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SadikMADANIALAOUI1

The document discusses Phrase Structure Grammar and its modifications. It introduces Government and Binding Theory, which consists of several theories that interact, including X-bar theory. X-bar theory provides the basis for syntactic structure by establishing the projection of phrases from lexical items according to their subcategorization properties. This avoids redundancy and captures cross-linguistic generalizations about phrase structure.

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Phrase Structure Grammar Revisited
In an attempt to qualify to account for kernel and derived structures, PSG has modified its working tool. It has adopted a numerical system: • Numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .... • Sentence boundaries: #
In an attempt to qualify to account for kernel and derived structures, PSG has modified its working tool. It has adopted a numerical system: • Numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .... • Sentence boundaries: # Extended Standard Theory
John eats an apple John eats an apple # 1 2 3 # ACTIVE An apple is eaten by John An apple is eaten by John # 3 to be (S.P) 2 (Past Part) by 1 # PASSIVE
John pours the milk John, pour the milk # 1 2 3 # Declarative Pour the milk Pour the milk # 1 () 2 3 # Imperative
John rolls the ball John rolls the ball # 1 2 3 # Declarative The ball rolls The ball rolls # 1 () 3 2 # Ergative
It was a sound and a smart contribution Still, 1. what about other movements? 2. What about structure differences across languages? 3. What about similarities between languages? 4. What about differences between languages, even for internal simple sentences? The model needed is one that can join and have all these qualities, in a way to represent how the Human mind processes HL!
It was a sound and a smart contribution Still, 1. what about other movements? 2. What about structure differences across languages? 3. What about similarities between languages? 4. What about differences between languages, even for internal simple sentences? The model needed is one that can join and have all these qualities, in a way to represent how the Human mind processes HL! ------------- GBT/ PP Framework.
Government & Binding Theory
Government & Binding Theory
Outline  Why a need to move to another model  X-bar theory and non-lexical Categories  X-bar structure of S • Spec-head Configuration • VP-internal Subject Hypothesis • Extended Projection Principle  Small Clause  X-bar structure of S` • [+Q]-CP Principle  Binary Branching and VP-shells
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Outline 1 Principles and Parameters 2 Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Outline 1 Principles and Parameters 2 Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Principles and Parameters An approach to the question of how children acquire language Ideas started shaping since the early days of modern generative grammar The version that is usually referred to was presented in the 80s Principles and Parameters is an approach, and not (meant to be) a specific theoretical system Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Previous ideas and observations Despite large variations, languages have many common properties on an abstract level Children learn languages easily, despite the fact that language are highly complex Idea: the common properties of languages are innate, only variations need to be learned Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Principles and Parameters Universal Grammar can be defined as: The set of Principles that are common to all languages The initial state of language knowledge for human beings Principles may include parameters, which represent settings that may vary from language to language Children ’simply’ need to learn the values of relevant parameters to acquire the grammar of their native language Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Goals of syntactic research In this setting, the research on syntax should answer the following questions: What are the Principles that are part of Universal Grammar What parameters are there in Universal Grammar, and what are their possible values in individual languages? Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding General views on language acquisition How children learn language is still an open question The idea that language is a complex system (all syntacticians working on English over the last 50 years still haven’t managed to describe it) and children learn this easily is not much disputed Researchers do (very much) disagree on whether this implies that we are born with a universal grammar in our mind, and if so, what this would look like Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Outline 1 Principles and Parameters 2 Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Introduction Government and Binding refers to a specific approach to linguistic theory It followed from Extended Standard Theory in transformational grammar Important differences with previous approach: More modularity: it actually consists of a set of theories that interact (Government and Binding being two of them) Focus on principles rather than rules 20 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory GB-theories (1/2) X¯ Theory θ Theory Case Theory Binding Theory Bounding Theory Control Theory Government Theory Chomsky (1982: p.6) 21 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory GB-theories (2/2) Each theory studies principles of rules and representations that are a subsystem of UG They may affect different levels of language (d-structure, s-structure or LF) All have in common that