and your Lord; verily, he who associates aught with God, God hath forbidden him Paradise, and his resort is the Fire, and the unjust shall have none to help them.’ They misbelieve who say, ‘Verily, God is the third of three, for there is no God but one; and if they do not desist from what they say, there shall touch those who misbelieve amongst them grievous woe. Will they not turn again towards God and ask pardon of Him? for God is forgiving and merciful.’ The Messiah, the son of Mary, is only a prophet!
- 29. Prophets before him have passed away; and his mother was a confessor; they used both to eat food. See how we explain to them the signs, yet see how they turn aside!” Sūrah iv. 169 : “O ye people of the Book! overstep not bounds in your religion; and of God, speak only truth. The Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, is only an apostle of God, and His Word which he conveyed into Mary, and a Spirit from Him. Believe, therefore, in God and His apostles, and say not, ‘Three’: (i.e. there is a Trinity)—Forbear—it will be better for you. God is only one God! Far be it from His glory that He should have a son! His, whatever is in the Heavens, and whatever is in the Earth! And God is a sufficient Guardian.” Sūrah v. 116, 117 : “And when God shall say—‘O Jesus, Son of Mary: hast thou said unto mankind—“Take me and my mother as two Gods, beside God?”’ He shall say—‘Glory be unto Thee! it is not for me to say that which I know to be not the truth; had I said that, verily thou wouldest have known it: Thou knowest what is in me, but I know not what is in Thee; for Thou well knowest things unseen! I spake not to them aught but that which thou didst bid me—“Worship God, my Lord and your Lord”; and I was a witness against them so long as I was amongst them: but when Thou didst take me away to Thyself Thou wert the watcher over them, for Thou art witness over all.’” From the text of the Qurʾān it appears that Muḥammad thought the Holy Trinity of the Christians consisted of the Father, the Son, and the Virgin; and historians tell us that there existed in Arabia a sect called Collyridians, who considered the Virgin Mary a divine person, and offered in worship to her a cake called Collyris; it is, therefore, not improbable that Muḥammad obtained his perverted notion of the Holy Trinity from the existence of this sect. From the expression “they both ate food,” we must conclude that Muḥammad had but a sensuous idea of the Trinity in Unity, and had never been instructed in the orthodox faith with reference to this dogma. Al-Baiẓāwī (a.h. 685), in his commentary on Sūrah iv. 169 , says: “Say not there are Three,” that is, “Do not say there are three Gods,” namely, Allāh
- 30. and al-Masīḥ and Maryam; or “Do not say God is Three,” meaning that there are Three Aqānīm (اقانيم ) or Essences—Ab (Father), Ibn (Son), and Rūḥu ʾl-Quds (Holy Spirit), and interpreting it thus: Ab, the Ẕāt or Essence; Ibn, the ʿIlm or Knowledge; and Rūḥu ʾl-Quds, the Ḥayāt or Life of God. Ḥusain (a.h. 900) quotes al-Baiẓāwī, and offers no opinion of his own. The Jalālān (a.h. 911) say “Three” means Allāh and ʿĪsā and his Mother. The word generally used by Muḥammadan writers for the Trinity is at- Tas̤ līs̤ (التثليث ). [trinity.] VIII.—The Second Coming of Jesus. The Qurʾān has no definite teaching on the subject, but the Traditions have. (See Mishkātu ʾl-Maṣābīḥ, book xxiii. ch. vi.) Abū Hurairah relates that the Prophet said, “I swear by God, it is near, when Jesus, son of Mary, will descend from the heavens upon your people, a just king, and he will break the cross, and will kill the swine, and will remove the poll-tax from the unenfranchised; and there will be great wealth in his time, so much that nobody will accept of it; and in that time, one prostration in prayer will be better than the world and everything in it.” And Abū Hurairah said, “If ye doubt about this coming to pass, then read this verse (Sūrah iv. 157 ), and there shall not be one of those who have received the Scriptures who shall not believe in Him (Jesus) before His death.” Abū Hurairah again relates that the Prophet said, “I swear by God, Jesus son of Mary will come down, a just king; he will kill the swine, and break
- 31. the cross, and remove the poll-tax from the unenfranchised; and camels will not be rode in his time on account of the immensity of wealth, and man’s being in want of nothing; and verily enmity, hatred and malice will go from man; and verily, Jesus will call people to wealth, and nobody will take it.” Jābir relates that the Prophet said: “A section of my people will always fight for the true religion, and will be victorious, unto the resurrection. Then Jesus son of Mary will come down; and the prince of my people will say to him, ‘Come in front, and say prayers for us.’And he will say to him, ‘I shall not act as Imām, because some of you are princes over others.’And Jesus will say this from respect to my people.” ʿAbdu ʾllāh ibn ʿAmr relates that the Prophet said: “Jesus will come down to the earth, and will marry and have children, and will stay on the earth forty-five years, and then die, and be buried in my place of burial; and I and Jesus shall rise up from one place, between Abū-Bakr and ʿUmar.” [hujrah.] IX.—His Exaltation in Heaven. There is some difference of opinion as to where Jesus Christ now is. All Muslim divines agree that “he saw no corruption,” but they differ as to the exact stage of celestial bliss in which he resides in the body. According to a tradition by Qatādah (Mishkāt, book xxiv. ch. vii.), Muḥammad said, on the night of the Miʿrāj or celestial journey, he saw John and Jesus in the second heaven. The Jalālān agree with this tradition. But in the commentary known as the Jāmiʿu ʾl-Bayān (vol. i. 656) it is said he is in the third region of bliss; whilst some say he is in the fourth. X.—The Disciples of Jesus.
