Building a base for better teaching

2 2 0 1 4 N u m b e r 3 | E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m
P h i l i pp i n e s
Dawn Rogier
Assessment Literacy: Building
a Base for Better Teaching
and Learning
A
re you assessment literate?
What does that mean—to be
assessment literate? Assess-
ment is something that we as teachers
must do all the time, but many of
us feel unprepared or uncomfortable
when it comes to testing our students.
Teachers often reuse tests without
analyzing or revising them and sel-
dom use statistical procedures to see
how a test—or a test item—is actu-
ally performing. Assessing students
often means reaching for a test or
quiz that is already prepared, whether
it be a test included with a textbook,
something another teacher prepared,
or a standardized test produced by
a major testing organization or our
institution. These aren’t necessarily
bad choices (and sometimes it may
not be our choice at all), but to make
sure they are good choices, we must
be knowledgeable about the prin-
ciples and practices of assessment.
In order for assessment to be
effective, classroom teachers need to
be assessment literate—knowledge-
able about the key concepts of testing
and how they can inform the design
of assessments and decisions sur-
rounding their usage. This article will
start you on the path to being assess-
ment literate. You will learn about the
terms that make up the cornerstones
of testing, how to plan your courses
with assessments in mind, and how
to make a test blueprint. Knowing
more about assessment will not only
help you to assess your students more
effectively, but it will also provide you
with a means of evaluating your own
teaching and help you to produce
tests that will actually motivate your
students to learn. Let’s begin by learn-
ing more about the words testing and
assessment.
Testing vs. assessing
The word test can make people
nervous. It has semantic qualities that
make us think of being judged or
measured by someone or something.
Many people have an emotive reaction
to testing and associate it with negative
experiences that they may have had as

3E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m | N u m b e r 3 2 0 1 4
students. In an educational context, the terms
testing and assessment are often used inter-
changeably to indicate the measurement of
student learning. However, although a test is a
type of assessment—usually thought of in the
traditional sense of an exam or quiz—assess-
ment is a more comprehensive term. It often
indicates the collection of information about
student learning that might include not only
tests but also a variety of techniques such as
performance tasks, portfolios, and observation.
While tests are thought of as a means to
give grades to students, assessments offer
diagnostic information for both students and
teachers. The ultimate purpose of assessment
is to improve student learning, as opposed to
just being able to give a mark for the amount
of course content a student has mastered.
Today teachers tend to talk about assessing
(rather than testing) their students because we
see the ongoing evaluation of student learn-
ing as more than just testing knowledge and
skills in a particular area at one point in time
for grading purposes. Thus, throughout this
article, references to tests will be made with
the ultimate goal of using them as assessment
tools and not purely as testing instruments.
Importance of assessment
As we all know, assessment plays an impor-
tant role in teaching and learning. It affects
decisions related to instruction, determines
the extent to which instructional objectives
are met, and provides information for admin-
istrative decisions. It has been estimated that
teachers spend as much as 50 percent of their
time in assessment-related activities (Stiggins
1991), and that when assessment is imple-
mented effectively, student achievement is
improved (Campbell and Collins 2007).
Yet many teachers feel assessment and test-
ing are not relevant to their classroom practice
and report that they feel unprepared to under-
take assessment-related activities. Popham
(2004) reports that most public school edu-
cators in the United States tend to think of
assessment as “a complex, quantitative arena
well beyond the comprehension of mere mor-
tals” (82). Some of these feelings may come
from the anxiety that teachers felt when they
were students taking tests, especially if they
didn’t understand how the tests were graded
or if the objectives of the tests weren’t clear.
Teacher-education programs are also at fault
for not making sure teachers are adequately
trained before entering the classroom (Mertler
2004). As Taylor (2009) points out,
language education programs at
graduate level typically devote little
time or attention to assessment
theory and practice, perhaps just
a short (often optional) module;
and although there is no shortage
of books on language testing and
assessment available today, many of
these are perceived to be (and often
are) highly technical or too special-
ized for language educators seeking
to understand basic principles and
practice in assessment. (23)
During our time in school and teacher-train-
ing courses, we take many tests, but how often
are we actually given practice creating them,
marking them, and interpreting the results?
