IAM NSTEMI

Notas del editor

• #4: Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is defined by clinical symptoms that suggest acute myocardial ischemia. Pathologically, ACS develops from so-called vulnerable plaques, which are characterized by large lipid cores and thin fibrous caps. On rupture, the thrombogenic material with plaque interacts with the circulating blood, resulting in thrombosis at the site of plaque rupture. In certain instances, plaque erosion may also result in thrombosis. UA and NSTEMI differ in whether the ischemic damage was severe enough to result in biomarker elevation (NSTEMI). UA is diagnosed when 2 or more samples collected at least 6 hours apart resulted in no myocardial necrosis, whereas NSTEMI is diagnosed when there are positive biomarkers.1 Both can have similar presenting symptoms of chest discomfort and electrocardiographic (ECG) changes. In STEMI, there is typically an acute occlusionof the coronary artery by the culprit thrombus, and it is characterized by the following ECG criteria: new ST segment elevation at the J point in 2 contiguous leads with cut points greater than 0.1 mV in all leads
• #6: In the United States, the median age at ACS presentation is 68 years (interquartile range 56 to 79), and the maleto- female ratio is approximately 3:2 (40). Some patients have a history of stable angina, whereas in others, ACS is the initial presentation of coronary artery disease (CAD). It is estimated that in the United States, each year, >780,000 persons will experience an ACS. Approximately 70% of these will have NSTE-ACS (9). Patients with NSTE-ACS typically have more comorbidities, both cardiac and noncardiac, than patients with STEMI.
• #7: Conocemos las estadísticas y publicaciones de países desarrollados, sin embargo los datos de Latinoamérica son mucho más difíciles de obtener a pesar de presentar en los últimos años, una mayor incidencia y prevalencia de enfermedad coronaria. Entre otros estudios, contamos con la información suministrada por el registro CARMELA (4), que es un análisis sobre la prevalencia de los factores de riesgo cardiovascular realizado en siete ciudades latinoamericanas (1553 colombianos de 11550 pacientes latinos), en los cuales se documentó que los factores de riesgo más comunes fueron tabaquismo (30%), obesidad (23%), síndrome metabólico (20%), hipertensión arterial (18%), hipercolesterolemia (14%), diabetes mellitus (7%) y placa carotídea en el 8%.
• #9: Algunas características encontradas en nuestra población son similares a las reportadas en la literatura; al compararlas con las del registro GRACE se evidencia población etaria similar 65 ± 13 GRACE vs 62 ±13 serie actual, sin embargo es importante resaltar que la distribución depende de la prevalencia de los factores de riesgo coronario y de variables genéticas, encontrando diferencias importantes de acuerdo a la población estudiada (36, 37). Es importante enfatizar que se encontraron diferencias relevantes en la presencia de algunos factores de riesgo coronario, siendo los más frecuentes hipertensión arterial (65.6%) y el tabaquismo (51.9%), con menor participación de la dislipidemia (22.7%), a diferencia del registro GRACE y del registro Europeo, en los cuales el tabaquismo tiene un peso menor y la dislipidemia se convierte en marcador importante. Sin embargo un aspecto relevante es la relación del evento coronario agudo con los factores de riesgo tradicionales, corroborando los resultados del subanálisis para Latinoamérica del estudio INTERHEART, lo que podría reafirmar las políticas de salud en el control de estos
• #20: NSTE-ACS most commonly presents as a pressure-type chest pain that typically occurs at rest or with minimal exertion lasting ≥10 minutes (41). The pain most frequently starts in the retrosternal area and can radiate to either or both arms, the neck, or the jaw. Pain may also occur in these areas independent of chest pain. Patients with NSTE-ACS may also present with diaphoresis, dyspnea, nausea, abdominal pain, or syncope. Unexplained new-onset or increased exertional dyspnea is the most common angina equivalent. Less common presentations include nausea and vomiting, diaphoresis, unexplained fatigue, and syncope. Factors that increase the probability of NSTE-ACS are older age, male sex, positive family history of CAD, and the presence of peripheral arterial disease, diabetes mellitus, renal insufficiency, prior MI, and prior coronary revascularization. Although older patients (≥75 years of age) and women usually present with typical symptoms of ACS, the frequency of atypical presentations is increased in these groups as well as in patients with diabetes mellitus, impaired renal function, and dementia (54, 55). Atypical symptoms, including epigastric pain, indigestion, stabbing or pleuritic pain, and increasing dyspnea in the absence of chest pain should raise concern for NSTEACS (56). Psychiatric disorders (e.g., somatoform disorders, panic attack, anxiety disorders) are noncardiac causes of chest pain that can mimic ACS (57).
• #22: The physical examination in NSTE-ACS can be normal, but signs of HF should expedite the diagnosis and treatment of this condition. Acute myocardial ischemia may cause a S4, a paradoxical splitting of S2, or a new murmur of mitral regurgitation due to papillary muscle dysfunction. However, these signs may also exist without NSTE-ACS and thus are nonspecific.