- 32. The disciples of Jesus are called in the Qurʾān al-Ḥawārīyūn, a word which seems to be derived from an Ethiopic root, signifying “to send,” but which al-Baiẓāwī says means “white ones,” and that it was given to the disciples of Jesus either because they were holy and sincere men or because they wore white clothes. It is noticeable that not one of the twelve apostles is mentioned by name in the Qurʾān. In the story told of disciples visiting the city (of Antioch), three disciples are mentioned, and commentators say they were John, Jude and Simon. [See Sūrah xxxvi. 13, 19 —habib the carpenter.] John the Baptist and his father Zacharias are mentioned. (Sūrahs xix. 7 , xxi. 90 .) JETHRO. [shuʿaib.] JEWELS. Arabic Jauhar (جوهر ), pl. Jawāhir. According to the Hidāyah a thief is liable to suffer amputation of the hand for stealing jewels, such as a ring set with emerald, ruby, or chrysolite, as such are rare articles, and are not held to be of an indifferent nature, neither are they undesirable. (Vol. ii. p. 93.) A sillim sale [sillim], or a sale in trust, of jewels and marine shells, is not lawful, because the unities of these vary in their value. (Vol. ii. p. 539.) In the partition of property, jewels must not be divided by the Qāẓī, but by mutual arrangement in the family, because of the great difference in the actual value of jewels. (Vol. iv. 13.) JEWS, JUDAISM. The Jews are mentioned in the Qurʾān and Traditions under the names of Yahūdī (يهودى ), pl. Yahūd, and Banū Isrāʾīl (بنو
- 33. اسرائيل ), “Children of Israel.” No distinction is made between Jews and Israelites. They are acknowledged to be a people in possession of a divine book, and are called Ahlu ʾl-Kitāb, or “people of the book.” Moses is their special law-giver (Abraham not having been a Jew, but a “Ḥanīf Muslim”); they are a people highly-favoured of God, but are said to have perverted the meaning of Scripture, and to have called Ezra “the Son of God.” They have an intense hatred of all true Muslims; and, as a punishment for their sins, some of them in times past had been changed into apes and swine, and others will have their hands tied to their necks and be cast into the Fire at the Day of Judgment. The following are the selections from the Qurʾān relating to the Jews:— Sūrah ii. 116 : “O children of Israel! remember my favour wherewith I have favoured you, and that high above all mankind have I raised you.” Sūrah v. 48, 49 : “Verily, we have sent down the law (Taurāt) wherein are guidance and light. By it did the prophets who professed Islām judge the Jews; and the doctors and the teachers judged by that portion of the Book of God, of which they were the keepers and the witnesses. Therefore, O Jews! fear not men but fear Me; and barter not away my signs for a mean price! And whoso will not judge by what God hath sent down—such are the Infidels. And therein have we enacted for them, ‘Life for life, an eye for eye, and nose for nose, and ear for ear, and tooth for tooth, and for wounds retaliation’:—Whoso shall compromise it as alms shall have therein the expiation of his sin; and whoso will not judge by what God hath sent down —such are the transgressors.” Sūrah iii. 60 : “Abraham was not a Jew, nor yet a Christian. He was a Ḥanīf Muslim, and not an idolater.” Sūrah ix. 30 : “The Jews say, ‘Ezra (ʿUzair) is a son of God’; and the Christians say, ‘The Messiah is a son of God.’ Such the saying in their mouths! They resemble the saying of the Infidels of old! God do battle with them! How are they misguided!”