Developing these skills is part of becoming
assessment literate.
Assessment literacy
An essential element of assessment literacy
is the ability to connect student assessment to
the learning and teaching process. Teachers
can make this link by first matching test items
to instructional objectives, then using the test
results to provide feedback on both student per-
formance and how well the instructional objec-
tives were met. An assessment-literate teacher
is able to interpret data generated from a test
to make useful modifications to teaching and
to use assessments as a tool to improve student
learning. Assessment-literate teachers are also
able to discuss assessments with others in terms
of key concepts in testing. With this in mind,
we can explore common terms associated with
tests, along with their practical application.
Key concepts and considerations
Seven key concepts—usefulness, reliability,
validity, practicality, washback, authenticity,
and transparency—are cornerstones in testing
that help to ensure that a test is solid (i.e., that
it will consistently measure what you want it
to measure in an efficient manner, and that
both teacher and student will see it as a valu-
able source of information regarding learn-
ing). Understanding these concepts and being
able to improve practices related to them are

important in developing assessment literacy.
Each is discussed separately below, but as you
will notice, they are connected to and support
one another; together, they form the basis for
building solid assessments.
Usefulness and purpose
According to Bachman and Palmer (1996),
usefulness is the most important consid-
eration when choosing or designing a test.
Teachers must consider what the purpose of
a particular assessment is and whether this
purpose is congruent with the students they
are testing and the course they are teaching.
All language tests must be developed with a
specific purpose, a particular group of test
takers, and a specific language use in mind.
Even tests with the general purpose of test-
ing English language ability (proficiency) are
designed with a specific group of test takers in
mind. Take, for example, three standardized
tests used globally for the purpose of measur-
ing language ability: the Test of English as a
Foreign Language (TOEFL), the Internation-
al English Language Testing System (IELTS),
and the Michigan English Test (MET). Each
of these has been developed with very specific
audiences and purposes (see Figure 1).
The examples in Figure 1 illustrate that
tests are designed with very specific audi-
ences and purposes in mind. This specificity
is what allows them to effectively measure
what they are designed to measure and makes
them useful for a specific purpose. You must
carefully consider the purpose of a test before
administering it. If you choose a pre-made test
and it does not match your students’ needs or
your purpose, then it will not be an adequate
assessment of your students and will not pro-
vide the information that you need in order to
make informed decisions about the teaching
and learning taking place in the classroom.
For example, if you wanted to measure the
reading ability of your students to see if they
would be able to order from a menu when
visiting the United States on an exchange
trip, you couldn’t just use any reading test you
find in a textbook or online. You would need
to find one (or better yet, make one) that is
specific to the skills taught in class, that meets
the vocabulary needs of the situation the stu-
dents would be immersed in, and that uses
an appropriate text style that matches what
you expect the students to encounter. Having
them read a passage from a newspaper or a
short story and then answer questions would
not adequately measure their ability to read
and order from a menu at a restaurant. So
when you choose or design a test, consider the
purpose of the test, the group of test takers it
is designed for, and the specific language use
you want to evaluate.
Reliability
Your assessments not only need to be use-
ful for the intended purpose, they also need to
be reliable. Reliability refers to the consistency
of test scores. If you were to test a student
more than once using the same test, the results
should be the same, assuming that nothing
Test Information about the Purpose
TOEFL Measures the ability “to use and understand English at the university level,” and
evaluates how well the test taker can “combine listening, reading, speaking and
writing skills to perform academic tasks” (Educational Testing Service 2014).
IELTS Has an academic and a general-training version. The academic version is for
those who want to study in an English-speaking university; the general version
focuses on basic “survival skills in broad social and workplace contexts” (IELTS
2013).
MET “Intended for adults and adolescents at or above a secondary level of education
who want to evaluate their general English language proficiency” in social, edu-
cational, and workplace contexts. It is “not an admissions test for students apply-
ing to universities and colleges in the United States, Canada, and the United
Kingdom” (Modern Language Center 2010).