they operate on syntactic structures This leads to interactions between the theories that can get quite complex, even if principles are kept simple Hope: if interactions between simple principles may lead to complex properties, this may explain why language is complex but easily learned 22 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory This Lecture We will have a closer look at X¯, later in the semester we will look at Government Theory X¯ Theory forms the basis of syntactic structure in the transformational tradition Government plays a central role in the theory, because it provides the conditions for principles of other theories to apply (e.g. case and θ-assignment, binding) They are the only two theories in GB that do not (directly) relate to specific phenomena 23 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory X-bar theory: motivations X.bar theory was developed in the seventies to design phrase structures in a more theoretically sound way It ended up addressing several issues: 1 stronger generalization than previously used PSG 2 introducing a structural difference between complements and modifiers 3 removing a redundancy between lexical contribution and the contribution of PS-rules (mentioned by Ouhalla 1994) 24 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Redundancy Redundancy: the items that may form a VP is determined both by the subcategorization properties of the verb, and by the Phrase-Structure rules. Is it possible to use only one of the two? We can use only subcategorization, but then this information must be present at all levels Projection Principle: “Representations at each syntactic level (i.e., L.F., and D- and S-structure) are projected from the lexicon, in that they observe the subcategorization properties of lexical items.” Chomsky (1981) p. 29 25 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Generalization Can we define phrase structure rules in a way that captures cross-linguistic properties of syntactic structures? Can we define phrase structure rules in a way that allows to capture commonalities in structure within a language (e.g. subject of a sentence or an NP in English)? Can we define phrase structure rules in a way that distinguishes complements from adjuncts? 26 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Levels of Representation in Universal Grammar (UG) Lexicon Move-alpha D(eep)-Structure S(urface)-Structure LF (logical form) PF (phonetic form) Theta roles Constrained by theta criterion Transformational rules Constrained by EPP X-bar rules Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Projection Principle  Representations at each syntactic level (i.e., LF, DS and SS) are projected from the lexicon, in that they observe the subcategorisation properties of lexical items. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Sellers Noun Of Oranges PP The Det The Sellers of Oranges NP Sellers of Oranges ? Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
X-bar Theory  It tells us how words are combined to make phrases and sentences.  It captures the commonality between different types of phrases, which PS-rules cannot. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
NP ? Sellers PP The (X-Phrase) (X-Head) Complement (Det/ Specifier) Of oranges Mysterious Category N NP ------ Spec ? ? ------ N Complement Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
NP ? Sellers PP The (X-Phrase) (X-Head) Complement (Det/ Specifier) Of oranges Mysterious Category N NP ------ Spec ? ? ------ N Complement XP ------ Spec ? ? ------ X Complement Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
NP ? Sellers PP The (X-Phrase) (X-Head) Complement (Det/ Specifier) Of oranges Mysterious Category N NP ------ Spec ? ? ------ N Complement XP ------ Spec ? ? ------ X Complement X0 X1 X2 X X’ X’’ X X bar X double bar Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
N’’ N’ Sellers PP The (X-Phrase) (X-Head) Complement (Det/ Specifier) Of oranges Mysterious Category N NP ------ Spec ? ? ------ N Complement XP ------ Spec ? ? ------ X Complement X0 X1 X2 X X’ X’’ X X bar X double bar Num System:Jackendoff Prime System: Jackobson Bar System: Chomsky
X-bar Projection X’’ X ` X Z” Y” (Maximal projection) (Intermediate projection) (Zero projection) Complement Specifier Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
X-bar Projection X’’ X ` X Z” Y” (X-phrase) (Head) (Complement) (Specifier) Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
X-bar Projection X” X ` X Z” Y” (Complement) (Specifier) X ` Z” (Head) (Adjunct) Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
X-bar Projection N” N ` P” N” John’s N solution to the problem Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
X-bar Projection N” N ` N P” Det of the cricket match the N ` P” discussion In the cabinet meeting Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
C(onstituent)-command  C-command is a structural relation among the terminal and non-terminal nodes in a syntactic tree   c-commands  iff:  the first branching node dominating  also dominates    does not dominate  A B C D E F G Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
C-command N” N ` N Det the cricket match the N ` P” discussion P of N” P” P during N” N ` Det the meeting N Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Government  governs  iff   is a lexical head (or tensed I)   C-commands   No barrier (VP, NP, PP, AP, or tensed IP) intervenes between  and  A  C D  F G Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
N’’--Spec N’ N’--N Compl V’’--Spec V’ V’--V Compl P’’--Spec P’ P’--P Compl A’’--Spec A’ A’--A Compl Adv’’--Spec Adv’ Adv’--Adv Compl X’’--Spec X’ X’--X Compl What kind of expansion is that?