- 34. Sūrah vi. 147 : “To the Jews did we forbid every beast having an entire hoof, and of both bullocks and sheep we forbade them the fat, save what might be on their backs, or their entrails, and the fat attached to the bone. With this have we recompensed them, because of their transgression: and verily, we are indeed equitable.” Sūrah iv. 48, 49 : “Among the Jews are those who displace the words of their Scriptures, and say, ‘We have heard, and we have not obeyed. Hear thou, but as one that heareth not; and look at us’; perplexing with their tongues, and wounding the Faith by their revilings. But if they would say, ‘We have heard, and we obey; hear thou, and regard us’; it were better for them, and more right. But God hath cursed them for their unbelief. Few only of them are believers!” Sūrah ii. 70–73 : “Desire ye then that for your sakes the Jews should believe? Yet a part of them heard the word of God, and then, after they had understood it, perverted it, and knew that they did so. And when they fall in with the faithful, they say, ‘We believe’; but when they are apart one with another, they say, ‘Will ye acquaint them with what God hath revealed to you, that they may dispute with you about it in the presence of your Lord?’ Understand ye their aim? Know they not that God knoweth what they hide, as well as what they bring to light? But there are illiterates among them who are not acquainted with the Book, but with lies only, and have but vague fancies. Woe to those who with their own hands transcribe the Book corruptly, and then say, ‘This is from God,’ that they may sell it for some mean price! Woe then to them for that which their hands have written! and, Woe to them for the gains which they have made!” Sūrah v. 64–69 : “Say: O people of the Book! do ye not disavow us only because we believe in God, and in what He hath sent down to us, and in what He hath sent down aforetime, and because most of you are doers of ill? Say: Can I announce to you any retribution worse than that which awaiteth them with God? They whom God hath cursed and with whom He hath been angry—some of them hath He changed into apes and swine; and they who worship T̤ āg͟ hūt are in evil plight, and have gone far astray from the right path! When they presented themselves to you they said, ‘We
- 35. believe’; but Infidels they came in unto you, and Infidels they went forth! God well knew what they concealed. Many of them shalt thou see hastening together to wickedness and malice, and to eat unlawful things. Shame on them for what they have done! Had not their doctors and teachers forbidden their uttering wickedness, and their eating unlawful food, bad indeed would have been their doings! ‘The hand of God,’ say the Jews, ‘is chained up.’ Their own hands shall be chained up—and for that which they have said shall they be cursed. Nay! outstretched are both His hands! At His own pleasure does He bestow gifts. That which hath been sent down to thee from thy Lord will surely increase the rebellion and unbelief of many of them; and we have put enmity and hatred between them that shall last till the day of the Resurrection. Oft as they kindle a beacon fire for war shall God quench it! and their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth: but God loveth not the abettors of disorder.” Nearly all the leading scripture characters connected with Old Testament history are either mentioned by name in the Qurʾān or are referred to in the Traditions and commentaries:— (a) In the Qurʾān we have Adam (Ādam), Abel (Hābīl), Cain (Qābīl), Enoch (Idrīs), Noah (Nūḥ), Abraham (Ibrāhīm), Lot (Lūt̤), Isaac (Isḥāq), Ishmael (Ismāʿīl), Jacob (Yaʿqūb), Joseph (Yūsuf), Job (Aiyūb), Moses (Mūsā), Aaron (Hārūn), Korah (Qārūn), Pharaoh (Firʿaun), Haman (Hāmān), David (Dāʾūd), Goliath (Jālūt), Solomon (Sulaimān), Saul (T̤ ālūt), Jonah (Yūnus), Elisha (Alyasaʿ). (b) In the Traditions and in the earliest commentaries on the Qurʾān, are mentioned: Eve (Ḥawwāʾ), Hagar (Hājar), Nebuchadnezzar (Buk͟ htnaṣṣar), Joshua (Yūshaʿ), Jeremiah (Armiyā), Isaiah (Shaʿyāʾ), Benjamin (Binyāmīn), Ezekiel (Ḥizqīl), Balaam (Balʿam), Daniel (Dāniyāl), Sarah (Sārah), and many others. But it is remarkable that after Solomon, there is no mention of the Kings of Israel and Judah. (c) The chief incidents of Jewish history are recorded in the Qurʾān with a strange and curious admixture of Rabbinical fable. The creation of the world, the formation of Adam and Eve, the fall, the expulsion from Eden,