• #24: The coupling of pain on palpation suggesting musculoskeletal disease or inflammation with a pulsatile abdominal mass suggesting abdominal aortic aneurysm raises concern for nonischemic causes of NSTE-ACS. The physical examination can indicate alternative diagnoses in patients with chest pain, several of which are life threatening. Aortic dissection is suggested by back pain, unequal palpated pulse volume, a difference of ≥15 mm Hg between both arms in systolic blood pressure (BP), or a murmur of aortic regurgitation. Acute pericarditis is suggested by a pericardial friction rub. Cardiac tamponade can be reflected by pulsus paradoxus. Pneumothorax is suspected when acute dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, and differential breath sounds are present. A pleural friction rub may indicate pneumonitis or pleuritis.
• #28: An electrocardiogram (ECG) should be recorded within 10 minutes of presentation with suspected ACS to identify patients with persistent (>20 minutes) ST-segment elevation or new left bundle branch block who are eligible for reperfusion therapy (primary angioplasty or fibrinolysis). Changes on ECG in patients with NSTE-ACS include ST depression, transient ST elevation, or new T-wave inversion (21, 58). Persistent ST elevation or anterior ST depression indicative of true posterior MI should be treated according to the STEMI CPG (17). The ECG can be relatively normal or initially nondiagnostic; if this is the case, the ECG should be repeated (e.g., at 15- to 30- minute intervals during the first hour), especially if symptoms recur (21). A normal ECG does not exclude ACS and occurs in 1% to 6% of such patients (59-61
• #29: A normal ECG may also be associated with left circumflex or right coronary artery occlusions, which can be electrically silent (in which case posterior electrocardiographic leads [V7 to V9] may be helpful). Right-sided leads (V3R to V4R) are typically performed in the case of inferior STEMI to detect evidence of right ventricular infarction. Left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy, bundle-branch blocks with repolarization abnormalities, and ventricular pacing may mask signs of ischemia/injury (62).
• #31: Cardiac troponins are the most sensitive and specific biomarkers for NSTE-ACS. They rise within a few hours of symptom onset and typically remain elevated for several days (but may remain elevated for up to 2 weeks with a large infarction). A negative cardiac troponin obtained with more sensitive cardiac troponin assays on admission confers a >95% negative predictive value for MI compared with high-sensitivity assays that confer a negative predictive value ≥99% (63-65). See Section 3.4 for a detailed review of biomarkers for the diagnosis of MI.
• #34: Solitary elevations of troponin cannot be assumed to be due to MI, because troponin elevations can be due to tachyarrhythmia, hypotension or hypertension, cardiac trauma, acute HF, myocarditis and pericarditis, acute pulmonary thromboembolic disease, and severe noncardiac conditions such as sepsis, burns, respiratory failure, acute neurological diseases, and drug toxicity (including cancer chemotherapy). Chronic elevations can result from structural cardiac abnormalities such as LV hypertrophy or ventricular dilatation and are also common in patients with renal insufficiency (34). Patients with end-stage renal disease and no clinical evidence of ACS frequently have elevations of cardiac troponin (180-182). With conventional assays, this is more common with cardiac troponin T than with cardiac troponin I (180). In the diagnosis of NSTEMI, cardiac troponin values must manifest an acute pattern consistent with the clinical events, including ischemic symptoms and electrocardiographic changes. Troponin elevations may persist for up to 14 days or occasionally longer. There is a paucity of guidelines for establishment of reinfarction during the acute infarct period on the basis of troponin measurements. References suggest that an increase of >20% of previous troponin levels or an absolute increase of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin T values (e.g., >7 ng/L over 2 hours) may indicate reinfarction
• #35: 1. What is the likelihood that the symptoms and signs represent ACS? 2. What is the likelihood of adverse clinical outcome(s)? Risk assessment scores and clinical prediction algorithms using clinical history, physical examination, ECG, and cardiac troponins have been developed to help identify patients with ACS at increased risk of adverse outcome(s). Common risk assessment tools include the TIMI (Thrombolysis In Myocardial Infarction) risk score (42), the PURSUIT (Platelet Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa in Unstable Angina: Receptor Suppression Using Integrilin Therapy) risk score (43), the GRACE (Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events) risk score (44), and the NCDR-ACTION (National Cardiovascular Data Registry-Acute Coronary Treatment and Intervention Outcomes Network) registry (https://www.ncdr.com/webncdr/action/). These assessment tools have been applied with variable efficacy to predict outcomes in patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) with undifferentiated chest pain (“pain” encompasses not only pain, but also symptoms such as discomfort, pressure, and squeezing). pain. Although no definitive study has demonstrated the superiority of risk assessment scores or clinical prediction rules over clinician judgment, determination of the level of risk on initial evaluation is imperative to guide patient management, including the need for additional diagnostic testing and treatment.
• #36: % risk at 14 days of: all-cause mortality, new or recurrent MI, or severe recurrent ischemia requiring urgent revascularization.
