![List of Figures
1.1. World total energy consumption 1990–2040
(quadrillion btu) and world electricity generation
(index, 1990 =1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2. World electricity generation by fuel
2010–2040 (trillion kWh) and world
electricity generation from renewable energy
sources 2010 and 2040. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3. Project of the evolution of EV
throughout the world (plug-in and
hybrid plug-in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1. Voltage fluctuations in detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2. Evolution of total consumption in
France (in TWh) and annual consumption
peaks (MW). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3. Example of a substation: digital control
equipment and transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4. HV/MV system supply [HAD 11] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5. Examples of system structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6. Different schemes of neutral point
treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.7. Source: National Assembly –
April 5 2011 information report on security
and financing of power distribution
networks (by Deputy Jean Proriol) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1. Evolution of wind power generation in
France over 1 year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-27-320.jpg)
![Sundays, and it can hardly have been into the bone toys, straw
boxes, and other small articles. The extract was sent to me by the
Rev. Father A. H. Davis (a connection through his mother of one of
the French prisoners). He remarks that this Sunday trading was
“very unusual for the date of the Norman Cross prison”; he suggests
that the traffic may have been regarded, on the part of the
purchasers, as a pure act of charity, and the sellers were of course
accustomed to the Continental Sunday. [99]
The markets and the trading must have afforded one of the chief
interests in the prison life, and they have therefore been described
as fully as is possible from scanty records. The daily inspection by
the doctors has been alluded to; sickness and death came within the
precincts of the Depot as to every other community of men. These
will be dealt with in a later chapter. There was no prison chapel. It
is possible there were attempts at something like prison worship; it
is certain that at one time priests were allowed to reside in the
prison, and in the last years of its existence there was a ministering
Roman Catholic priest, the Bishop of Moulins, who was banished
from France in 1791, and whose brief history, written by himself, will
be found in Appendix G. An examination of the records shows that a
large number of the prisoners were from Protestant districts of
France, but the majority were, of course, if they professed any
religion, Roman Catholics.
This review of the chief factors in the prisoners’ life will enable the
reader to form in his own mind a picture of what that life was, the
main feature behind the stockade fences, which were enclosed by
the outer prison wall, being that the community lived year after year
with no female element—no solace from mother, wife, sweetheart,
child, or female friend or adviser of any kind—and yet we have the
evidence of Mr. Comm. Serle that they “show their satisfaction in the
habits of cheerfulness peculiar to themselves”; [100a] and the
American prisoner who, under the nom de plume “Greenhorn,”
published his experiences of Dartmoor in 1813, is reported by Mr.
Basil Thomson [100b] to have been most struck on entering the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-62-320.jpg)
![guillotine which now, a hundred years later, has found its way to the
Peterborough Museum; he has bought in the market a good
assortment of tools, which lie beside him. Then comes a group of
men, who have selected a spot sheltered from the wind, and who
are skilled in straw marquetry, employed in coating well-made work
boxes, desks, etc., also all prison work, with marquetry pictures of
varied and beautiful designs, so beautiful and so delicate, that we
who, a hundred years after the workers and their prison vanished
from Norman Cross, see the objects, can only marvel at the skill and
the patient perseverance which could accomplish such work in such
conditions.
A Dutch sailor appears giving the finishing touch to a marvellous
model of a ship made from the bones received from the cooking-
house, he is just fastening the Dutch flag to the ship; grouped
around him are many of his admiring countrymen. Then appears on
the screen a group who reveal a different side of the life in the
quadrangles: a crowd surrounds a party of gamblers, and crushing
through them are several anxious, ragged, emaciated men who,
having just sold in advance their rations for several days, in order to
obtain money for the indulgence of their passion, are eager to join in
the game. Here and there pass by wretched half-naked members of
the submerged tenth, which has developed within a year of the
opening of the prison, seeking for scraps of food to appease the
hunger pangs which have arisen from their selling their rations to
the wretch, the usurer, who now appears searching among the
losers, in the dispersing crowd for a fresh victim; this man is looked
upon by the authorities as a bigger sinner than the starving
gamblers themselves. [103]
Another group of young fellows is seen taking lessons in English
from a polyglot; and so picture succeeds picture, until we see in
another quadrangle more men at work, but the crowd generally
engaged in and greatly excited over an election. The commissary
whose duty it is to inspect, in the interest of his fellow prisoners, the
supplies of food as they are delivered at the prison, has proved](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-66-320.jpg)
![unsatisfactory, and permission has been given for the choice of
another prisoner to replace him. There are several parties in the
prison each anxious that one of their own group should be selected,
hence the contest and the excited crowd of speakers and listeners.
Some of the prisoners are “mugwumps” and take no interest in
politics, even such as would touch their personalinterests, and of
these a crowd interested in theology fills the screen; they are
listening to a hot argument between a Protestant and a Romanist—
an argument frequently interrupted by a little party of those who
worship only the goddess of reason. Then follow on the screen the
squad told off for fatigue duties for the day; they have just finished
their tasks, and are settling down to their usual occupations, some
throwing themselves down to rest, others joining a party whose
sides are shaking with laughter, as they listen to two or three young
men, excellent actors, who are improvising a scene, caricaturing the
English, and introducing the peculiarities of the agent, turnkey, and
other officials of the prison. [104]
The pictures of the next quadrangle are much the same. A man is
seen in violent grief with the letter in his hand which has just
announced to him the death of wife, father, mother, or child, leaving
him more desolate than ever. At the turnkey’s gate a group of men
are being led off with a guard of soldiers to the Black Hole for a
brutal assault on one of their fellow prisoners. But what has
happened to alter the characters of the pictures when the fourth
quadrangle appears on the screen? Work has stopped, arguments
have ceased, the excellent meal, with numerous luxuries which a
party of prisoners well supplied with money have prepared as the
great event of their day, lies on the table before them disregarded,
the food untasted. Where men are speaking at all, it is with the
intensity of bitter disappointment, here and there with violent
expressions of anger against the authors of their misery.
For some months it has been known to these men that negotiations
were going on between the two Governments for a General
Exchange of prisoners, and although there have been to the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-67-320.jpg)
![knowledge of the prisoners many hitches, yet for the last few weeks
it has been rumoured that these difficulties were all overcome, and
the announcement of the day when the exchange should commence
has been hourly expected; but, alas! in place of the expected news,
one of the turnkeys has just handed in an authoritative statement
that the negotiations have fallen through, and that all hope of
freedom must again be banished from their thoughts!
To know the agony of despair that must on such a day have seized
those 6,000 men, one must have shared their captivity and gone
through their experiences.