- 36. Cain’s and Abel’s sacrifices, the death of Abel; Noah’s preaching, the Ark built, the deluge, the tower of Babel; Abraham, the friend of God, his call from idolatry, Isaac the son of promise, Sarah’s incredulity, Hagar and Ishmael, the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son, Lot and the cities of the plain; Jacob and the tribes, Joseph sold into Egypt, Potiphar’s wife, Joseph tempted, the dreams of the baker and butler, and of the king; Moses, his preservation in infancy, kills an Egyptian, flies to Midian, works miracles in the presence of Pharaoh, manna from heaven, the giving of the law, Aaron’s rod, the golden calf, the passage of the Red Sea; Job’s patience; Balaam cursing the Israelites; David’s psalms, his sin and repentance; Solomon’s wisdom, the Queen of Sheba, the building of the temple; Jonah’s preaching, his escape from the fish: these and many other incidents, evidently taken from the Old Testament, and worked up into a narrative with the assistance of Talmudic interpretations, form the chief historical portion of the Qurʾān. (d) Many of the doctrines and social precepts of the Qurʾān are also from Judaism. The Unity of God, the ministry of angels, the inspired law, the law of marriage and divorce, domestic slavery, the day of Sacrifice, prayer and ablution, the lex talionis, the degrees of affinity, the stoning of the adulterer, and many other injunctions, are precisely those of the Mosaic code, with some modifications to meet the requirements of Arabian social life. Whilst, therefore, Muḥammad took little of his religious system from Christianity, he was vastly indebted to Judaism both for his historical narratives and his doctrines and precepts. Islām is nothing more nor less than Judaism plus the Apostleship of Muḥammad. The teachings of Jesus form no part of his religious system. [christianity.] (e) The Quraish charged Muḥammad with want of originality in his revelations. For even at the end of his career, and when he was uttering his latest Sūrahs, “they said, as our verses were rehearsed to them—‘This is nothing but tales of yore.’” (Sūrah viii. 31 .) “And when it was said to them, What is it your Lord sent down? They said, ‘Old folk’s tales.’” (Sūrah xvi. 25 .) The Quraish even charged him with having obtained assistance, “They said it is only some mortal who teaches him.” And
- 37. Muḥammad admits there was someone who might be suspected of helping him, for he replies, “The tongue of him whom they lean towards is barbarous and this (Qurʾān) is plain Arabic.” (Sūrah xvi. 105 .) Ḥusain, the commentator, in remarking upon this verse, says, “It is related that there was a slave belonging to ʿAmr ibn ʿAbdi ʾllāh al-Ḥaẓramī, named Jabr (and according to some a second slave named Yasār), who used to read the Law and the Gospel, and Muḥammad used, when he passed, to stand and listen.” And the whole construction of the Qurʾān bears out the supposition that its subject matter was received orally and worked into poetical Arabic by a man of genius. Whatever he may have heard from the readings of Jabr and Yasār of the text of the Old and New Testament scriptures, it is very evident that he obtained his explanations from one well versed in Talmudic lore. A Jewish Rabbi, Abraham Geiger, in a.d. 1833, wrote a prize essay in answer to the question put by the university: “Inquiratur in fontes Alcorani seu legis Muhammedicæ eos, qui ex Judæismo derivandi sunt.” His essay in reply is entitled, “Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?” In this treatise it is clearly demonstrated how much the whole system of Islām is indebted to Talmudic Judaism for its teachings. Its narratives, its doctrines, and its theological terms, are chiefly derived from those of the Talmud. The works of Geiger, J. M. Arnold, Hershom, McCaul, Bishop Barclay, Deutsch, Lightfoot, Schottgen, Ugolini, Meuschen (which pending a complete translation of the Talmud, can be consulted), will, upon comparison with the teachings of the Qurʾān, reveal how entirely Muḥammad constructed his religious system on the lines of Talmudic Judaism. We are indebted to the late Dr. J. M. Arnold’s Islam and Christianity, for the following review of the subject, he having largely availed himself of the facts given in Geiger’s celebrated essay, already referred to. The seven heavens and the seven earths which are held in the Talmud, have found their way into the Qurʾān.2 During the creation, God’s glorious throne was placed in the air upon the water.3 According to the Talmud, “the world is the sixtieth part of the garden, the garden is the sixtieth part of Eden”; and Muḥammad states that the breadth of the garden is that of
- 38. heaven and earth.4 Both in the Qurʾān and Talmud we find seven hells as the appointed abode for the damned, and each hell has seven gates in both documents.5 The entrance of Jahannam is marked, according to the Sukkah, by two date-trees, between which smoke issues; and the Qurʾān speaks of a tree in hell [zaqqum] of which the damned are to eat, and of which many terrible things are related.6 In the Talmud the prince of hell demands supply for his domain, and a similar request is made in the Qurʾān.7 Between the seven heavens and the seven hells is an intermediate place [aʿraf], for those who are too good to be cast into hell and too imperfect to be admitted into heaven.8 This intermediate abode is, however, so narrow, that the conversations of the blessed and the damned on either side may be overheard. Again, the happiness of Paradise [paradise] is similarly described in both Talmud and Qurʾān;9 also the difficulty of attaining it. The Talmud declares that it is as easy for an elephant to enter through the eye of a needle; the Qurʾān substituting a camel for an elephant.10 That the dead live in the sight of God is stated in both documents in the same terms, and that there is no admission to the actual presence of