Figure 1. Examples of standardized proficiency tests and their purposes

else had changed. Reliability can be threat-
ened by fluctuations in the learner, in scoring,
or in test administration. Fluctuations in the
learner are out of the testing administrator’s
control; we cannot control whether a student
is sick, tired, or under emotional stress at the
time of a test. But we as teachers can limit the
fluctuations in scoring and test administra-
tion. The guidelines for how a test is adminis-
tered, the length of time allotted to complete
the test, and the conditions for testing should
be established in advance and written in a
test-specifications document. (See the Validity
section for an example of test specifications.)
As much as possible, there should be consis-
tency in testing conditions and in how a test
is administered each time it is given. Teachers
can minimize fluctuations in score by prepar-
ing answer keys and scoring rubrics, and by
holding norming sessions with those who will
be scoring the test.
You can take steps to improve the reli-
ability of your tests. You need to make sure
that the test is long enough to sample the
content that students are being tested on and
that there is enough time for most of the
students to finish taking the test. The items
should not be too easy or too difficult, the
questions should not be tricky or ambiguous,
the directions should be clear, and the score
range should be wide. Before you administer
the test, you might want to have someone else
take it to see whether he or she encounters
problems with directions or content. Use that
person’s feedback to see where the test might
need to be improved.
Validity
One thing to keep in mind is that a test
may be highly reliable, but not valid. That is,
it might produce similar scores consistently,
but that does not mean it is measuring what
you would like it to. A test has validity when
it measures what you want it to measure. The
most important aspect of validity is the appro-
priateness for the context and the audience of
the test. Think about what is to be gained by
administering a test and how the information
will be used. Suppose your goal is to measure
students’ listening ability, and you give a test
in which students answer questions in written
format about a lecture they hear. In that case,
you need to make sure that the vocabulary,
sentence structure, and grammar usage in the
written questions are not beyond the level
of the students. Otherwise, you will be test-
ing them on more than just their listening
comprehension skills and thus decreasing the
validity of the test as a measure for listening
ability.
A number of factors can have an adverse
effect on validity, including the following:
• unclear directions
• test items that ask students to perform
at a skill level that is not part of the
course objectives
• test items that are poorly written
• test length that doesn’t allow for ade-
quate sampling or coverage of content
• complexity and subjectivity of scor-
ing that may inaccurately rank some
students
The best way to ensure validity and reli-
ability is to create test specifications and exam
blueprints. These will help ensure that tests
created and used match what is intended for
the course and the students. Figure 2 shows
an example of general information for the
test specifications of a final exam for a high-
er-education pre-academic English-language
program course. For each of the subtests (lis-
tening, reading, and writing), specifications
would also be written and would include the
type of skills being assessed, level of vocabu-
lary, grammar structure, and length of text to
be used.
Practicality
Practicality refers to how “teacher friendly”
a given test is. Practicality issues include the
cost of test development and maintenance,
time needed to administer and mark the test,
ease of marking, availability of suitably trained
markers, and administration logistics. If the
test you want to give requires computers, and
these are not available or connectivity is unre-
liable, there will obviously be a practicality
issue with the delivery of the test. For many
teachers, the amount of time required to
mark a test is an important practicality issue.
You can overcome this issue by weighing how
important a particular assessment is in terms
of overall course mark and determining how
much time you want to spend marking it.
For example, if a vocabulary quiz will not
be worth much in the overall course mark,
you might consider having students exchange
papers and mark them instead of marking

General Test Information — Final Exam
Purpose (Why are you testing?) To test student mastery of listening, reading, and writ-
ing curricular objectives for Level 1
Intended population (Who are you
testing?)
Students in university pre-academic intensive English
program – Level 1
Intended decisions/stakes (How
important is the test for the course
grade?)
High stakes – weighted as 40% of the final grade
Response format (What type of
questions will you use? How will the
test taker show mastery of the
objective?)
Listening: multiple choice, short answer, matching, gap
fill, and information transfer
Reading: multiple choice, short answer, matching, gap
fill, and information transfer
Writing: one-paragraph response to a prompt (input is
a picture or personal knowledge)
Number of examiners (How many
people are needed to administer the
test? Are there any restrictions for
test supervisors?)