The news from the outside world, the progress of the war, the
successes and defeats on either side, the prospects of peace, must
have varied the mood of the prisoners from day to day; we can only
hope that the national contentment and cheerfulness was for the
majority the usual tone.
This panorama of life in the prison represents only what that life was
in good weather. When the weather was too inclement for the
outdoor life commanded by the regulations, and when the prisoners
were crowded in the bare and dismal caserns, contentment and high
spirits can scarcely have been the dominant tone of the inmates. In
the surveyor’s report, [105] referred to in a former chapter, mention
is made of the holes cut by the prisoners in the walls of the caserns;
on such a day these would be valued not so much for light and
ventilation as for the opportunity which they afforded of a glimpse of
the world outside—a view of the traffic on the road and of rustic life
which would remind many of similar scenes from which the
conscription had torn them to fight the battles of Buonaparte.
What a tale is told by those holes cut by the prisoners in the outer
walls!
’Tis pleasant through the loopholes of retreat
To peep at such a world.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-68-320.jpg)
![French were responsible. The gamblers who arrived from other
prisons would doubtless find among the fresh arrivals men, without
other resources, ready to relieve the dreary monotony of prison life
by the excitement of dice box or cards. However it may have
originated, it is certain that, within three years from the day when
the first prisoner entered Norman Cross, the vice of gambling was a
curse in the prison, and its slaves had become the victims of cruel,
avaricious usurers, whose guilty practices thwarted the efforts of the
authorities to insure the health and comfort of those in their charge.
Early in 1800, Captain Woodriff, the agent, sent a report to the
Transport Office which induced the commissioners to send to M.
Otto, the French commissary in London, a letter, [107] from which
the following is an extract:
“There are in those prisons some men, if they deserve that
name, who possess money, with which they purchase at the
daily market whatever is allowed to enter, and with those
articles they purchase of some unfortunate and unthinking
Fellow-prisoner, his Rations of Bread for several days together,
and frequently both Bread and Beef for a month, which he, the
merchant, seizes upon daily, and sells it out again to some other
unfortunate being, on the same usurious terms; allowing the
former one halfpennyworth of potatoes daily to keep him alive;
not contented with this more than savage barbarity he
purchases next his clothes, and bedding, and sees the miserable
man lie naked on the planks, unless he will consent to allow him
one halfpenny a night to lie in his own hammock, and which he
makes him pay by a further Deprivation of his rations when his
original debt is paid.”
On the 9th September of the same year, 1800, the approach of
winter making the matter very urgent, Captain Woodriff again
reported to the commissioners that nothing he could do prevented
the prisoners from selling their rations of provisions for days to
come, and their bedding, that several of the French prisoners were
destitute of clothing and bedding, that one or two had died, and that](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-70-320.jpg)
![in his opinion, unless some clothing was issued to the prisoners,
many of them would die should the winter be severe. These poor
victims of their vicious passions are called in many documents “Les
Misérables.”
There is no reason to doubt that the habits described in these
reports were the true explanation of the want of food and clothing,
for which the French Government blamed the British; but there is
also too much reason to believe that many of these prisoners, the
victims of their fellow captives the usurers, and of their own passion
for gambling, died of want in our prisons, a fact for which we as a
nation can only plead the blinding animosity which filled the hearts
and brains of the combatants in the wars from 1793 to 1815.
It is possible that besides these, there were others who, although
well supplied with food, were at times clothed in rags owing to the
obstinacy with which each Government clung to its own view, as to
whose duty it was to clothe the prisoners.
On the 14th March 1800, the First Consul issued an Edict, in which
among other articles was one directing that the British Government
should clothe their French prisoners.
To this Edict the French Minister for Foreign Affairs referred Captain
Cotes (the English commissary in Paris), in order that he might see,
among other things, that Buonaparte had determined “that the said
prisoners should be clothed by the British Government.” [109] This
Edict, cancelling an agreement previously entered into between the
two Governments, was not communicated direct to the British
Government; and from a letter written by the Secretary of State for
War to the Lords of the Admiralty on the 4th December 1800, it is
clear that the issuing of this Edict, practically an order from the head
of the Government of the country with which we were at war,
directing the British Government to adopt a certain course, had only
increased the determination of the Government to hold its own. The
Secretary for War, Mr. Dundas, in this letter justifies the action of the
British Government, and to strengthen his appeal to the French](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-71-320.jpg)
![the hospital caserns in the north-east quadrangle, was the habitat of
“Les Misérables.” There are constantly recurring notes at the end of
the certificate to the effect: “This prisoner had sold his clothes and
rations; he was from No. 13.” The cause of death given was
debility. There are other entries, with the simple note, “Debility,
from 13.” [111]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-74-320.jpg)
![(during the awful epidemic of 1801) died before they could be
removed to the hospital, succumbing at once to the malady owing to
the debility resulting from their nakedness and starvation. The
description of the sleeping arrangements of the “Romans” does not
therefore apply to “Les Misérables” of Norman Cross.
Similar vices and similar conditions of life produce similar results, but
the impression left after reading Thomson’s graphic and terrible
picture of the “Romans” of Dartmoor is only more intense, in
consequence of its details, than that left after reading the laconic
statements contained in the letters and reports of Captain Woodriff,
Commissioner Serle, and others as to the same class at Norman
Cross.
The authorities at both prisons were equally powerless to put down
the gambling and the usury with all its attendant miseries. It is
somewhat singular that the “Romans” appear to have withstood
disease, while in the epidemic at Norman Cross, which was probably
enteric fever, a disease at that date not differentiated from other
conditions, such as debility, diarrhoea, simple fever, etc., “Les
Misérables,” as evidenced by the surgeon’s notes, succumbed. [113]
There were well-defined grades of society among the prisoners. The
first, called “Les Lords,” consisted of men of good family who were
drawing on their bankers or receiving regular remittances from
home; “Les Labourers” were those who added to their rations by the
manufacture of articles for sale in the market; “Les Indifférents” did
nothing but lounge about the yards, and had to content themselves
with the Government rations; “Les Missables” were the gamblers and
hatchers of mischief. The fifth grade is so remarkable that it
deserves a chapter to itself. It was also composed of habitual
gamblers, nick-named ironically “Les Kaiserlies” by the other
prisoners, but generally known by the title chosen by themselves,
“Les Romains,” because the cockloft, to which they were banished in
each prison, was called “Le Capitole.” The cock-lofts had been](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-76-320.jpg)
![the production of the thousands of specimens of beautiful and
ingenious articles of value must have been a positive joy.
The work open to the industrious prisoners included that of an
ordinary labourer, of a skilled artisan, and of a man with a trade, and
ranged up to that of a teacher, an actor, an author, or an artist!