• #38: Single risk factors do not reliably indicate risk in individual patients with NSTE-ACS (Figure 1) and physicians often do not assimilate the most important markers of risk into clinical assessment.8,9 Risk scoring tools (e.g. GRACE) that combine multiple variables have therefore been developed to accurately identify patients at high risk of ischaemic or bleeding events (Table 3).10,11 Guidelines recommend that all patients with NSTE-ACS are assessed using an established risk scoring system and in the United Kingdom the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends risk stratification according to predicted 6-month mortality
• #41: A chest roentgenogram is useful to identify potential pulmonary causes of chest pain and may show a widened mediastinum in patients with aortic dissection. Computed tomography (CT) of the chest with intravenous contrast can help exclude pulmonary embolism and aortic dissection. Transthoracic echocardiography can identify a pericardial effusion and tamponade physiology and may also be useful to detect regional wall motion abnormalities. Transesophageal echocardiography can identify a proximal aortic dissection. In low-risk patients with chest pain, coronary CT angiography can result in a more rapid, more cost-effective diagnosis than stress myocardial perfusion imaging (66).
• #46: The goals of treatment are the immediate relief of ischemia and the prevention of MI and death. Initially, stabilized patients with NSTE-ACS are admitted to an intermediate (or step-down) care unit. Patients undergo continuous electrocardiographic rhythm monitoring and observation for recurrent ischemia. Bed or chair rest is recommended for patients admitted with NSTE-ACS. Patients with continuing angina, hemodynamic instability, uncontrolled arrhythmias, or a large MI should be admitted to a coronary care unit. The nurse-to-patient ratio should be sufficient to provide 1) continuous electrocardiographic rhythm monitoring, 2) frequent assessment of vital signs and mental status, and 3) ability to perform rapid cardioversion and defibrillation. These patients are usually observed in the coronary care unit for at least 24 hours. Those without recurrent ischemia, significant arrhythmias, pulmonary edema, or hemodynamic instability can be considered for admission or transfer to an intermediate care or telemetry unit. An assessment of LV function is recommended because depressed LV function will likely influence pharmacological therapies (e.g., angiotensin-converting enzyme [ACE] inhibitors for depressed left ventricular ejection fraction [LVEF]) may suggest the presence of more extensive CAD and may influence the choice of revascularization (PCI versus coronary artery bypass graft surgery [CABG]). Because significant valvular disease may also influence the type of revascularization, echocardiography rather than ventriculography is often preferred for assessment of LV function.
• #47: All patients with NSTE-ACSs should undergo initial medical stabilization; early administration of antiplatelet, antithrombotic, and anti-ischemic drugs; and should be treated appropriately with either an early invasive or initial conservative strategy depending on their initial risk assessment
• #48: Patients with cyanosis, arterial oxygen saturation <90%, respiratory distress, or other high-risk features of hypoxemia are treated with supplemental oxygen. The 2007 UA/NSTEMI CPG recommended the routine administration of supplemental oxygen to all patients with NSTE-ACS during the first 6 hours after presentation on the premise that it is safe and may alleviate hypoxemia (212). The benefit of routine supplemental oxygen administration in normoxic patients with NSTE-ACS has never been demonstrated.
• #51: We conducted a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial of aspirin treatment (324 mg in buffered solution daily) for 12 weeks in 1266 men with unstable angina (625 taking aspirin and 641 placebo). The principal end points were death and acute myocardial infarction diagnosed by the presence of creatine kinase MB or pathologic Q-wave changes on electrocardiograms. The incidence of death or acute myocardial infarction was 51 per cent lower in the aspirin group than in the placebo group: 31 patients (5.0 per cent) as compared with 65 (10.1 per cent); P = 0.0005. Nonfatal acute myocardial infarction was 51 per cent lower in the aspirin group: 21 patients (3.4 per cent) as compared with 44 (6.9 per cent); P = 0.005. The reduction in mortality in the aspirin group was also 51 per cent — 10 patients (1.6 per cent) as compared with 21 (3.3 per cent) — although it was not statistically significant; P = 0.054. There was no difference in gastrointestinal symptoms or evidence of blood loss between the treatment and control groups. High-dose (≥160 mg) versus low-dose (<160 mg) aspirin is associated with increased bleeding risk in the absence of improved outcomes
• #55: 1. Patients with NSTE-ACS with continuing ischemic pain should receive sublingual nitroglycerin (0.3 mg to 0.4 mg) every 5 minutes for up to 3 doses, after which an assessment should be made about the need for intravenous nitroglycerin if not contraindicated (216-218). (Level of Evidence: C) 2. Intravenous nitroglycerin is indicated for patients with NSTE-ACS for the treatment of persistent ischemia, HF, or hypertension (219-224). (Level of Evidence: B) Class III: Harm 1. Nitrates should not be administered to patients with NSTE-ACS who recently received a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, especially within 24 hours of sildenafil or vardenafil, or within 48 hours of tadalafil (225-227). (Level of Evidence: B)