One test supervisor per 20 students; two markers per
exam (cannot be the class teacher)
Number and weighting of items/
tasks (How many questions will
there be on each part? How much
will each part be worth for the
overall grade of the test?)
Listening: approximately 20 items (33%)
Reading: approximately 20 items (33%)
Writing: 1 task (34 %)
Examination length (How much
time will the assessment take overall?
Is there a time length per section?)
Maximum of 2 hours
Listening: 30 minutes
Reading: 40 minutes
Writing: 40 minutes
Order of tasks (In what order will
the sections be tested?)
1. Listening
2. Reading
3. Writing
Rating scale type (Conditions
necessary for marking the exam)
Reading and Listening: Answer key agreed to before
the test; Writing: Two markers, analytical criteria, third
marker if necessary
Reporting type (How will the score
be reported? As a whole score, or per
section? What is the passing grade?)
Single score (maximum 100%; pass mark 70%)
Figure 2. Example of general test specifications
each one yourself. This arrangement also
allows students to review the materials at the
same time. For marking writing, it might be
more practical to have students review each
other’s work and peer edit the first draft than
to have the teacher make comments on each
initial draft.
Washback
Washback refers to the effects of testing on
students, teachers, and the overall program. It
can be positive or negative. Positive washback
occurs most often when testing and curriculum
design are based on clear course outcomes that
are known to all students and teachers. On

the other hand, exams that require extensive
preparation can have negative washback and be
harmful to the teaching and learning process; if
instruction solely focuses on helping students
pass the test, other learning activities may be
neglected. To make sure washback is positive,
teachers should link teaching and testing to
instructional objectives. Tests should reflect the
goals and objectives of the course along with the
types of activities used to teach the content.That
underscores the importance of planning assess-
ments at the same time you plan the course.
Another way to bring about positive wash-
back is through feedback. Providing feedback
in a timely manner is important if you want
students to learn and benefit from the assess-
ment process. In the above example of practi-
cality, having students mark their classmates’
papers provides timely feedback to the stu-
dents and helps them understand where they
might need further practice or review. Using
short quizzes that are graded immediately by
the students throughout the course may let
students know where they need to study more;
it may also redirect teacher energy toward the
areas that need more instruction time.
Involving students in the marking process
is one way to create positive washback from
testing. Other ways are to use authentic testing
materials and to make the assessment procedures
transparent—the topics of the next two sections.
Authenticity
Tasks that reflect real-world situations and
contexts in which the language will be used
provide motivation for learners to perform
well. Assessment tasks should be relevant to
real-life contexts in which the language will
be used. For example, if a course is designed
for students who will be answering phones
in English in a call center, an oral exam that
mimics a telephone-call format would be
more authentic than a test in which students
listen to an academic lecture and respond to
questions related to the lecture, or one where
the students write the correct forms of verbs in
sentence blanks. The assessments should relate
to the purpose of the course, which in turn
relates to course objectives, which are then
tested on the assessments.
Transparency
Transparency refers to the availability of
information to students. Students should be
aware of the skills, vocabulary, and grammar
that they will be expected to learn, and they
should receive a clear explanation of how
these will be assessed. Transparency makes
students part of the testing process by ensur-
ing that they understand what the course
objectives are and what will be tested, as well
as the format of tests and how they will be
used and graded. Students should have the
chance beforehand to practice question types
that will be used in a test. Using a new test
format, one that students are unfamiliar with,
could affect the test’s reliability. When stu-
dents do not perform well on a test, it should
be because they have not learned the material,
not because they didn’t understand the direc-
tions to complete a task.
Increasing transparency will also reduce stu-
dents’ test anxiety and allow them the chance
to perform better. To increase transparency,
many schools and educational institutions pub-
lish their test specifications. For example, the
Oregon Department of Education publishes
test specifications for the English Language
Proficiency Assessments by grade level on its
website (Oregon Department of Education
2014). These documents list not only content
to be tested, but also in what ratio, along with
appropriate test-item types.