A complaint of the French Government was that the British did not
employ their prisoners on works outside the walls, as the British
were employed in France. The answer to this is that the French
male labour market was exhausted by the serious depletion due to
conscription of the adult male population, and that the French
Government, in the interests of France, gladly availed itself of the
services of the British, under military surveillance, for public works,
etc. No such necessity pressed on the British; there was an ample
supply of labour, and the introduction of competing gangs of
prisoners of war would have led to trouble, and was in fact a
domestic impossibility. There were occasions when the prisoners
were employed on large constructive works connected with their
own prisons. Dartmoor Chapel was built by the prisoners in 1810–
14; the masons were paid 6d. a day, it being understood that the
money should accumulate, and that should any workman escape,
the whole of the pay due to the gang would be forfeited. By this
means every prisoner was made a warder over his fellows. [125]
They were also regularly employed in their prisons as labourers, and
those who knew a trade as tradesmen. From the accounts of
Norman Cross Prison (which are scattered among various bundles,
and difficult to find) has been selected the wage sheet for the
midsummer quarter of 1789. The total is £408 1s. 6d.; of this £13
7s. 6d. was paid to the Dutch, and £32 to the French prisoners
employed as labourers. Under the head of tradesmen’s bills for the
same quarter are entered, French prisoners £35 3s. 4d.; Dutch
prisoners £541 6s. 2d. These sums represent the employment of a
considerable number of men, as, the recipients being lodged and fed
at the expense of the State, the wage each man received was very](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-87-320.jpg)
![small, much below the normally low wage paid for labour at that
date. The accounts show that the practice of employing and paying
the prisoners was in vogue in the first years of the Depot’s
existence, and that it went on until its last year is shown in the
report of Mr. William Fearnall, the surveyor, [126] who recommends
certain repairs, and states that Captain Hanwell, the Agent, can find
thirty-six carpenters, two pairs of sawyers, and three masons from
among the prisoners. Further, as already stated, the prisoners held
several paid posts, such as cooks, nurses, hospital porters, and the
like, within the prison walls.
In the sketch of the prison life, allusion has been made to the retail
traders and merchants; there were also craftsmen—men who knew
a trade—tailors, shoemakers, cooks, etc. These carried on a
business, their customers being their fellow prisoners. The
regulation made for the protection of the revenue and in the
interests of our own workers, to the effect that in making slippers
and shoes, they might use list, but no leather, must have applied
only to articles made for sale outside. The employments by which
the prisoners earned money from outside and brought it into the
prison have, perhaps, the greatest interest to us. The greater part
of this money was either transmitted for safe keeping to France or](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2469137-250617095424-50fb874c/85/Advanced-Smartgrids-For-Distribution-System-Operators-1st-Edition-Marc-Boillot-88-320.jpg)
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- 5. Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators Marc Boillot www.iste.co.uk Z(7ib8e8-CBHDHJ( Distribution System Operators (DSOs) are key players in energy transitionand with the help of Advanced Smart Grids, they will be able to better take advantage of existing distribution networks. Energy transition is underway in many regions of the world. This is a real challenge for electric systems and a paradigm shift for existing distribution networks. With the help of “advanced” smart technologies, DSOs will have a central role in the integration of renewable generation, electric vehicles and demand response programs. Smart Gridsare a means for DSOs to ensure the quality and security of the power supply. This book proposes a singular approach based on practical experience from DSOs, which will complement the generally academic focus of previous books written on the subject of Smart Grids. This is a very practical book based on the experience of a senior executive of the leading DSO in Europe. It focuseson several key topics (main functions of Smart Grids, contribution of Smart Metering Systems, flexibility options, data management, evolution of the competencies to manage networks equipped with advanced Smart Grids, etc.), systematically illustrated with ongoing experimentations conducted worldwide. Marc Boillot is currently Delegated Vice President of the EDF Regional Action Division andis Chairman of the G3-PLC Alliance, which was created to standardize this technology and to promote it in the context of the deployment of smart meter projects worldwide. The G3-PLC Alliance brings togetherover50 member companies originating from Europe, North America and Asia. Volume 1 Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators Marc Boillot ADVANCED SMART GRIDS SET Coordinated by Nouredine HAdjsaïd and Jean-Claude Sabonnadière 1 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SERIES ADVANCED SMART GRIDS SET W737-Boillot.qxp_Layout 1 20/10/2014 16:08 Page 1
- 7. Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators
- 9. Advanced Smart Grids Set coordinated by Nouredine Hadjsaïd and Jean-Claude Sabonnadière Volume 1 Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators Marc Boillot
- 10. First published 2014 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com © ISTE Ltd 2014 The rights of Marc Boillot to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Library of Congress Control Number: 2014953030 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84821-737-9
- 11. Contents FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi LIST OF ACRONYMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv WELCOME TO “ADVANCED SMART GRIDS” . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi CHAPTER 1. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPERATORS IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1. Energy policies promoting the energy transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2. A new era of technological revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 CHAPTER 2. THE EXISTING DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS: DESIGN AND OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1. Above all, smart grids remain grids! . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2. The DSO, a player at the heart of the power system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.3. A necessary mastery of technical and regulatory constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
- 12. vi Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators 2.4. Generalities of network design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4.1. Energy transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.4.2. Wiring and architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.4.3. Safeguard devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.4.4. Sensors, digital equipment and software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.4.5. The importance of telecommunication for operating the distribution networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.5. The factors that differentiate network architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.5.1. Voltage levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.5.2. The neutral point treatment in MV networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.5.3. The balance between automation, redundancy and reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.5.4. The density and layout of the serviced area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.5.5. The variation in building design. . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.6. Network safety and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.6.1. Development of distribution networks. . . . . . . . . 43 2.6.2. Operating distribution networks . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.6.3. Studies in operational safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.6.4. Monte Carlo method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.6.5. Some results from applying the Monte Carlo method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2.7. Progressive modernization of a distribution network – the French example. . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.7.1. Standardization (1950–1965) and expansion of the network (1965–1985). . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.7.2. Achieving a minimal quality level for every customer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.7.3. Targeted improvement of quality according to needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2.7.4. Progressive desensitization of networks toward climate hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 CHAPTER 3. MAIN DRIVERS AND FUNCTIONS OF ADVANCED SMART GRIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.1. Drivers of the evolution of distribution grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