N’’--Spec N’ N’--N Compl V’’--Spec V’ V’--V Compl P’’--Spec P’ P’--P Compl A’’--Spec A’ A’--A Compl Adv’’--Spec Adv’ Adv’--Adv Compl X’’--Spec X’ X’--X Compl Endocentric expansion, isn’t it? What about the Sentence?
To decide on that question, consider the following two sentences: 1. I am happy that you are here. 2. I am happy for you to be here. I Am Happy That You Are Here I Am Happy for You To be Here What is the difference, then? Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
To decide on that question, consider the following two sentences: 1. I am happy that you are here. 2. I am happy for you to be here. I Am Happy That You Are Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb What is the difference, then? I Am Happy for You To be Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
To decide on that question, consider the following two sentences: 1. I am happy that you are here. 2. I am happy for you to be here. I Am Happy That You Are Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb The Difference is 1. Are (to be) but tensed 2. To be I Am Happy for You To be Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
To decide on that question, consider the following two sentences: 1. I am happy that you are here. 2. I am happy for you to be here. I Am Happy That You Are Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb The Difference is 1. Are (to be) but tensed 2. To be I Am Happy for You To be Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb The Difference is tense. In Morphology, Tense is Inflection: INFL/ I Then I is the most important/ Head Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
If I is the head for the sentence, and applying the X-Bar Theory, we should have I’’ ----- Spec I’ I’ ----- I Complement I’’ I ` Compl Spec(ifier) ( = S) I ( = Aux) Tense : [+/- FINITE] Φ-features: [Agr, Neg] … Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
If I is the head for the sentence, and applying the X-Bar Theory, we should have I’’ ----- Spec I’ I’ ----- I Complement I’’ I ` V’’ Spec(ifier) ( = S) I ( = Aux) Tense : [+/- FINITE] Φ-features: [Agr, Neg] … Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
X-bar structure of S : IP  I(NFL(ECTION)) as the Head of S I’’ I ` V’’ Spec(ifier) ( = S) I …… ( = Aux) Tense : [+/- FINITE] Φ-features: [PNG, case] … NP Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Spec-Head Agreement  A head (X) and its specifies (Spec-X) must agree in relevant features I’’ I ` V” N’’ I …… Case: NOM PNG: 3sg … Case: NOM PNG: 3sg Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
VP-internal Subject Hypothesis I” I ` Spec ( = S) I Tense Φ-features … NP V” V ` N” Spec V … … … The external argument of a verb is generated within the VP. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
I” I ` Spec I John V” V ` N” N” V like his teacher John likes his teacher. [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] … Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Extended Projection Principle  There must be a subject in a clause.  Examples  John likes his teacher  *(There) is a unicorn in the garden Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
I” I ` N” I ti V” V ` N” N” V like his teacher John likes his teacher. Johni Movement rule [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] … Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
I” I ` N” I [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] … V” V ` P” Spec V ` be in the garden There is a unicorn in the garden. N” a unicorn V There Insertion rule Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
I” I ` N” I V” V ` N” I ` consider I” V John ti incompetent N” Bill I To [+EPP] V” V ` N” A” V ti be John considers Bill to be incompetent [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] …
Small Clause  John considers Bill to be incompetent  *John considers Bill to incompetent  *John considers Bill be incompetent  John considers Bill incompetent Small clause Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
I” I ` N” I V” V ` N” A ` consider A” V John ti incompetent N” Bill A John considers Bill incompetent N ` N [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] …
What about structures larger than a sentence (I ’’) • Embedded clauses • Questions: • Wh-questions • Yes-no questions Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
X-bar structure of S-bar : CP  C(omp(lementizer)) as the Head of S` C’’ C ` I” Spec ( = S` ) C …… [+/- Q] ( = S ) Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
I” I ` N” I + EPP … V” V ` N” C ` think C” V I ti Spec C [-Q] I” I think that John should leave N ` N that John should leave Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