Planning your assessments
Now that you are familiar with the seven
cornerstones of assessment, let’s examine how
you would go about planning an assessment
that is useful, valid, reliable, practical, authen-
tic, and transparent, and that has positive
washback.
Planning your assessments goes hand in
hand with developing your course learning
objectives and should start when you begin
planning the course. How you will assess stu-
dent learning will affect how you present mate-
rials and teach the course. There are several
phases in the assessment process. One of the
most important is the initial planning stage.
When you plan an exam, begin by describing
your assessment context. Think about what
the purpose of the course is, which resources
you have available, and how the instructional
setting and larger educational context influ-
ence the course. This is the information that
you will put in the test specifications, discussed
above in the Validity section, in the categories
for purpose and intended population.

The next step is to identify students’
needs and develop course learning objectives.
Learning objectives are determined by what
you want your students to know—and may
be mandated by institutional or national
priorities for education within your context.
You should specify what you want your stu-
dents to learn or be able to do after taking
the course. This will guide you in develop-
ing not only lessons and curriculum, but
also in deciding how you will assess whether
students have learned what you want them
to. Identifying course learning objectives
will give you and the students goals to work
toward during the course. Each of these
objectives can then be divided into the skills
needed to accomplish the objectives, whether
they relate to vocabulary, structure, or flu-
ency skills. With these learning objectives in
hand, you will be able to design a test and
check that the test you hope to use will accu-
rately measure these objectives.
The best way to do this is to create a
blueprint of the assessment, matching course
objectives to the test questions. By using the
course learning objectives to guide the content
and the purpose of your exam, you can make
sure that your assessments serve both as a
tool for providing information about student
learning and as a means of assessing the course
materials and instructional practices.
Creating an exam blueprint
Having an exam blueprint increases the
likelihood that you will actually test what you
set out to test (i.e., the test will have validity).
Test blueprints help you avoid overemphasizing
one area or completely missing another area
that needs to be tested. A blueprint is a tool to
determine what is important for the students
to know and the relative weight of each area
in relation to other areas or skills being tested;
at the same time, a blueprint ensures that the
content being taught is properly represented on
the test. The blueprint can also help a teacher
see that the method used for assessing matches
the cognitive demand that is intended.
Begin creating a blueprint by listing the
learning objectives you want to measure,
the way they will be tested, and how much
of the total exam will cover each area. There
may be several items on the exam related to
each objective, but by first mapping out what
you hope to test, you can be sure to include
questions that assess all your objectives. An
example of a simplified blueprint is given in
Figure 3. It lists the skill area (in this case, the
skills to be tested are reading, listening, writ-
Skill Learning Objective How Objective(s) Will Be Tested Total
Reading • Can scan to find specific
information
• Can recognize main idea of a
paragraph
• Can understand pronoun
references
Read a paragraph and answer
questions related to a reading
passage using multiple-choice,
short-answer, matching, gap-fill,
and information-transfer items
30%
Listening • Can recognize main idea of a
section
• Can listen for specific
information
• Can listen for numbers
Listen and answer questions
using multiple-choice,
short-answer, matching, gap-fill,
and information-transfer items
30%
Writing Can use pronouns to show
cohesion between sentences
Write sentences related to a
personal topic
15%
Grammar • Present simple
• Adjectives
• Subject/object pronouns
Multiple-choice and fill-in-the-
blank items
25%
Total 100%
Figure 3. Simplified exam blueprint

ing, and grammar), the learning objective, the
item/question type, and overall percentage of
importance in the context of this assessment.
You can also select a test that is already
made and map it backward to see if it will fit
your purposes or if items need to be added,
adjusted, or replaced. To map backward, you
would list each question, what it tests, and
the number of points it is worth. At the end
of this exercise, you should be able to see
what content is being tested and whether it is
tested in the correct proportion to what you
hope the students are learning. Figure 4 shows
sample questions that might be on a reading
test (in this case, the topic of the passage was
dogs); the questions have been analyzed to
determine the objectives being assessed and
the mix of item types being used.
One way to develop items for a test is to
write them on notecards (or if you have a
Item Learning Objective Item Type
What is the main idea of the reading?