- 13. Contents vii 3.1.1. Massive integration of renewable energy sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.1.2. Contribution to the development of electric vehicle and the charging infrastructures . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.1.3. Implementation of new market mechanisms (peak shaving, capacity market, etc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.1.4. Participation in the development of new uses contributing to energy efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.1.5. Urban renewal and the rise of the smart city in favor of resource optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.1.6. Integration of energy storage solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.2. Main functions of the advanced smart grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.2.1. Toward dynamic network management by the distribution system operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.2.2. Structuring the target model based on key functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.2.3. Enhancing efficiency in day-to-day grid operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.2.4. Ensuring network security, system control and quality of supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.2.5. Improving market functioning and customer service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.2.6. European network codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 CHAPTER 4. METERING: A CORE ACTIVITY OF THE DSOS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.1. Smart meters are key tools for the deployment of smart grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.2. A continuous improvement and innovation approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.2.1. From manual to remote reading for mass market customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.2.2. 20 years of smart metering and remote reading for industrial clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.3. AMI metering systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
- 14. viii Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators 4.4. Focus on Linky smart metering system . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.4.1. Scope of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.4.2. Architecture and technical choices . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.4.3. A point on system operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.4.4. Scalability and security of the Linky system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.4.5. Techno-economic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4.5. Focus on G3-PLC technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.5.1. Communication principles of the power line carrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.5.2. Different types of physical level PLC modulation technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.5.3. The characteristics of G3-PLC technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.5.4. G3-PLC is a mature standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.6. The contribution of smart meters for the development of advanced smart grids . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.6.1. France: Linky at the service of the distribution network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 CHAPTER 5. FOCUS ON FLEXIBILITY OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.1. Flexibility, a complementary tool for DSOs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.1.2. DSO needs in terms of flexibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.1.3. The value of flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5.1.4. Alliander Smart Grids Cost Benefits Analysis (source: Alliander) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.1.5. Two major categories of levers can be activated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.1.6. Analysis of the Merit Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.1.7. Information exchange mechanism between DSO and TSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.1.8. Lessons learned from several international business cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.2. Participation of end users to flexibility services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.2.2. Focus on different tools and services downstream of the smart meter . . . . . . . . . . . 132
- 15. Contents ix 5.2.3. The necessary engagement of end-customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.2.4. International benchmark and lessons learnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.3. Data management as key success factor . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.3.1. DSOs have a long experience in data management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.3.2. DSO, the market facilitator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 CHAPTER 6. PILOT PROJECTS AND USE CASES . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.1. A global dynamic with regional specificities . . . . . . . 145 6.2. North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 6.2.1. Drivers of smart grids development . . . . . . . . . . 147 6.2.2. Primary experimental approaches . . . . . . . . . . . 148 6.3. Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 6.3.1. Drivers of smart grids development . . . . . . . . . . 150 6.3.2. A proactive experimental approach. . . . . . . . . . . 151 6.4. Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 6.4.1. Drivers of smart grids development . . . . . . . . . . 154 6.4.2. Primary experimental approaches . . . . . . . . . . . 157 6.5. The European project Grid4EU, fosters and accelerates experience sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 6.5.1. A large-scale demonstration project bringing together six European DSOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 6.5.2. DEMO 1 (Germany – RWE) MV network operation automation and determining the ratio of decentralized intelligence in secondary substations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.5.3. DEMO 2 (Sweden – Vattenfal): a tool for LV operation and in particular identifying LV failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 6.5.4. DEMO 3 (Spain – Iberdrola) MV and LV failure detection, reconfiguration of the MV network during an incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6.5.5. DEMO 4 (Italy – ENEL) economic model and technical operation of storage, MV voltage regulation, anti-islanding of decentralized generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
- 16. x Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators 6.5.6. DEMO 5 (Czech Republic – CEZ) operating islanding with co-generation, MV and LV failure detection and reconfiguration of the MV network following an incident . . . . . . . . . . . 165 6.5.7. DEMO6 (France – ERDF): project NiceGrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 6.6. An approach based on use cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 6.6.1. Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 6.6.2. Advantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 6.6.3. The development of use cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 6.7. Focus on some advanced projects of the ISGAN case book about Demand Side Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6.7.1. Denmark – EcoGrid EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 6.7.2. Japan – Kitakyushu Smart Community Creation Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 6.7.3. The Netherlands – PowerMatchingCity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 6.7.4. Canada – a virtual power plant to balance wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 CHAPTER 7. SMART GRIDS ARE THE FUTURE FOR DSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 7.1. Advanced smart grids for DSOs worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 7.1.1. The evolution towards smart grids is ineluctable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 7.1.2. The development of smart grids is a necessity for the DSOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 7.1.3. But also an opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 7.2. A necessary evolution of skills and jobs of the DSOs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 7.2.1. Competences are necessary to conduct experimentations successfully and to get the most feedback from them. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 7.2.2. Once the experiments are finished, the resources and competences need to be reinforced in preparation for large-scale industrialization and deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
- 17. Contents xi 7.3. The French electrical sector mobilizes: the “Smart Grids” plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 CHAPTER 8. KEY FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 8.1. Smart grids or the real network revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 8.1.1. Smart grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 8.2. More RES means more network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.3. The DSO is a facilitator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 8.4. Consumer or “consum’player”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 8.5. Smart meter at the service of smart grids . . . . . . . . . 199 8.6. A smart bubble? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 8.7. Invest to save? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 8.8. Smart grids: a genuine industrial opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
- 19. Foreword In most countries, the concept of smart grids is becoming increasingly significant, mostly driven by societal concerns such as reliability, cyber and physical security of supply, transmission and delivery of energy, as well as climate change and aging assets. These concerns are expressed in terms of objectives such as those set by the European Union (EU) through the “climate and energy package” adopted in 2009 for 2020, which consists of reducing CO2 emissions by 20% compared to 1990, increasing the share of renewable energy to 20% and increasing energy efficiency by 20%. The two first objectives are binding targets adopted by all EU member states. Making the demand more responsive to the condition of the power system is also needed in order to accommodate the anticipated changes brought about by larger deployment levels of renewable generation technologies. Worldwide, other countries have set their own objectives depending on their needs and priorities. As a result, through strong regulation incentives, a remarkable development of renewable energy sources (RES) has been observed globally particularly in wind and solar energy. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) are also on the rise in the global car industry. The vast majority of these sources are connected to the electrical grid at either transmission or distribution levels.