the Almighty before the Day of Judgment and the resurrection of the dead.11 The signs of the last day as given in the Qurʾān are borrowed equally from the Scriptures and the Talmud.12 [resurrection.] The lengthened descriptions in the Qurʾān of the future resurrection and judgment are also tinged with a Talmudical colouring. That the several members of the human body shall bear witness against the damned, and that idols shall share in the punishment of their worshippers, is stated in both the Talmud and Qurʾān.13 The time of the last judgment Muḥammad declined to fix, resting upon the Jewish or Scriptural sentence, that “one day with God is like a thousand.”14 The Jews, in speaking of the resurrection of the dead, allude to the sending down of rain; the Qurʾān also affirms that this means of quickening the dead will be employed.15 Further still, the Talmudical idea that the dead will rise in the garments in which they were buried, likewise has been adopted by Islām.16 The Jewish opinion was that “all the prophets saw in a dark, but Moses in a clear mirror.”17 In the Qurʾān, God sends down His angelic messenger, Gabriel, as “the Holy
- 39. Ghost,” with revelations; and this very notion of Gabriel being considered the Spirit of God seems to be borrowed from the Jews.18 Again, the demonology of the Qurʾān is chiefly taken from the Talmud. Three properties the demons have in common with angels, and three with men—they have wings like angels, they can fly from one end of the world to the other, and know things to come. But do they know future events? No, but they listen behind the veil. The three properties in common with men are: they eat and drink, indulge in physical love, and die.19 This Jewish idea was adopted in the Qurʾān, and spun out ad libitum; for instance, whilst listening once to the angelic conversations, they were hunted away with stones. Their presence in places of worship is admitted both in the Talmud and the Qurʾān; thus it happened that “when the servant of God stood up to invoke Him, the Jinns all but pressed on him in the crowd.”20 [genii.] Amongst the moral precepts which are borrowed from the Talmud, we may mention that children are not to obey their parents when the latter demand that which is evil.21 Prayer may be performed standing, walking, or even riding;22 devotions may be shortened in urgent cases, without committing sin;23 drunken persons are not to engage in acts of worship;24 ablutions before prayer are in special cases enforced, but generally required both in the Talmud and the Qurʾān;25 each permit the use of sand instead of water [tayammum], when the latter is not to be procured.26 The Talmud prohibits loud and noisy prayers, and Muḥammad gives this short injunction:—“Cry not in your prayers”;27 in addition to this secret prayer, public worship is equally commended. The Shema prayer of the Jews is to be performed “when one is able to distinguish a blue from a white thread,” and this is precisely the criterion of the commencement of the fast in the Qurʾān.28 [ramazan.] The following social precepts are likewise copied from Judaism: a divorced woman must wait three months before marrying again29 [divorce]; mothers are to nurse their children two full years; and the degrees of affinity within which marriages are lawful.30 [marriage.] The historical incidents which Muḥammad borrowed from Judaism are embodied, regardless of the
- 40. sources from which he gleaned them, and indifferent to all order or system. Ignorant of Jewish history, Muḥammad appropriates none of the historical way-marks which determine the great epochs recorded in the Old Testament, but confines himself to certain occurrences in the lives of single individuals. At the head of the antediluvian patriarchs stands the primogenitor of the human race. In Sūrah ii. 28–33 we read, “When thy Lord said to the angels, Verily I am going to place a substitute on earth, they said, Wilt thou place there one who will do evil therein and shed blood? but we celebrate Thy praise and sanctify Thee. God answered, Verily I know that which ye know not; and He taught Adam the names of all things, and then proposed them to the angels, and said, Declare unto me the names of these things if ye say truth. They answered, Praise be unto Thee, we have no knowledge but what Thou teachest us, for Thou art knowing and wise. God said, O, Adam, tell them their names. And when he had told them their names, God said, Did I not tell you that I know the secrets of heaven and earth, and know that which ye discover, and that which ye conceal?” Let us examine whence the Qurʾān obtained this information. “When God intended to create man, He advised with the angels and said unto them, We will make man in our own image (Gen. i. 26 ). Then said they, What is man, that Thou rememberest him (Psalm viii. 5 ), what shall be his peculiarity? He answered, His wisdom is superior to yours. Then brought He before them cattle, animals, and birds, and asked for their names, but they know it not. After man was created, He caused them to pass before Him, and asked for their names and he answered, This is an ox, that an ass, this a horse, and that a camel. But what is thy name? To me it becomes to be called ‘earthly,’ for from ‘earth’ I am created.”31 To this may be added the fable that God commanded the angels to worship Adam,32 which is likewise appropriated from Talmudic writings. Some Jewish fables record that the angels contemplated worshipping man, but were prevented by God; others precisely agree with the Qurʾān,33 that God commanded the angels to worship man, and that they obeyed with the exception of Satan. The Sunnah informs us that Adam was sixty yards high, and Rabbinical fables make him extend from one end of the world to the other; but upon
