Triangulation: An Approach to establish Credibility and Dependability of Qualitative Studies
- 1. Triangulation: Approach to establish Credibility and Dependability of Qualitative Studies Dr. Sankar Prasad Mohanty Associate Professor of Education Rama Devi Women’s University, Bhubaneswar Email: sankarprasadmohanty@rdwu.ac.in
- 2. Qualitative Research • Emerged as criticism of quantitative research: Quantitative: Numbers, calculations Qualitative: Words, interpretations 2
- 3. Qualitative Research • Frequently referred to as : Naturalistic Inquiry or Field Research • Assumes that behavior occurs in a context, i.e. significantly influenced by the environment in which it occurs 3
- 4. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Research Qualitative • Gained recognition only in late 20th century (1980’s) • Developed in the social sciences to enable researchers to study social and cultural phenomena. • Is seen as subjective and preferring language and description. 4
- 5. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Research Qualitative • Is used as an umbrella term to refer to several research methods and procedures. • Focuses on understanding of social phenomena • Emphasis on seeing through eyes of people being studied 5
- 6. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Research • Emphasis on ‘thick description’ • Flexibility • Concepts and theories grounded in data 6
- 7. Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Research Qualitative • Involves methods of data collection and analysis that are non-quantitative (Lofland and Lofland, 1984) • No formal or pre-determined hypotheses • Natural setting 7
- 8. Main Features of Qualitative Research • Uses the natural setting as the source of data (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982). • The researcher acts as “human instrument” of data collection. • Predominantly use inductive data analysis to generate theories 8
- 9. Main Features of Qualitative Research • Research reports are descriptive, incorporating presence of voice in the text. • Use of multiple methods of data collection or triangulation (Usually Participant observation) • Emphasis on hypothesis formulation rather than testing. 9
- 10. Main Features of Qualitative Research • Does not rely on a priori theory. The goal is to generate theories from the data. • Data collection and data analysis is a simultaneous process. 10
- 11. Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Purpose • To study relationships; cause and effect Approach • Deductive: tests theory; value free (Objective); outcome-oriented Purpose • Explain and gain insight of phenomena Approach • Inductive: may generate theory; value-laden (subjective); process- oriented 11
- 12. Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Hypotheses • Specific, testable, stated prior to study Literature Review • Extensive; affects study significantly Hypotheses • Tentative, evolving Literature Review • Limited; affects study significantly 12
- 13. Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Research setting • Controlled Design • Structured; Rigid; developed prior to study • Involve intervention, manipulation and control Research setting • Naturalistic (as it is) Design • Flexible; evolves during study • Involve non- intervention; minimal disturbance 13
- 14. Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Measurement • Standardized; numerical; at the end Sample • Random & Large Tools • Pre-selected: quantitative tools Measurement • Non-standardized; narrative; ongoing Sample • Purposive & Small Tools • Human instrument: the researcher 14
- 15. Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Data Collection • Non-Participant observation, formal interviews, tests, questionnaires Data Analysis • Raw data are numbers, statistical, performed at the end Data Collection • Participant observation, Documents, informal interviews, FGD, field- notes Data Analysis • Raw data are words; Narrative, ongoing 15
- 16. Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Data Interpretation • Conclusions & Generalizations formulated at the end of study Validity • Single approach Data Interpretation • Conclusions tentative; Generalizations non- existent Validity • Multiple approach (Triangulation, member checking, prolonged stay) 16
- 17. Trends • More structured qualitative research • Use of mixed research methods 17
- 18. Trustworthiness of Qualitative data Triangulation Use of multiple data sources, multiple data collection methods, and even multiple teacher-researchers in order to support the ultimate findings from the study (Glesne, 1999; Hubbard & Power, 2003) 18
- 19. Trustworthiness of Qualitative data Member Checking Sharing of interview transcripts, observation notes and draft report with the participants of the study 19
- 20. Trustworthiness of Qualitative data Prolonged engagement and persistent observation: More time you spend in the field, the more you are able to develop trust on the data collected 20
- 21. Criteria for Judging the Quality of Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Quantitative Qualitative • Internal Validity • Credibility • External Validity • Transferability • Reliability • Dependability • Objectivity • Confirmability 21
- 22. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research Internal Validity vs. Credibility • In quantitative research internal validity refers to the extent to which the findings accurately describe reality. • In qualitative research Credibility becomes the test for the presence of multiple realities 22
- 23. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research Lincoln and Guba (1998) have proposed the following techniques to enhance credibility of the outcomes: • Prolonged engagement at research site • Persistent observation • Triangulation of data • Adequacy of reference materials, e.g. documents, films, videotapes • Member checking 23
- 24. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research External Validity vs. Transferability • In quantitative research, external validity refers to the generalizability of findings across different settings • In qualitative research, transferability refers to providing sufficient information so as to determine whether the findings are applicable to the new situation. It can be enhanced through purposive sampling 24
- 25. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research Reliability vs. Dependability To enhance the dependability of qualitative research, one can use “inquiry audit” in which reviewers examine both the process and the product of the research for consistency 25
- 26. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research Objectivity vs. Conformability • Quantitative research is relatively value-free, and therefore objective. • Qualitative research, which relies on interpretations, is value bound, and considered to be subjective 26
- 27. Assessing Quality in Qualitative Research • Confirmability refers to the degree to which the researcher can demonstrate the neutrality of the research interpretations 27
- 28. WHAT IS TRIANGULATION? • Literally refers something related to “Three” • But in social science research literature, refers to “multiple” method/approach to establish credibility (synonym of validity) and dependability (synonym of reliability) of qualitative data.