- 20. xiv Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators Electrical networks are undergoing tremendous changes in order to accommodate this evolution that is in most cases very dynamic. However, for some countries, such as France, 95% of these sources are located at the distribution level, traditionally operated as a radial mode (unidirectional power flows) as little or no energy sources existed there in the past. In fact, unlike transmission grids which are already “smart” (seen as the backbone of the entire electrical system with embedded monitoring, control and protection technologies), distribution networks have thus far received much less attention in terms of smart technologies. However, with the ongoing aforementioned changes, distribution networks are in the front line with the development of RES, PHEV as well as end-users, who are expected to play a more active role in this new energy paradigm. They are becoming prosumers (producers/ consumers). Facing these changes requires the development and integration of enabling technologies and energy services that are based on new energy technologies while taking advantage of more information and communication technologies. The entire energy chain is at stake here: smart meters, demand response, storage, smart substations, self- healing, advanced observability and control functions, advanced communication and big data processing capabilities across the network, and the portfolio of value- added functions that it may bring about, and so on. Distribution companies and distribution system operators (DSOs) in particular are facing unprecedented challenges in their networks. In addition, they have to respond to them in an increasing number of ways, prompting concerns of the quality of supply among network users, fast development of new uses for energy supplies and effective management of aging electric utility assets, occurring very often in an unstable regulation landscape.
- 21. Foreword xv This book is precisely targeting the changes that are rapidly occurring at the distribution level and the role of DSOs in the development of the smart grid concept. It gives a remarkable insight into the industry perspective on several aspects such as necessary technology, operational and planning stakes, examples of value chain of some smart grid pilot projects worldwide with original view points on learned lessons and key findings of smart grids. This book undoubtedly contains very useful knowledge on smart grid evolution in the realm of distribution networks – a great resource for all readers interested in this exciting subject. We hope this book will receive a warm welcome from the community of researchers and engineers from industry as well as academia, all of whom are contributing in small and not-so-small ways to the (r)evolution of the smart distribution networks of the future. Miroslav BEGOVIC President Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Power and Energy Society (PES) October 2014
- 23. Preface Smart grids are systems that are obtained by superposing information and telecommunication networks on electric power networks. Their purpose is to integrate intermittent renewable energy sources (RES) (such as solar photovoltaics and wind) and new applications for electric power (such as electric vehicles) in the best safety conditions, while minimizing investments into reinforcing traditional power networks. For this reason, distribution system operators (DSOs) develop intelligent networks by integrating various technologies, such as sensors, smart meters, reinforced chains of information transmission and exchange, real-time analysis, decision-support softwares, automation and remote-controlled functions, etc. For 15 years, DSOs made important investments in medium-voltage networks, which led to improving the service quality and greatly lowering the average outage time for customers. These investments also made possible
- 24. xviii Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators the growth of the share of renewable energy sources, in particular of those known as intermittent. The challenge over the next few years is to modernize low-voltage networks, as has been previously done with medium-voltage networks. Marc BOILLOT October 2014
- 25. Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge all the contributors who made possible the accomplishment of this project. Nouredine Hadjsaid and Jean-Claude Sabonnadière for their stimulation and support; without them, this book would not have seen the light of day. Alain Doulet for his knowledge of the history of distribution networks, his competences on the smart grids and his ability to anticipate the future. All colleagues from ERDF, in particular those from the different teams Smart Grids, Linky, Strategy and International projects, from the technical division and the IT division and finally the Regions which are involved with smart grids projects. All people who, in Europe, in the United States and in Asia, contributed to provide a worldwide scale to smart grids projects. All colleagues and friends from the G3-PLC Alliance who worked with success toward the standardization and the promotion of the G3-PLC to the DSOs and all potential users worldwide.
- 27. List of Figures 1.1. World total energy consumption 1990–2040 (quadrillion btu) and world electricity generation (index, 1990 =1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2. World electricity generation by fuel 2010–2040 (trillion kWh) and world electricity generation from renewable energy sources 2010 and 2040. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3. Project of the evolution of EV throughout the world (plug-in and hybrid plug-in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.1. Voltage fluctuations in detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.2. Evolution of total consumption in France (in TWh) and annual consumption peaks (MW). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3. Example of a substation: digital control equipment and transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.4. HV/MV system supply [HAD 11] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.5. Examples of system structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.6. Different schemes of neutral point treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.7. Source: National Assembly – April 5 2011 information report on security and financing of power distribution networks (by Deputy Jean Proriol) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.1. Evolution of wind power generation in France over 1 year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
- 28. xxii Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators 3.2. ERDF showroom at Paris Grenelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.3. Positioning of energy storage technologies according to their capital expenditure (CAPEX) in power and capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.4. Simplified view of electricity storage batteries integration in the NiceGrid project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.5. 1 MVA battery and associated power demand electronics during installation in Carros (France) press release extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.6. Diagram of information transmission toward regional dispatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.1. Evolution of the smart meter selection in France for SMEs/SMIs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.2. Approach to AMM system infrastructure . . . . . . . . . 87 4.3. AMI and communication technologies . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.4. Main types of services: data providing/ reading, remote operations on meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.5. Architecture of Linky system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.6. Functionalities of Linky meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.7. Upstream and downstream communication modes of Linky meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.8. Depiction of a signal modulated by PL communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.9. Representation of different PLC modulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.10. FSK operating mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.11. Disruptions management in FSK mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.12. PSK working modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.13. G3-PLC working in a disrupted environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.14. Complete PLC modem (from the PHY to the application layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.15. Members of the G3-PLC Alliance (June 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.16. Example of voltage profiles along MV and LV line feeders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 4.17. Cartography of ERDF smart grids displays and the link with smart meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
- 29. List of Figures xxiii 5.1. Objectives and conclusions of the study (Source Alliander) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5.2. Analysis matrix of DSO flexibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.3. Different uses for load shaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.4. French demonstrator Watt & Moi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.5. Example of usage management via smart meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 5.6. Most advanced cases of the ISGAN case book about demand side management . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.1. Map of smart grids projects participating in Recovery Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.2. Introduction to Japan’s “Smart Community” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.3. Solar and wind power installed in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 6.4. Map of smart grid projects identified by the JRC in 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
- 31. List of Acronyms 6LowPAN Network Layer Protocol of the OSI model ACER Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators AD active demand ADEME Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l’Energie (French agency for the environment and control of energy) ADSL asymmetric digital subscriber line ADVANCED Active Demand Value and Consumers Experiences Discovery AENS average energy not supplied AMI advanced metering infrastructure AMM automated meter management AMR automated meter reading ARIB frequency band (155–403 kHz) for PLC communication in Japan ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act ASK amplitude-shift keying ASUI average service unavailability index ATEE Association Technique Energie Environnement (French technical association for energy and the environment) BAU business as usual BEMS Building Energy Management System CAES compressed air energy storage