A. How to care for a dog
B. The many different breeds of dogs
C. The many ways that dogs are important
to people
Reading: Can
understand main idea
Multiple-choice
question
In Paragraph 1, what does they refer to?
A. veterinarians
B. dog trainers
C. dogs
Reading: Can
understand pronoun
references
Multiple-choice
question
What is the meaning of the word flush in
Paragraph 3?
A. raise
B. remove
C. even with
Reading: Can
understand vocabulary
in context
Multiple-choice
question
What is the main idea of Paragraph 3?
A. Dog showing is a popular sport.
B. There are several hundred breeds of dogs.
C. Obedience training for dogs is important.
Reading: Can
recognize main idea of
a paragraph
Multiple-choice
question
According to the reading, which is considered a
sporting dog?
A. collie
B. fox terrier
C. pointer
Reading: Can scan
to find specific
information
Multiple-choice
question
Match the type of dog with its description,
according to the information in the reading.
basset hound _____
poodle _____
Chihuahua _____
terrier _____
A. is trained to pull sleds
B. has long ears
C. is the smallest pure-bred dog
D. sheds very little hair
E. is used to herd animals
Reading: Can scan
to find specific
information
Matching
Figure 4. Analysis of exam questions relative to learning objectives

computer, add them to a spreadsheet) so that
you can then sort them according to skill,
question type, or objective covered. This sys-
tem will let you know whether you have too
many questions of the same type or need to
add more in a certain category. Writing ques-
tions at the end of each lesson you teach is also
an effective way to reflect on what you taught
during the lesson and how you could assess
that content in a manner the students will be
familiar with. Working with a group of teach-
ers to make new test items, or even working
with your students, is a way to add variety to
your item bank (your collection of possible
test questions) and to get other opinions on
what might be appropriate.
Having students become part of the assess-
ment process can increase transparency, help
them recognize what is important to know
from the content being taught, and motivate
them to review and study together. If students
have a clear understanding of what they are
being tested on and how they will be tested,
positive washback is promoted. If you are
working at an institution that uses very high-
stakes testing and standardized exams for all
students, you might consider having the stu-
dents create assessments for review or quizzes.
For example, you could ask each student to
write questions for a particular grammar item
or vocabulary list. This method will also help
you informally assess student knowledge of
the topics being taught as you review students’
questions and answers to decide whether they
are suitable for a small-scale assessment.
After questions are written, label each with
the learning objective that it covers and the
item type. You can then look at the questions,
make selections, and put them together for
the quiz. You can look at item cards your-
self or with other teachers to determine the
strength of each question for testing a given
objective. Looking at questions with others is
a useful practice that can also generate more
items or improve the ones you have. You
can make stacks of questions relating to the
same curriculum objective and determine how
many of each you will need for the appropri-
ate weighting on the test or quiz. Once the
assessment has been administered, you will
also want to add information to each question
about how it performed (see Basic Statistics
for Testing, below). These testing or item sta-
tistics will be useful in determining whether
to use the questions again and which learn-
ing objectives might need to be reviewed or
taught in a different manner in future lessons.
In this way, an assessment can provide both
teacher and student feedback.
Providing feedback
An important process in assessment devel-
opment and revision is feedback. By providing
feedback on an actual test after administer-
ing it, teachers ensure constant improvement
with regard to the reliability and validity of all
assessments administered within a program.
Information gathered from the test can be
useful to determine final marks of an exam
and to decide whether any questions should
not be counted in the grading process. All
information that is generated through testing
should be kept with that test and reviewed
before the test is administered again. Teach-
ers who use an assessment should be asked to
complete a feedback form. Sample questions
and the areas you might consider for feedback
are given in the following section.
Creating an exam file
Reflecting on the exam is an important
part of the test development process. After
you administer each test that might be reused,
create an exam file. The file should contain
information about the actual tasks in the test,
its administration, and its level of difficulty.
You could create a feedback form that has
questions related to these topics, then fill it
out when developing and reviewing the test,
and reflect on it after the administration.
Questions that might be useful in gathering
feedback on an exam are listed below.
Setting: Task and Administration
• Is it clear how the student is expected to
respond to each item?