- 29. • In quantitative research the Validity of findings is established through single approach, but in qualitative research “credibility” as well as “dependability” of data is established through multiple methods and/or approaches (e.g. triangulation, member checking, prolonged stay).
- 30. For example • In quantitative research, the data collected through “tests” or “scales” from a single source, are not necessarily supported by data collected through other tools and/or from other sources. • In qualitative research, the data collected through “observations” or “interviews”, are essentially supported by data through other tools (e.g. focus group discussions, photographs, field notes) and/or from other sources (e.g. parents, teachers, neighbours).
- 31. Uses • Currently, in mixed method approach to research perspective, triangulation can be used in almost all types of studies in social sciences. • Thus, triangulation is an approach to research that uses a combination of more than one research strategy in a single investigation.
- 32. Broad Purposes • Qualitative investigators may choose triangulation as a research strategy to assure completeness of findings or to confirm findings.
- 33. Assure Completeness • The most accurate description of the elephant comes from a combination of all three individuals' descriptions. Confirm Findings • Researchers choose triangulation to confirm findings and conclusions. • Any single qualitative research strategy has its limitations. • By combining different strategies, researchers confirm findings by overcoming the limitations of a single strategy. • Uncovering the same information from more than one helps researchers describe how the findings occurred under different circumstances and assists them to confirm the validity of the findings.
- 34. Types of Triangulation 1) Data Triangulation • Time, Space, Person 2) Method Triangulation • Design • Data collection 3) Investigator Triangulation 4) Theory Triangulation 5) Multiple Triangulation Uses a combination of two or more triangulation techniques in one study
- 35. 1. Data Triangulation Denzin (1989) described three types of data triangulation: (1) time, (2) space, and (3) person. Time triangulation • In time triangulation, researchers collect data about a phenomenon at different points of time so as to document changes over time.
- 36. Space triangulation Space triangulation consists of collecting data at more than one site. Person Triangulation In person triangulation, researchers collect data from more than one level of person, e.g. parents, teachers, community members.
- 37. 2. Method Triangulation • Methods triangulation can occur at the level of design or data collection. • Methods triangulation at the design level has also been called between-method triangulation and methods triangulation at the data collection level has been called within-method triangulation.
- 38. Design Level • Design level triangulation uses quantitative methods combined with qualitative methods in the study design. Data Collection Level • Using methods triangulation at the level of data collection, researchers use different techniques of data collection (e.g. Surveys, FGDs, Interviews), each within the same research tradition so as to provide a holistic and better understanding of the phenomenon under study.
- 39. 3. Investigator Triangulation • Investigator triangulation occurs when two or more researchers with divergent backgrounds and expertise work together on the same study. • Multiple Investigators have prominent roles in the study and their areas of expertise must be complementary. • All the investigators discuss their individual findings and reach a conclusion, which includes all findings.
- 40. 4. Theory Triangulation • Theory triangulation incorporates the use of more than one lens or theory in the analysis of the same data set. • In qualitative research, more than one theoretical explanation emerges from the data. • Researcher contrasts with different disciplines, theories • Multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of data
- 41. • Example : Interviewing the participants from a nutrition program to learn what healthy lifestyle practice changes attribute to participate in a program. • Share the transcripts with colleagues in different disciplines (nutrition science, nursing, pharmacy, public health education, etc.) to see what their interpretations.