I” I ` N” I + EPP … V” V ` N” C ` want C” V I ti Spec C [-Q] I” I want for John to leave N ` N for John to leave Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
I” I ` N” I + EPP … V” V ` N” C ` wonder C” V I ti Spec C [-Q] I” I wonder if John has left N ` N if John has left Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
C” C ` Spec C did I” I ` N” V ` … +EPP Aux V” I whoj Maryi Spec V N” Who did Mary see? NP see tj [+ Q] NP i [+Q]-CP Principle: A [+Q]-CP must have a specifier Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
Summary  Projection Principle: Lexical information (such as theta roles) is syntactically represented at all levels of representation  X-bar Theory tells us how words are combined to make phrases and sentences.  The head of S is I(NFL(LECTION) and the head of S` is Comp(lementizer)  VP-internal Subject Hypothesis: The external argument of a verb is generated within the VP.  Extended Projection Principle (EPP): A clause must have a subject  [+Q]-CP Principle: A [+Q]-CP must have a specifier  Transformational rules can be  movement rules  insertion rules  Rules must be maximally constrained, otherwise they could produce anything (e.g., Head-to-head movement constraint, EPP, etc) Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
 Comsky, Noam. 1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris, Dordrecht.  Ouhalla, Jamal. 1994. Introducing Transformational grammar. Arnold, London. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
• Comsky, Noam. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. CUP, Cambridge. • Chomsky, Noam (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding. Berlin: Mouton. • Chomsky, Noam (1982). Some Concepts and Consequences of the Theory of Government and Binding • Chomsky, N. and Lasnik, H. (1993) Principles and Parameters Theory, in Syntax: An International Handbook of Contemporary Research, Berlin: de Gruyter. • Haegeman, Liliane (1991). Introduction to Government and Binding Theory. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. • Jackendoff, Ray (1977). X¯ Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure. Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT Press. • Ouhalla, Jamal (1994). Introducing Transformational Grammar. New York:OUP. • Sag, Ivan A., Thomas Wasow and Emily M. Bender (2003). Syntactic Theory. A Formal Introduction. Palo Alto: CSLI Publications. Sources and further readings
THANK YOU
Binary Branching and VP-shells  A node can dominate at most two branches  John put the book *(on the shelf)  John put *(the book) on the shelf  Put: [V; _ NP PP]  S V (NP) (PP)
v P v ` spec V ` VP v NP V PP put VP-Shell light verb Head-to-head movement constraint V-raising
v P v ` spec V ` VP v NP V PP John put the book on the shelf I ` IP NP I put John the book on the shelf N ` N Tense AGR +EPP … ti ti

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GBT.ppt

  • 2. In an attempt to qualify to account for kernel and derived structures, PSG has modified its working tool. It has adopted a numerical system: • Numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .... • Sentence boundaries: #
  • 3. In an attempt to qualify to account for kernel and derived structures, PSG has modified its working tool. It has adopted a numerical system: • Numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .... • Sentence boundaries: # Extended Standard Theory
  • 4. John eats an apple John eats an apple # 1 2 3 # ACTIVE An apple is eaten by John An apple is eaten by John # 3 to be (S.P) 2 (Past Part) by 1 # PASSIVE
  • 5. John pours the milk John, pour the milk # 1 2 3 # Declarative Pour the milk Pour the milk # 1 () 2 3 # Imperative
  • 6. John rolls the ball John rolls the ball # 1 2 3 # Declarative The ball rolls The ball rolls # 1 () 3 2 # Ergative
  • 7. It was a sound and a smart contribution Still, 1. what about other movements? 2. What about structure differences across languages? 3. What about similarities between languages? 4. What about differences between languages, even for internal simple sentences? The model needed is one that can join and have all these qualities, in a way to represent how the Human mind processes HL!
  • 8. It was a sound and a smart contribution Still, 1. what about other movements? 2. What about structure differences across languages? 3. What about similarities between languages? 4. What about differences between languages, even for internal simple sentences? The model needed is one that can join and have all these qualities, in a way to represent how the Human mind processes HL! ------------- GBT/ PP Framework.