- 41. the angels esteeming him a second deity, God put His hand upon him and reduced him to a thousand yards!34 [adam.] The account given in the Qurʾān of Cain’s murder is borrowed from the Bible, and his conversation with Abel, before he slew him,35 is the same as that in the Targum of Jerusalem, generally called pseudo-Jonathan. After the murder, Cain sees a raven burying another, and from this sight gains the idea of interring Abel. The Jewish fable differs only in ascribing the interment to the parents: “Adam and his wife sat weeping and lamenting him, not knowing what to do with the body, as they were unacquainted with burying. Then came a raven, whose fellow was dead: he took and buried it in the earth, hiding it before their eyes. Then said Adam, I shall do like this raven, and, taking Abel’s corpse, he dug in the earth and hid it.”36 The sentence following in the Qurʾān—“Wherefore we commanded the children of Israel, that he who slayeth a soul, not by way of retaliation, or because he doeth corruptly in the earth, shall be as if he had slain all mankind; but he who saveth a soul alive shall be as if he saved all souls alive,” would have no connection with what precedes or follows, were it not for the Targum of Onkelos, in the paraphrase of Gen. iv. 10 , where it is said that the blood of Cain’s brother cried to God from the earth, thus implying that Abel’s posterity were also cut off. And in the Mishnah Sanhedrin, we find the very words which the Qurʾān attaches to the murder, apparently with sense or connection.37 [abel, cain.] Noah stands forth as the preacher of righteousness, builds the ark, and is saved, with his family;38 his character is, however, drawn more from Rabbinical than Biblical sources. The conversations of Noah with the people, and the words with which they mocked him whilst building the ark,39 are the same in Talmudical writings as in the Qurʾān; and both declare that the generation of the flood was punished with boiling water.40 [noah.] The next patriarch after the flood is Hūd, who is none other than Eber; another sample of the ignorance of Muḥammad. In the days of Hūd the tower is constructed; the “obstinate hero,” probably Nimrod, takes the lead;
- 42. the sin of idolatry is abounding; an idol is contemplated as the crowning of the tower; but the building is overthrown, the tribes are dispersed, and punished in this world and in the world to come.41 These particulars are evidently borrowed from scripture and Rabbinical writings. In the Qurʾān, however, the dispersion is caused by a poisonous wind, and not by the confusion of tongues. The significance which the Qurʾān gives to Hūd is again in perfect accordance with Rabbinical Judaism: “Eber was a great prophet, for he prophetically called his son Peleg (dispersion), by the help of the Holy Ghost, because the earth was to be dispersed.”42 Among all the patriarchs, Abraham was most esteemed by Muḥammad, as being neither Jew nor Christian, but a Muslim. That he wrote books is also the belief of the Jewish doctors.43 His attaining the knowledge of the true faith, his zeal to convert his generation; his destruction of the idols; the fury of the people; their insisting on his being burned, and his marvellous deliverance: all these particulars in the life of Abraham, as given by the Qurʾān, are minutely copied from Jewish fictions.44 [hud, abraham.] The Qurʾān states that the angels whom Abraham received appeared as ordinary Arabs, and he was astonished when they declined to eat. According to the Talmud, they also “appeared to him no more than Arabs;”45 but another passage adds: “The angels descended and did eat. Are they, then, said to have really eaten? No! but they appeared as if they did eat and drink.” As a proof of Muḥammad’s uncertainty respecting the history of Abraham, we add, that the doubt regarding their having a son in their old age is expressed in the Qurʾān by Abraham instead of Sarah, and she is made to laugh at the promise of a son, before it was given. Again, the command to offer his son is given to Abraham before Isaac is born or promised, so that the son who was to be offered up could be none other than Ishmael, who was spoken of immediately before as the “meek youth!” Muḥammadan divines are, however, not agreed whether Ishmael was to be offered up, although it is reported by some that the horns of the ram, which was sacrificed in his stead, were preserved at Makkah, his dwelling-place! [ishmael.] We may account for Muḥammad’s reckoning Ishmael among the prophets and patriarchs, from his being considered the patriarch of the Arabs and the founder of the Kaʿbah.