- 32. xxvi Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators CAPEX capital expenditure CEATEC Combined Exhibition of Advanced Technologies trade show in Japan CEM Clean Energy Ministerial CEMS Community Energy Management System CENELEC-A frequency band A (35–91 kHz) for PLC communication in Europe CEO Chief Executive Officer CIGRE Conférence Internationale des Grands Réseaux d’Electricité (Internatoinal Conference on Large Electricity Networks) CHP combined heat and power CO2 carbon dioxide CSI commercially sensitive information DBPSK differential binary PSK DCs data concentrators DCPR distribution price control review DCPS digital controlled primary substations DER distributed energy ressources DG distributed power generation DGCIS Direction Générale de la Compétitivité, de l’Industrie et des Services; this Direction has been transformed in September 2014, into DGE Direction Générale des Entreprises (French business executive) DMS distribution management system DOE/EIA Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration DSM demand-side mnagement DSO distribution system operators DQPSK differential quadrature DPSK EC European Commission EET extreme energy transition EJP Effacement “Jours de Pointe” (load management) EDF Electricité de France (French electricity company) EDSO European Distribution System Operators
- 33. List of Acronyms xxvii ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operator – Electricity ENTSO-G European Network of Transmission System Operator – Gas ENWL Electricity North West Limited EPRI Electricy Power Research Institute ERDF Electricité Réseau Distribution France (French electricity distribution network) EU European Union EU FP7 EU’s Seventh Framework Programme for Research EV electric vehicle EWE Energieversorgung Weser-Ems AG FCC frequency band (150–487.5 kHz) for PLC communication in the USA and other countries FEMS Factory Energy Management System FSK frequency-shift keying GHG greenhouse gas GIS geographical information system GPRS General Packet Radio Service GSM Global System for mobile Communication GW Giga Watt HEMS Home Energy Management System HV high voltage ICT information and communication technologies IEA International Energy Agency IEOD information exchange and operating devices IEC International Electrotechnical Commission IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IFFT inverse fast Fourier transformation IS information systems ISGAN International Smart Grid Action Network ITU International Telecommunication Union JRC Joint Research Center KEPCO Korea Electric Power Corporation
- 34. xxviii Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators KPI key performance indicator KSGI Korea Smart Grid Institute LAN local area network LRE Linky radio emitter LQS low quality of supply-customers LV low voltage MAC media access control layer of the OSI model MEMS MicroElectroMagnetic Systems METI Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry MV medium voltage NEDO New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization NOC Network Operation Center NPV net present value OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OH off-peak hours OFDM orthogonal frequency division multiplexing O&M operation and maintenance OPEX operational expenditure PDN public distribution network PH peak hours PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicle PHY physical layer of the OSI model PLC power line carrier PSK phase-shift keying PV photovoltaic R&D research and development RCD remote control device REDOX reduction and oxidation reactions electro-chemical batteries REMS retail energy management system RES renewable energy sources RF radio frequency
- 35. List of Acronyms xxix ROUTE B route for communications downstream the meter RSP renewable portfolio standards RTU remote terminal unit RTE Réseau de Transport d’Electricité (Electricity transport network) RWE Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk AG SAIDI system average interruption duration index SAIFI system average interruption frequency index SCADA supervisory control and data acquisition SCE Southern California Edison SFSK spread frequency shift keying SG steady growth SGCC State Grid Corporation of China SME small and medium enterprises SMIs small and medium industries SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol SNR signal-to-noise ratio STN switched telephone network TIC tele-information client TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol TSO transmission system operators USP unique software package VPP virtual power plant WAN wide area network
- 37. Welcome to “Advanced Smart Grids” This book on advanced smart grids is divided into eight chapters. Chapter 1: Distribution System Operators in a Changing Environment. This introductory chapter presents the process of the energy transition that is under way in many regions of the world to face the increase in demand and accompany the development of renewable energy sources (RES). The distribution system operators (DSOs) play a key role in the electric system. They develop intelligence at the heart of the distribution network and act as market facilitators. They make use of existing and new energy technologies, as well as information and telecommunication technologies that support these energy technologies. Chapter 2: The Existing Distribution Networks: Design and Operation. We emphasize the principles that guide the development of electricity distribution networks. Various technical approaches were implemented worldwide for the amount of choice and the value of voltage levels, as well as for the medium-voltage (MV) neutral point treatment and for the required level of quality. France, for example, reviewed a lot of its technological choices between 1960 and 2010: changing 15/20 kV voltage, changing neutral point
- 38. xxxii Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators treatment, shifting toward underground (MV) and low-voltage (LV) networks, then orientating its actions toward improving quality and desensitizing climate hazards. Chapter 3: Main Divers and Functions of Advanced Smart Grids. This chapter presents the smart grids. The massive input of RES promotes the development of network observability, in real time, and reinforces its control. The goal is to optimize the costs, while allowing the network to increase its RES carrying capacity. To reach this objective, it is appropriate to take advantage of solutions for dynamic management of constraints. The secondary substation is an essential element as it has the potential to become a privileged point of observability, as well as communication node between information technologies (IT) and downstream uses. Managing the network of tomorrow will involve a better understanding of the state of the network in real time and with forecasts. Primarily, smart grids are used for the operation and development of the network, the dynamic management of constraints and distinctions between flexibility levers. Chapter 4: Metering: a Core Activity of the Distribution System Operators. In this chapter, our main focus is on the smart meter: advanced metering infrastructure (AMI). DSOs are in an optimal position to deploy and manage the metering infrastructure that forms part of the network. Smart metering systems have become a standard that provides solutions to changes in regulation, improves customer satisfaction, makes the energy transition possible and improves distribution performance. Power line carrier (PLC) technology is presented in its most advanced version: the G3-PLC. The data from the meters, supplemented with network events, are capable of detecting cases of low quality supply to customers, following supply quality in any given
- 39. Introduction xxxiii geographical area, monitoring power quality, etc. Smart meters thereby contribute to the development of smart grids. Chapter 5: Focus on Flexibility Options. This chapter focuses on the flexibility options and how demand is managed. DSOs act as market facilitators. They will be able to buy “flexibility” solutions from market players, alternatively or complementary to network reinforcement. Among the options, we find, notably, management of the location of RES, local peak management, active management of generation, reactive power management, etc. For illustrative purposes, we present the smart meter as a facilitator of flexibility: with this new tool, energy suppliers will be able to provide innovative pricing offers to limit the local peak power and optimize energy consumption. The smart meter, as a bridge between the network and the customer, makes data available to the market players (suppliers, aggregators, customers, etc.) in order to allow them to adapt their activity. Chapter 6: Pilot Projects and Use Cases. In this chapter, we present some of the numerous smart grid demonstration projects conducted around the world to address major technological themes. The use cases methodology was created to equip these smart grids projects (description of business processes, IT functions, feedback of experience, etc.). The case of the European project Grid4EU is presented with six demonstrators, as well as four other cases from the ISGAN Case Book on Demand-Side Management. Chapter 7: Smart Grids Are the Future for DSOs. This chapter aims to identify the conditions that will allow DSOs to develop smart grids. Smart grids will require new capacities: big data, forecasting of local generation and demand, management of telecom and IT infrastructures, and shared interfaces with the operators of electric systems,
- 40. xxxiv Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators among others. The development of smart grids provides a unique opportunity for DSOs: a high-tech image alongside technological innovations, DSOs as key players in the evolution of the network, and responsibility for the societal and environmental expectations of customers and market players. Chapter 8: Key Findings. We gather here the primary conclusions of this book: smart grids are first and foremost the current and future power networks, superposed on a communication network and a processing and monitoring system. The role of the DSOs becomes central in the distribution of responsibilities at the core of the electric system: the DSO ensures the stability of the voltage level at the local scale. Forecast management becomes a genuine job for wind and solar generation, which leads to anticipated constraints. The DSO implements flexibility in order to remove these constraints. The DSO is not a load-shedding player: it makes possible the emergence of new flexibility devices. The generalized deployment of smart meters provides several advantages for market players and for customers. If they wish, the customer can become a player in their own right, and influence their own energy consumptions. Smart metering also aims to allow the DSO to monitor the LV network and control it better. Smart grids represent a real industrial opportunity and reinforce spectacularly the attractiveness of the DSOs.
