X bar theory
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X-Bar theory proposes that phrases contain intermediate constituents projected from a head category. This system of projected constituency may apply across different syntactic categories. The letter X represents an arbitrary lexical category such as noun, verb, adjective, or preposition. According to the rules of X-Bar theory, a phrase consists of an optional specifier and an X-bar projection. An X-bar projection contains an X element and any number of complements. X-Bar theory also defines technical terms like dominance, precedence, c-command, m-command, and government that are used to describe syntactic structures.
X bar theory
- 1. X-BARTHEORY Adel Rahimi Sharif University ofTechnology Fall 2016
- 3. X-Bar theory Claims • Phrases may contain intermediate constituents projected from a head X • This system of projected constituency may be common to more than one category
- 4. What does X really mean? The letter X is used to signify an arbitrary lexical category (part of speech); when analyzing a specific utterance, specific categories are assigned. Thus, the X may become an N for noun, aV for verb, an A for adjective, or a P for preposition.
- 5. Rules of X-bar I Rules of X-Bar aka syntax assembly: An X-Phrase consists of an optional specifier and an X-bar
- 6. Rules of X-bar II X-bar consists of an X-bar and an optional adjunct (X` → X′, adjunct)
- 7. Rules of X-bar III X-bar consists of an X and any number of complements X′ → X, (complement...)
- 8. TechnicalTerminology • Dominance Node A dominates node B if and only if A is higher up in the tree than B and if you can trace a line from A to B going only downwards. Haegeman (1991: p.75)
- 9. TechnicalTerminology I • Dominance Node A immediately dominates B iff B is a daughter of A. The immediate constituents of A are the nodes A immediately dominates.
- 10. TechnicalTerminology II • Precedence “Node A precedes node B iff A is to the left of B andA does not dominate B and B does not dominate A” Haegeman (1991: p.76)
- 11. TechnicalTerminology III • c-command Node A c-commands node B iff (i) A does not dominate B and B does not dominateA; and (ii) the first branching node dominatingA also dominates B Haegeman (1991: p.122) • The set of nodes that A c-commands is called the c-command domain of A
- 12. TechnicalTerminology III • m-command Node A m-commands node B iff (i) A does not dominate B and B does not dominateA; and (ii) every maximal projection dominatingA also dominates B Haegeman (1991: p.135)
- 13. TechnicalTerminology III • Government Node A governs node B iffA m-commands B,A is a head and no maximal projections intervenes between A and B
- 14. Further reading • http://primus.arts.u- szeged.hu/bese/Glossary/gloss_maximal_projection.htm • http://ling-blogs.bu.edu/lx522f12/2012/10/29/maximal-minimal- and-intermediate-projections/ • Bresnan, J. 2001. Lexical Functional Syntax. Blackwell. • Radford, A. 2004. English syntax:An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. • Radford, A. 2004. English syntax:An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Editor's Notes
- #2: Good morning everyone, we’re gonna talk about the X bar theory of syntax. Basically we’re gonna know what is it, the rules and some terminology.
- #3: First of all what is a syntax tree? Why do linguists draw these cute looking tree lines. So a syntax tree is a schematic way of showing syntactic categories and their relationship.
- #4: X bar theory of syntax …. Phrases may contain intermediate constituents projected from a head X This system of projected constituency may be common to more than one category
- #5: What does that x really mean? And where does it come from? Why X? well the X is used to signify an arbitrary lexical category (part of speech); when analyzing a specific utterance, specific categories are assigned. Thus, the X may become an N for noun, a V for verb, an A for adjective, or a P for preposition.
- #6: So the X bar has 3 rules or as they are called syntax assembly. First rule states that an X phrase consists of an optional specifier and an X bar. So first of all specifiers are non-recursive meaning you can only have one specifier. They are not sisters of the head, but rather sisters of the phrase formed by the head and the complement or adjunct. In English, some example of specifiers are determiners such as the, a, this, quantifiers such as no, some, every, and possessives such as John’s and my mother’s, which can precede noun phrases. Verb phrases can be preceded by quantifiers such as each, and all.
- #7: Second rule states that an X-bar consists of an X-bar and an optional adjunct. Consider the fact that this rule is optional.
- #8: So the third rules states that the x bar consists of x phrase and complements
- #9: Node A dominates node B if and only if A is higher up in the tree than B and if you can trace a line from A to B going only downwards
- #10: Node A immediately dominates B if and only if B is a daughter of A. The immediate constituents of A are the nodes A immediately dominates.
- #11: The second terminology is the precedence. “Node A precedes node B iff A is to the left of B and A does not dominate B and B does not dominate A”
- #12: c-command Node A c-commands node B iff (i) A does not dominate B and B does not dominate A; and (ii) the first branching node dominating A also dominates B The set of nodes that A c-commands is called the c-command domain of A For example, according to this definition, in the tree at the right, M does not c-command any node because it dominates all other nodes. A c-commands B, C, D, E, F, and G. B c-commands A. C c-commands D, F, and G. D c-commands C and E. E c-commands D, F, and G. F c-commands G. G c-commands F. Node A c-commands node B iff (i) A does not dominate B and B does not dominate A; and (ii) the first branching node dominating A also dominates B a. neither A nor B dominates the other, and b. the lowest branching node that dominates A also dominates B.
- #13: m-command Node A m-commands node B iff (i) A does not dominate B and B does not dominate A; and (ii) every maximal projection dominating A also dominates B The notion of maximal projection is adopted from X-bar theory. The difference between c-command and m-command is that X m-commands everything that it c-commands, and in addition, it m-commands the element in the specifier position of the phrase that it heads. M-command is used in the formulation of the syntactic relation government.
- #14: Government Node A governs node B iff A m-commands B, A is a head and no maximal projections intervenes between A and B Verbs govern their objects, and more generally, heads govern their dependents.