  • 11. Outline  Why a need to move to another model  X-bar theory and non-lexical Categories  X-bar structure of S • Spec-head Configuration • VP-internal Subject Hypothesis • Extended Projection Principle  Small Clause  X-bar structure of S` • [+Q]-CP Principle  Binary Branching and VP-shells
  • 12. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Outline 1 Principles and Parameters 2 Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 13. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Outline 1 Principles and Parameters 2 Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 14. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Principles and Parameters An approach to the question of how children acquire language Ideas started shaping since the early days of modern generative grammar The version that is usually referred to was presented in the 80s Principles and Parameters is an approach, and not (meant to be) a specific theoretical system Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 15. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Previous ideas and observations Despite large variations, languages have many common properties on an abstract level Children learn languages easily, despite the fact that language are highly complex Idea: the common properties of languages are innate, only variations need to be learned Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 16. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Principles and Parameters Universal Grammar can be defined as: The set of Principles that are common to all languages The initial state of language knowledge for human beings Principles may include parameters, which represent settings that may vary from language to language Children ’simply’ need to learn the values of relevant parameters to acquire the grammar of their native language Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 17. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Goals of syntactic research In this setting, the research on syntax should answer the following questions: What are the Principles that are part of Universal Grammar What parameters are there in Universal Grammar, and what are their possible values in individual languages? Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 18. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding General views on language acquisition How children learn language is still an open question The idea that language is a complex system (all syntacticians working on English over the last 50 years still haven’t managed to describe it) and children learn this easily is not much disputed Researchers do (very much) disagree on whether this implies that we are born with a universal grammar in our mind, and if so, what this would look like Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 19. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Outline 1 Principles and Parameters 2 Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 20. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Introduction Government and Binding refers to a specific approach to linguistic theory It followed from Extended Standard Theory in transformational grammar Important differences with previous approach: More modularity: it actually consists of a set of theories that interact (Government and Binding being two of them) Focus on principles rather than rules 20 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 21. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory GB-theories (1/2) X¯ Theory θ Theory Case Theory Binding Theory Bounding Theory Control Theory Government Theory Chomsky (1982: p.6) 21 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 22. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory GB-theories (2/2) Each theory studies principles of rules and representations that are a subsystem of UG They may affect different levels of language (d-structure, s-structure or LF) All have in common that they operate on syntactic structures This leads to interactions between the theories that can get quite complex, even if principles are kept simple Hope: if interactions between simple principles may lead to complex properties, this may explain why language is complex but easily learned 22 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 23. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory This Lecture We will have a closer look at X¯, later in the semester we will look at Government Theory X¯ Theory forms the basis of syntactic structure in the transformational tradition Government plays a central role in the theory, because it provides the conditions for principles of other theories to apply (e.g. case and θ-assignment, binding) They are the only two theories in GB that do not (directly) relate to specific phenomena 23 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 24. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory X-bar theory: motivations X.bar theory was developed in the seventies to design phrase structures in a more theoretically sound way It ended up addressing several issues: 1 stronger generalization than previously used PSG 2 introducing a structural difference between complements and modifiers 3 removing a redundancy between lexical contribution and the contribution of PS-rules (mentioned by Ouhalla 1994) 24 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 25. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Redundancy Redundancy: the items that may form a VP is determined both by the subcategorization properties of the verb, and by the Phrase-Structure rules. Is it possible to use only one of the two? We can use only subcategorization, but then this information must be present at all levels Projection Principle: “Representations at each syntactic level (i.e., L.F., and D- and S-structure) are projected from the lexicon, in that they observe the subcategorization properties of lexical items.” Chomsky (1981) p. 29 25 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 26. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Generalization Can we define phrase structure rules in a way that captures cross-linguistic properties of syntactic structures? Can we define phrase structure rules in a way that allows to capture commonalities in structure within a language (e.g. subject of a sentence or an NP in English)? Can we define phrase structure rules in a way that distinguishes complements from adjuncts? 26 / 42 Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 27. Levels of Representation in Universal Grammar (UG) Lexicon Move-alpha D(eep)-Structure S(urface)-Structure LF (logical form) PF (phonetic form) Theta roles Constrained by theta criterion Transformational rules Constrained by EPP X-bar rules Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 28. Projection Principle  Representations at each syntactic level (i.e., LF, DS and SS) are projected from the lexicon, in that they observe the subcategorisation properties of lexical items. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 29. Sellers Noun Of Oranges PP The Det The Sellers of Oranges NP Sellers of Oranges ? Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 30. X-bar Theory  It tells us how words are combined to make phrases and sentences.  It captures the commonality between different types of phrases, which PS-rules cannot. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 31. NP ? Sellers PP The (X-Phrase) (X-Head) Complement (Det/ Specifier) Of oranges Mysterious Category N NP ------ Spec ? ? ------ N Complement Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 32. NP ? Sellers PP The (X-Phrase) (X-Head) Complement (Det/ Specifier) Of oranges Mysterious Category N NP ------ Spec ? ? ------ N Complement XP ------ Spec ? ? ------ X Complement Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 33. NP ? Sellers PP The (X-Phrase) (X-Head) Complement (Det/ Specifier) Of oranges Mysterious Category N NP ------ Spec ? ? ------ N Complement XP ------ Spec ? ? ------ X Complement X0 X1 X2 X X’ X’’ X X bar X double bar Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 34. N’’ N’ Sellers PP The (X-Phrase) (X-Head) Complement (Det/ Specifier) Of oranges Mysterious Category N NP ------ Spec ? ? ------ N Complement XP ------ Spec ? ? ------ X Complement X0 X1 X2 X X’ X’’ X X bar X double bar Num System:Jackendoff Prime System: Jackobson Bar System: Chomsky
  • 35. X-bar Projection X’’ X ` X Z” Y” (Maximal projection) (Intermediate projection) (Zero projection) Complement Specifier Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 36. X-bar Projection X’’ X ` X Z” Y” (X-phrase) (Head) (Complement) (Specifier) Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 37. X-bar Projection X” X ` X Z” Y” (Complement) (Specifier) X ` Z” (Head) (Adjunct) Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 38. X-bar Projection N” N ` P” N” John’s N solution to the problem Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 39. X-bar Projection N” N ` N P” Det of the cricket match the N ` P” discussion In the cabinet meeting Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 40. C(onstituent)-command  C-command is a structural relation among the terminal and non-terminal nodes in a syntactic tree   c-commands  iff:  the first branching node dominating  also dominates    does not dominate  A B C D E F G Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 41. C-command N” N ` N Det the cricket match the N ` P” discussion P of N” P” P during N” N ` Det the meeting N Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 42. Government  governs  iff   is a lexical head (or tensed I)   C-commands   No barrier (VP, NP, PP, AP, or tensed IP) intervenes between  and  A  C D  F G Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 43. N’’--Spec N’ N’--N Compl V’’--Spec V’ V’--V Compl P’’--Spec P’ P’--P Compl A’’--Spec A’ A’--A Compl Adv’’--Spec Adv’ Adv’--Adv Compl X’’--Spec X’ X’--X Compl What kind of expansion is that?
  • 44. N’’--Spec N’ N’--N Compl V’’--Spec V’ V’--V Compl P’’--Spec P’ P’--P Compl A’’--Spec A’ A’--A Compl Adv’’--Spec Adv’ Adv’--Adv Compl X’’--Spec X’ X’--X Compl Endocentric expansion, isn’t it? What about the Sentence?
  • 45. To decide on that question, consider the following two sentences: 1. I am happy that you are here. 2. I am happy for you to be here. I Am Happy That You Are Here I Am Happy for You To be Here What is the difference, then? Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 46. To decide on that question, consider the following two sentences: 1. I am happy that you are here. 2. I am happy for you to be here. I Am Happy That You Are Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb What is the difference, then? I Am Happy for You To be Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 47. To decide on that question, consider the following two sentences: 1. I am happy that you are here. 2. I am happy for you to be here. I Am Happy That You Are Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb The Difference is 1. Are (to be) but tensed 2. To be I Am Happy for You To be Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 48. To decide on that question, consider the following two sentences: 1. I am happy that you are here. 2. I am happy for you to be here. I Am Happy That You Are Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb The Difference is 1. Are (to be) but tensed 2. To be I Am Happy for You To be Here Pronoun Aux-to be Adj Complementizer Pronoun Aux- to be Adverb The Difference is tense. In Morphology, Tense is Inflection: INFL/ I Then I is the most important/ Head Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 49. If I is the head for the sentence, and applying the X-Bar Theory, we should have I’’ ----- Spec I’ I’ ----- I Complement I’’ I ` Compl