- 41. 1 Distribution System Operators in a Changing Environment 1.1. Energy policies promoting the energy transition During the last three decades, strong economic growth and expanding populations have lead to a significant increase in global energy demand. For the next three decades, many forecasts unanimously predict that this increase will continue at this pace. Also, because of the economic growth of China and India, the rate is accelerated in non-OECD (organization for economic co-operation and development) economies. To support the energy demand, global net electricity generation has increased quickly from 1990 to 2010 and will supply an increasing share of the total demand from 2010 to 2040 as shown in Figure 1.1. Electricity consumption by end-users is expected to grow faster than the use of other energy sources due to the increase in the standard of living and a higher demand for home appliances and electronic devices. This is also true with the expansion of professional sector’s needs such as
- 42. 2 Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators hospitals, office buildings, commercial services, shopping malls, etc. Figure 1.1. World total energy consumption 1990–2040 (quadrillion btu)1 and world electricity generation (index, 1990 = 1) 2. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/boillot/smartgrids.zip Combinations of primary energy sources to produce electricity will be evolving in a significant way over the next three decades: 1 Source EIA – International Energy Outlook 2013. 2 Source EIA – International Energy Outlook 2013.
- 43. Distribution System Operators in a Changing Environment 3 Figure 1.2. World electricity generation by fuel 2010–2040 (trillion kWh) and world electricity generation from renewable energy sources 2010 and 20403. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/boillot/smartgrids.zip In particular, according to US Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration (DOE/EIA) 3 Source: US Energy Information Administration (DEO/EIA) – International Energy Outlook 2013.
- 44. 4 Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators Reference Case projections, the renewable share of these combinations will increase from 21 to 25% – the world fastest growing source of electric power. Worldwide hydropower will account for 52% of the total increment and wind generation for 28%, with large differences between regions and countries: – most renewable energy in OECD countries is expected to come from non-hydroelectric energy, because all resources have already been developed (except Canada and Turkey); – in non-OECD countries, hydroelectric power is expected to be a dominant source of growth (in particular Brazil, China and India). Nevertheless, growth rates for wind power electricity will also be high. Particularly in China, where wind generated electricity should go from 6% in 2010 to 26% in 2040 (45–637 TWh of expected generated energy respectively). Facing the challenge of a growing demand of energy, many regions of the world are engaged in a dymanic phase of energy transition. The production of electricity from renewable sources and, particularly, intermittent sources, is increasing in many regions. By 2012, more than 280 GW of wind farms and 100 GW solar photovoltaic (PV) are installed worldwide. The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts on a shorter term basis that the evolution will continue with the installation of +230 GW of wind power and +210 GW of solar PV by 2017. Many governmental organizations encourage the development of sustainable transportation facilities (train, buses, tramway, etc.), and car manufacturers are now offering a wide range of plug-in hybrids and other electric vehicles (in December 2012, around 180,000 plug-in electric vehicles (EVs) were already on the road4). 4 Source IEA – Global EV Outlook 2013.
- 45. Distribution System Operators in a Changing Environment 5 Figure 1.3. Project of the evolution of EV throughout the world (plug-in and hybrid plug-in). Source: IEA – Global EV Outlook 2013. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/boillot/smartgrids.zip Last but not least, consumers are changing their attitude toward energy savings. The massive roll-out of electric smart meters will permit the development of energy conservation services. More than 80 million smart meters were already deployed worldwide by December 2013 including 46 million in the USA5. This number is expected to reach 100 million meters by the end of 2014 according to IHS Inc6, and 1 billion meters by the end of 2020 according to Pike Research7. 5 http://www.edisonfoundation.net. 6 http://www.cepro.com/article/100_million_smart_meters_to_be_installed_ worldwide_in_2014. 7 http://www.navigantresearch.com/newsroom/the-installed-base-of-smart- meters-will-surpass-1-billion-by-2022.
- 46. 6 Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators The changes in generation means and consumption trends will impact energy systems worldwide: – Producers will have to alter their business models in order to make their investments in existing generation facilities profitable, as well as to optimize operational management of energy combinations that increasingly integrate intermittent renewable energy sources (RES); – Transmission system operators (TSOs) will have to anticipate the risks of an unbalanced supply-demand ratio that may lead to a decrease in frequency and potential black- outs; they must also develop interconnections; – Distribution system operators (DSOs) will have to connect massively decentralized RES generation, electric vehicle recharge stations, modernize the networks and deploy smart grid technologies including metering systems; – Energy suppliers will have to reevaluate their offers and services in response to consumers’ expectations in the context of an increasingly competitive environment (progressive market opening, with the end of regulated tariffs). The energy transition makes a major impact for DSOs, insofar as intermittent RES generation installations are predominantly connected to distribution networks. For instance, in France, at the end of 2013, 94% of RESs installations, around 300,000, were connected to the distribution network and represented a total of 11.4 GW8. To keep up with current energy volume, the total capacity of RES installations must be nearly five times greater than the capacity of current centralized thermal or nuclear generation sites. Indeed, the average running times for wind and solar power stations are around 2,000 and 1,000 h per year, respectively (average in France), while baseline generation times for a thermal or nuclear station can reach 8 ERDF Source – key figures 2013.