• Does the exam test the curriculum
content?
• Does the exam contain formats familiar
to the students?
• Are the exam tasks authentic and
meaningful?
• Is there more than one logical option/
answer possible for any blank/question?
• Is the layout user-friendly? Does the
formatting match specifications?
• Are there any typos, misprints, or other
errors in the production of the test?

• Are the listening and reading texts at an
appropriate level?
• Are the texts clear in their organization
and content?
• Is the quality (e.g., pace, sound clarity,
voice quality) of the recording good?
• Is the time allotment appropriate for
the length of the exam?
Demands: Task
• Do the test tasks adequately sample the
skills and strategies needed for [listen-
ing/reading/writing]?
• Are any questions answerable by stu-
dents who haven’t heard the lecture or
read the text?
• Do the task types reflect student class-
room experience?
• Are the task types adequate for measur-
ing the course objectives?
• Is this test an accurate measuring tool
for progress for this course?
Along with the feedback form, an exam
file would also include the test-specifications
document indicating the purpose and general
audience for the test, the test blueprint indi-
cating how each question matches a learning
objective, and basic statistics. Changes to
an exam or scoring process should be based
on the analyses and feedback. Making notes
about the test immediately after grading it
offers an opportunity to update an exam
while it is fresh in your mind. You might even
think about having your students answer a
few questions about the test as well. These
could include how difficult they thought it
was, whether there were questions they found
confusing, and whether the content covered
was what they expected would be on the test.
Valuable information about your assessment
can also be gathered through basic statistical
analysis.
Basic statistics for testing
After you administer an assessment, basic
statistics give you an idea of how your stu-
dents are performing and information about
the test in general. Two useful statistics to
measure are the mean score and the pass/fail
rate. The mean is the mathematical average of
all the test takers’ scores; you can compute the
mean by adding all the test takers’ scores and
dividing the total by the number of students
who took the test. You can compute a mean
score for the whole test and for each section.
The mean score provides information about
the reliability of a test over time, especially if
the delivery of the course remains the same.
If a test is reliable, you would expect a similar
result among students at different times or
between groups of similar students. If you
have a test in which various skills are tested,
such as the one in the example of the test
specifications with a listening, reading, and
writing section (Figure 2), computing the
mean for each section would give you an idea
of which skill areas the students have more
difficulty with, as indicated by a lower mean
score.
To determine the pass/fail rate, meanwhile,
you must first decide what a passing score is
on the exam. I have been in places where 60
percent is passing at the university level for
some courses, depending on their difficulty,
and other places where 75 percent or even
higher represents the passing score. It depends
on the level at which students are expected to
master the course objectives, and on whether
the purpose of testing is just to measure learn-
ing objectives or to move only the top per-
formers on to the next course or level of study.
Once you have determined a passing score,
add the number of students who reached the
passing score or higher and divide by the total
number of test takers. This number represents
the pass rate. The same can be done for the
fail rate, counting instead the number of stu-
dents who did not receive at least the passing
mark and dividing by the total number of test
takers.
The pass/fail rate can be calculated for the
test as a whole, for each section or skill area,
and even for individual questions. Looking at
individual-item pass rates gives you an idea of
the difficulty of each question and can help
you find items that may need to be rewrit-
ten or areas that will need further instruction
or review. If you add this information to the
questions that you created on notecards or
a computer spreadsheet, in the future you
can also put together tests with questions
that have a variety of difficulty levels. This
information will also tell you which skills
you might not need to spend so much time
reviewing in the future and which ones may
need more instruction time.

Practice makes perfect
Just as learning a language takes practice,
so does developing assessment skills. By
thinking about the assessment process and
analyzing the tests we use, we can all become
better teachers and test developers. Teachers
often report that assessment literacy is not
something that they acquired by taking a
course, but instead is something they learned
on the job through the ongoing experience
of working with and developing assessments.