- 43. Among the sons of Jacob, Joseph occupies the pre-eminence. His history is mainly the same as in the Bible, embellished with the fabulous tradition of the Jews. Among these is the assumption that Joseph “would have sinned had he not seen the evident demonstration of his Lord.” That this is borrowed is clear from the following fable: Rabbi Jochanan saith, “Both intended to commit sin: seizing him by the garment, she said, Lie with me.… Then appeared to him the form of his father at the window, who called to him, Joseph! Joseph! the names of thy brothers shall be engraven upon the stones of the Ephod, also thine own: wilt thou that it shall be erased?”46 This is almost literally repeated by a Muslim commentary to the Sūrah xii. 24 . The fable of Potiphar’s wife inviting the Egyptian ladies to a feast, to see Joseph, because they had laughed at her, and of their being so overcome with admiration of Joseph,47 that they accidentally cut their hands in eating fruit, is exactly so related in a very ancient Hebrew book, from which Muḥammad doubtless derived it. The story about the garment being rent, and the setting up of an evidence of guilt or innocence respecting it, is also borrowed, to the very letter from the same source.48 In this Sūrah it is also stated, that “the devil made him (Joseph) forget the remembrance of his Lord,” in perfect harmony with the Jewish tradition, “Vain speech tendeth to destruction; though Joseph twice urged the chief butler to remember him, yet he had to remain two years longer in prison.”49 The seeking protection from man is here represented as the instigation of Satan. [joseph.] The Qurʾān causes Jacob to tell his sons to enter at different gates, and the same injunction is given by the Patriarch in the Jewish writings: “Jacob said to them, Enter not through one and the same gate.”50 The exclamation of the sons of Israel, when they found the cup in Benjamin’s sack—“Has he stolen? so has his brother also”—are clearly a perversion of the words which the Jewish traditions put into their mouths: “Behold a thief, son of a female thief!” referring to the stealing of the Seraphim by Rachel.51 Muḥammad, again, acquaints us that Jacob knew by divine revelation that his son Joseph was still alive, and Jewish tradition enables us to point out whence he obtained the information. We read in the Midrash Jalkut, “An unbeliever asked our master, Do the dead continue to live? your parents do
- 44. not believe it, and will ye receive it? Of Jacob, it is said, he refused to be comforted; had he believed that the dead still lived, would he not have been comforted? But he answered, Fool, he knew by the Holy Ghost that he still really lived, and about a living person people need no comfort.”52 Muḥammad made but scanty allusions to the early patriarchs, Joseph only excepted; but concerning Moses, it was his interest to be more profuse in his communications, possibly from the desire to be considered like him, as he is generally thought to have taken that prophet as his model. Among the oppressions which Pharaoh exercised towards the Jews, are named his ordering their children to be cast into the water. Moses, the son of ʿImrān was put into an ark by his mother; Pharaoh’s wife, observing the child, rescues him from death, and gives him back to his mother to nurse. When Moses was grown up, he sought to assist his oppressed brethren, and kills an Egyptian; being the next day reminded of this deed by an Hebrew, he flees to Midian, and marries the daughter of an inhabitant of that country.53 When about to leave Midian, he sees a burning bush, and, approaching it, receives a call to go to Egypt to exhort Pharaoh, and perform miracles; he accepts the mission, but requests the aid of his brother Aaron.54 Pharaoh, however remains an infidel, and gathers his sorcerers together, who perform only inferior miracles; and, in spite of Pharaoh’s threats, they become believers.55 Judgment falls upon the Egyptians; they are drowned, whilst the Israelites are saved.56 A rock yields water. Moses receives the law,57 and desires to see the glory of God.58 During Moses’ absence, the Israelites make a golden calf, which he destroys, and reducing it to powder, makes them drink it.59 After this, Moses chooses seventy men as assistants.60 The spies sent to Canaan are all wicked with the exception of two: the people being deceived by them, must wander forty years in the desert.61 Korah, on quarrelling with Moses, is swallowed up by the earth.62 [korah.] The marvellous journey of Moses with his servant is not to be omitted in this summary of events.63 Among the details deserve to be mentioned, that Hāmān and Korah were counsellors of Pharaoh.64 It is not surprising that Muḥammad should associate Hāmān with Pharaoh as an enemy of the Jews, since he cared little when individuals lived, provided they could be introduced with advantage. Korah, according to Jewish tradition, was chief
- 45. agent or treasurer to Pharaoh.65 The ante-exodus persecution of the Jews is ascribed to a dream of Pharaoh.66 This is in exact accordance with Jewish tradition, which, as Canon Churton remarks, has in part the sanction of Acts vii . and Hebrews xi ., though not found in Exodus: “The sorcerers said to Pharaoh, A boy shall be born who will lead the Israelites out of Egypt. Then thought he, Cast all male children into the river, and he will be cast in among them.”67 The words (Exod. xi. 7 ), “I will call one of the Hebrew women,” produced the Rabbinical fiction, “Why just a Hebrew woman? This shows that he was handed to all the Egyptian women; but he would not drink, for God said, The mouth which shall once speak with me, should it drink what is unclean?”68 This was too valuable for Muḥammad to omit from the Qurʾān.69 Although it is nowhere said in the Bible that the sign of the leprous hand was wrought in the presence of Pharaoh, yet the Qurʾān relates it as having there taken place.70 And in this also it was preceded by Jewish tradition—“He put his hand into his bosom, and withdrew it leprous, white as snow; they also put their hands into their bosoms and withdrew them