Spec(ifier) ( = S) I ( = Aux) Tense : [+/- FINITE] Φ-features: [Agr, Neg] … Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 50. If I is the head for the sentence, and applying the X-Bar Theory, we should have I’’ ----- Spec I’ I’ ----- I Complement I’’ I ` V’’ Spec(ifier) ( = S) I ( = Aux) Tense : [+/- FINITE] Φ-features: [Agr, Neg] … Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 51. X-bar structure of S : IP  I(NFL(ECTION)) as the Head of S I’’ I ` V’’ Spec(ifier) ( = S) I …… ( = Aux) Tense : [+/- FINITE] Φ-features: [PNG, case] … NP Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 52. Spec-Head Agreement  A head (X) and its specifies (Spec-X) must agree in relevant features I’’ I ` V” N’’ I …… Case: NOM PNG: 3sg … Case: NOM PNG: 3sg Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 53. VP-internal Subject Hypothesis I” I ` Spec ( = S) I Tense Φ-features … NP V” V ` N” Spec V … … … The external argument of a verb is generated within the VP. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 54. I” I ` Spec I John V” V ` N” N” V like his teacher John likes his teacher. [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] … Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 55. Extended Projection Principle  There must be a subject in a clause.  Examples  John likes his teacher  *(There) is a unicorn in the garden Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 56. I” I ` N” I ti V” V ` N” N” V like his teacher John likes his teacher. Johni Movement rule [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] … Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 57. I” I ` N” I [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] … V” V ` P” Spec V ` be in the garden There is a unicorn in the garden. N” a unicorn V There Insertion rule Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 58. I” I ` N” I V” V ` N” I ` consider I” V John ti incompetent N” Bill I To [+EPP] V” V ` N” A” V ti be John considers Bill to be incompetent [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] …
  • 59. Small Clause  John considers Bill to be incompetent  *John considers Bill to incompetent  *John considers Bill be incompetent  John considers Bill incompetent Small clause Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 60. I” I ` N” I V” V ` N” A ` consider A” V John ti incompetent N” Bill A John considers Bill incompetent N ` N [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP] …
  • 61. What about structures larger than a sentence (I ’’) • Embedded clauses • Questions: • Wh-questions • Yes-no questions Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 62. X-bar structure of S-bar : CP  C(omp(lementizer)) as the Head of S` C’’ C ` I” Spec ( = S` ) C …… [+/- Q] ( = S ) Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 63. I” I ` N” I + EPP … V” V ` N” C ` think C” V I ti Spec C [-Q] I” I think that John should leave N ` N that John should leave Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 64. I” I ` N” I + EPP … V” V ` N” C ` want C” V I ti Spec C [-Q] I” I want for John to leave N ` N for John to leave Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 65. I” I ` N” I + EPP … V” V ` N” C ` wonder C” V I ti Spec C [-Q] I” I wonder if John has left N ` N if John has left Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 66. C” C ` Spec C did I” I ` N” V ` … +EPP Aux V” I whoj Maryi Spec V N” Who did Mary see? NP see tj [+ Q] NP i [+Q]-CP Principle: A [+Q]-CP must have a specifier Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 67. Summary  Projection Principle: Lexical information (such as theta roles) is syntactically represented at all levels of representation  X-bar Theory tells us how words are combined to make phrases and sentences.  The head of S is I(NFL(LECTION) and the head of S` is Comp(lementizer)  VP-internal Subject Hypothesis: The external argument of a verb is generated within the VP.  Extended Projection Principle (EPP): A clause must have a subject  [+Q]-CP Principle: A [+Q]-CP must have a specifier  Transformational rules can be  movement rules  insertion rules  Rules must be maximally constrained, otherwise they could produce anything (e.g., Head-to-head movement constraint, EPP, etc) Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 68.  Comsky, Noam. 1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris, Dordrecht.  Ouhalla, Jamal. 1994. Introducing Transformational grammar. Arnold, London. Principles and Parameters Government and Binding Introduction X-bar theory Syntax — History Mohammed Moubtassime
  • 69. • Comsky, Noam. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. CUP, Cambridge. • Chomsky, Noam (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding. Berlin: Mouton. • Chomsky, Noam (1982). Some Concepts and Consequences of the Theory of Government and Binding • Chomsky, N. and Lasnik, H. (1993) Principles and Parameters Theory, in Syntax: An International Handbook of Contemporary Research, Berlin: de Gruyter. • Haegeman, Liliane (1991). Introduction to Government and Binding Theory. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. • Jackendoff, Ray (1977). X¯ Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure. Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT Press. • Ouhalla, Jamal (1994). Introducing Transformational Grammar. New York:OUP. • Sag, Ivan A., Thomas Wasow and Emily M. Bender (2003). Syntactic Theory. A Formal Introduction. Palo Alto: CSLI Publications. Sources and further readings
  • 71. Binary Branching and VP-shells  A node can dominate at most two branches  John put the book *(on the shelf)  John put *(the book) on the shelf  Put: [V; _ NP PP]  S V (NP) (PP)
  • 72. v P v ` spec V ` VP v NP V PP put VP-Shell light verb Head-to-head movement constraint V-raising
  • 73. v P v ` spec V ` VP v NP V PP John put the book on the shelf I ` IP NP I put John the book on the shelf N ` N Tense AGR +EPP … ti ti