When I asked teachers how they had gained
the knowledge that they have about assess-
ment, almost all mentioned post-formal-
education experience (“through discussion
of the effectiveness of assessments with
colleagues,” “trial and error,” “being part of
a group making tests,” “on-the-job experi-
ence”). Teachers seem to feel that assessment
literacy is not something you are taught in a
course, though you can get the fundamentals
and theories there; it is basically something
that must be developed through ongoing
experience and practice. Assessment literacy
is a skill that you have to learn by doing, not
just by reading about it. Real-life teaching in
the classroom provides the perfect opportu-
nity to apply assessment fundamentals and
to develop assessments that will motivate
your students to learn—and that will moti-
vate you to develop lessons that will facilitate
learning.
A lot of research has focused on what
information about assessment should be
taught in education courses, but maybe
instead we should be looking at the oppor-
tunities for development that present them-
selves throughout our teaching careers. As
Boyles (2006) suggests, teachers can use the
information from assessment to adjust teach-
ing practices, to provide evidence of student
performance, and to guide the curriculum-
review process. The information we gather
from assessments should provide feedback to
students, but it should also be used as a means
for teachers and program administrators to
review instructional practices and curricular
objectives. Brookhart (2001) notes that in
order for teachers to “own the goal of high-
quality assessment, they must be convinced
that assessment is just as important to student
learning as … effective classroom manage-
ment or lesson design.” Research indicates
that “teacher professional development is
more effective when it is school embed-
ded, cooperative and sustained over time
… organized within and/or across schools
and focuses on improving practice over time
through the sharing of knowledge, experience
and expertise” (O’Leary 2008, 112).
So, with that in mind, make sure to share
with your colleagues what you have learned
from this article (or share this article with
them), talk about your assessments, work
together to improve them, and remember
that assessment plays an important role in the
teaching and learning processes. By reflect-
ing on the tests used in your classroom, how
they are developed, and the results obtained
from them, you will become more assessment
literate and a better teacher. Testing will not
seem so complex or beyond comprehen-
sion, as many teachers feel it is. You, in turn,
will provide students with a better experi-
ence, empowering them as learners instead
of instilling fear of tests. With assessment
literacy comes the understanding of the valu-
able role assessment plays in the classroom for
both teachers and students.
References
Bachman, L. F., and A. S. Palmer. 1996. Language
testing in practice. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Boyles, P. 2006. Assessment literacy. In New visions
in action: National assessment summit papers,
ed. M. Rosenbusch, 18–23. Ames: Iowa State
University.
Brookhart, S. M. 2001. The standards and class-
room assessment research. Paper presented at
the Annual Meeting of the American Associa-
tion of Colleges for Teacher Education.
Campbell, C., and V. L. Collins. 2007. Identifying
essential topics in general and special education
introductory assessment textbooks. Educational
Measurement: Issues and Practice 26 (1): 9–18.
Educational Testing Service. 2014. “About the
TOEFL iBT® Test.” www.ets.org/toefl/ibt/
about?WT.ac=toeflhome_ibtabout2_121127
IELTS. 2013. “Test Takers—Academic or General
Training?” www.ielts.org/test_takers_informa-
tion/what_is_ielts/academic_or_general_train-
ing.aspx
Mertler, C. A. 2004. Secondary teachers’ assess-
ment literacy: Does classroom experience make
a difference? American Secondary Education 33
(1): 49–64.
Modern Language Center. 2010. “MET: Michigan
English Test.” www.mlc.edu.jo/met-michigan-
english-test
O’Leary, M. 2008. Towards an agenda for profes-

sional development in assessment. Journal of
In-service Education 34 (1): 109–114.
Oregon Department of Education. 2014. “Test-
ing—Student Assessment.” www.ode.state.or.us/
search/page/?id=496
Popham, W. J. 2004. Why assessment illiteracy is
professional suicide. Educational Leadership 62
(1): 82–83.
Stiggins, R. J. 1991. Relevant classroom assessment
training for teachers. Educational Measurement:
Issues and Practice 10 (1): 7–12.
Taylor, L. 2009. Developing assessment literacy.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 29: 21–36.
Dawn Rogier is the Regional English
Language Officer for Brunei, Malaysia,
the Pacific Islands, Papua New Guinea,
and the Philippines. In her free time, she
enjoys analyzing test items and discussing
statistical procedures.
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