leprous, white as snow.”71 Again, among Moses’ own people, none but his own tribe believed him.72 This Muḥammad doubtless inferred from the statement of the Rabbis: “The tribe of Levi was exempted from hard labour.”73 Among the sorcerers of Egypt, who first asked for their wages, and then became believers, when their serpents were swallowed by that of Moses,74 Pharaoh himself was chief.75 Here, again, Muḥammad is indebted to Judaism: “Pharaoh, who lived in the days of Moses, was a great sorcerer.”76 In other places of the Qurʾān, Pharaoh claims divinity,77 and Jewish tradition makes him declare, “Already from the beginning ye speak falsehood, for I am Lord of the world, I have made myself as well as the Nile”; as it is said of him (Ezek. xxix. 3 ), “Mine is the river, and I have made it.”78 The Arab prophet was much confused with regard to the plagues; in some places he enumerates nine,79 in others only five, the first of which is said to be the Flood!80 As the drowning in the Red Sea happened after the plagues, he can only allude to the Deluge. The following somewhat dark and uncertain passage81 concerning Pharaoh has caused commentators great perplexity. It is stated that Pharaoh pursued
- 46. the Israelites until actually drowning, when, confessing himself a Muslim, he was saved alive from the bottom of the sea, to be a “witness for ages to come.”82 But we find that it is merely a version of a Jewish fable: “Perceive the great power of repentance! Pharaoh, King of Egypt, uttered very wicked words—Who is the God whose voice I shall obey? (Exod. v. 2 .) Yet as he repented, saying, ‘Who is like unto thee among the gods?’ (xv. 11 ) God saved him from death; for it saith, Almost had I stretched out my hands and destroyed; but God let him live, that he might declare his power and strength.”83 As Jewish commentators add to Exod. xv. 27 , where we read of twelve fountains being found near Elim, that each of the tribes had a well,84 so Muḥammad transposes the statement, and declares that twelve fountains sprang from the rock which had been smitten by Moses at Rephidim.85 The Rabbinical fable, that God covered the Israelites with Mount Sinai, on the occasion of the law-giving,86 is thus amplified in the Qurʾān: “We shook the mountain over them, as though it had been a covering, and they imagined that it was falling upon them; and we said, ‘Receive the law which we have brought unto you with reverence.’”87 The Qurʾān adds that the Israelites, now demanding to see God, die, and are raised again.88 It will not be difficult to trace the origin of this figment. When the Israelites demanded two things from God—that they might see his glory and hear his voice—both were granted to them. Then it is added, “These things, however, they had no power to resist; as they came to Mount Sinai, and He appeared unto them, their souls escaped by His speaking, as it is said, ‘My soul escaped as He spake.’ The Torah, however, interceded for them, saying, ‘Does a king give his daughter to marriage and kill his household? The whole world rejoices (at my appearance), and thy children (the Israelites) shall they die?’At once their souls returned; therefore it is said, The doctrine of God is perfect, and brings back the soul.”89 In the matter of the golden calf, the Qurʾān follows as usual the fabulous account of the Rabbinical traditions. Both represent Aaron as having been nearly killed when at first resisting the entreaty of the people. The Sanhedrin relates: “Aaron saw Chur slaughtered before his eyes (who opposed them), and he thought, If I do not yield to them they will deal with me as they dealt with
- 47. Chur.”90 According to another passage in the Qurʾān, an Israelite named as- Sāmirī enticed them, and made the calf.91 Like the wandering Jew in Christian fable, as-Sāmirī is punished by Moses with endless wandering, and he is compelled to repeat the words, “Touch me not.”92 Jewish traditions make Mikah assist in manufacturing the idol calf;93 but Muḥammad either derived as-Sāmirī from Samael, or, as the Samaritans are stated by the Arab writers to have said, “Touch me not,” he may have considered as-Sāmirī as the author of the sect of the Samaritans. That the calf thus produced by as-Sāmirī from the ornaments of the people, lowed on being finished,94 is evidently a repetition of the following Jewish tradition: “The calf came forth (Exod. xxxii. 24 ) roaring, and the Israelites saw it. Rabbi Jehuda says, Samael entered the calf and roared to deceive the Israelites.” The addition, that the tribe of Levi remained faithful to God, is both Scriptural and Rabbinical.95 The matter of Korah is honoured with singular embellishments; for instance, Korah had such riches, that from ten to forty strong men were required to carry the keys of his treasures.96 Abū ʾl-Fidāʾ says forty mules were required to convey the keys. Jewish tradition is still more extravagant: “Joseph buried three treasures in Egypt, one of which became known to Korah. Riches are turned to destruction to him that possesses them (Eccles. v. 12 ), and this may well be applied to Korah. The keys to the treasures of Korah made a burden for 300 white mules.”97 The accusation from which God cleared his servant Moses, of which the Qurʾān makes mention, was occasioned by Korah. “Abu Aliah says it refers to Korah hiring a harlot to reproach Moses before all the people, upon which God struck her dumb, and destroyed Korah, which cleared Moses from the charge.”98 This is unquestionably an amplification of the following passage: “Moses heard, and fell on his face. What was it he heard? That they accused him of having to do with another man’s wife.”99 Others conceive the unjust charge from which Moses was cleared, to have been that of murdering Aaron on Mount Hor, because he and Eleazar only were present when Aaron died! That they had recourse to Jewish tradition, will appear from the subjoined extract: “The whole congregation saw that Aaron was dead; and when Moses and Eleazar came down from the mountain, the whole congregation gathered together, asking, Where is
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