- 47. Distribution System Operators in a Changing Environment 7 7,000–8,000 h per year. It is important to remind that wind and solar PV generation is not guaranteed and that the correlation with demand is generally low, depending on geographical location and types of usage. EU DSOs landscape The electricity distribution business in Europe includes more than 2,400 companies, which serve around 260 million connected customers supplying move than 500 million people, operating 10 million km of power line, distributing around 3,000 TWh a year and directly employing more than 240,000 people9. In most European countries, intermittent energy generation is developing very fast, leading to a total installed capacity of 106 GW of wind and 70 GW of PV by the end of 201210. The vast majority of these plants are connected to distribution grids. Together with the development of active demand and electric vehicles, this will lead to a pivotal transformation of the role of the DSOs. A real challenge for electric systems – a paradigm shift for distribution networks. In yesterday’s market, the distribution networks were often designed to be operated radially in order to distribute electricity from HV/MV substations connected to transmission level, down to the end- user consumers. With the energy transition, tomorrow’s electricity distribution network operation and management will change. The distribution networks will have to manage more complex interlinked networks mixing generation and demand with much higher variations and reverse flows from distribution to transmission networks. Also, new market players are developing, such as load curtailers, virtual power plant operators and aggregators, etc. 9 Article IEEE P&E magazine – Future of Power Distribution, European perspectives. 10 Source: Observ’Er : Etat des energies renouvelables en Europe – 2013.
- 48. 8 Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators At the same time, the basic principles of electric systems have not changed. Electricity must be generated at the same time it is consumed, whereas only small amounts can be stored. Also, voltage and frequency levels must be kept within prescribed limits to ensure the security and stability of electricity supply. Smart grids are not an option, they are a necessity. To tackle the challenges of energy transition, electricity networks will need to be more reactive and flexible to ensure the security and stability of the system, and also enhance interactions between market players. Smart grids will contribute to those objectives by combining advanced electricity network technologies with information and communication technologies. The main principles of smart grids are: 1) collect data on networks due to sensors and remote controlled devices (e.g. smart meters); 2) analyze the status of the network on a short-time basis; 3) maintain or improve the quality of supply by developing advanced tools and strategies to handle various disturbances and faulty situation (from predictive maintenance to self- healing grid); 4) anticipate local generation from RES; simulate the constraints on the network (short-, medium- and long-term approaches) and find solutions to manage safely the flows of electricity; 5) manage optimally the interaction grid-plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV); 6) enable the development of energy conservation services: by giving information on electricity consumption and permitting to manage electricity uses;
- 49. Distribution System Operators in a Changing Environment 9 7) manage peak situations and interact intelligently with the end-user (consum’actor). The DSOs play a central role in the deployment of smart grids. In charge of reliable operations of the distribution grid, DSOs should act as enablers and facilitators of the market in order to: – ensure uniformed and harmonized deployment of smart grids; – enable the deployment of new services; – contribute to the operation and control of new flexibilities (storage, peak shaving programs, management of capacities (production and demand), dynamic tariffs, etc.); – provide data to the customers, suppliers and other market players and ensure its security and usability. 1.2. A new era of technological revolution For over 120 years, the electric power distribution sector successfully resolved technical and financial challenges brought by the increasing demand accompanying economic and demographic growth. Until recently, electric power distribution was essentially a capacity network, simple and robust, featuring a minimum of complex systems; its functions were limited to transferring energy from the upstream (high-voltage transmission network) to the downstream (customers). This robustness was partly due to the large amount of equipment whose reliability was easy to guarantee, often owing to its fundamental simplicity. It was also ensured by the need for operational safety, which inherently led to taking special precautions while introducing new information and telecomunication technologies (ICTs), because of the disruptive nature of the
- 50. 10 Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators electromagnetic environment surrounding medium-voltage installations. Nevertheless, new functions were added progressively: remote control for network breakers and switches, automation devices for limiting supply interruption to the customers during incidents and remote monitoring systems to lower operational costs. France, in particular, favored deploying digital controlled primary substations (DCPSs) since the beginning of 2000. These developments transformed the simple electric power distribution grid into a system composed of three highly synergized levels: a power network, a communication network between key points of the power network and a centralized control and command system, and finally, an information processing and monitoring system. Every level is confronted with its own major difficulties: – the electric network does not undergo technical revolutions, however, its oldest equipment suffers from age. Optimizing renewal is a major challenge. It is essential to operate installations as close as possible to their limit and to be aware of their lifetime expectancy. This shows the importance of real-time monitoring systems based on decentralized sensors; – the communication network is the key point to modernizing the electric power network. Today, it may be based on various technologies: dedicated lines, power line carrier (that is using the electrical current as support for the signal), shortwave radio, microwave transmission, optical fiber, etc. This will allow connecting various sensors to a single central monitoring point; – the information and monitoring system must maintain its performance despite the important volume of incoming data and find an equilibrium between centralized and decentralized intelligence.
- 51. Distribution System Operators in a Changing Environment 11 To resolve these challenges, the DSOs will be able to take advantage of a series of new technologies that will need to be integrated with current or future technologies. McKinsey Global Institute recently published a study11 identifying 12 technologies with the greatest breakthrough potential on the 2025 horizon. Some examples include energy-storage, Internet of Things and big data. At the heart of DSOs core business, most notable breakthroughs will likely occur with microelectromagnetic systems (MEMS)-based sensors), nanotechnologies and power electronics. Thus, advanced smart grids will utilize a combination of different technologies throughout integrated and interoperable solutions. Certain technologies are already accessible (smart meters and network automation), others may be here in less than 10 years (energy storage and smart household communicating devices). 11 May 2013 – Disruptive Technologies: Advances that will transform life business, and the global economy.
- 53. 2 The Existing Distribution Networks: Design and Operation The distribution network is an essential part of the electric power grid. These systems provide the connection between centralized generation facilities and vastly distributed consumer areas. If the high-voltage transmission grid transports large amounts of energy at high voltage to minimize losses, the distribution network serves areas on a smaller scale by branching out and progressively lowering voltage to values appropriate for consumers/appliances connected to the network. Three major objectives guided (and are still guiding) the decision-making process behind developing and operating distribution networks: 1) optimizing investment costs in public infrastructure (balance between cost, performance and life-time expectancy); 2) contributing to the reliability of the electric power grid regardless of possible disruptions induced by weather conditions, human errors and actual variations of consumption and generation;
- 54. 14 Advanced Smart Grids for Distribution System Operators 3) ensuring the level of quality of distributed electricity corresponds to the regulatory requirements (voltage plans and thermal limit ratings of various materials). 2.1. Above all, smart grids remain grids! Before tackling the issue of intelligent power networks, it is important to explain what power networks are, why and how they were developed and how they are operated, to ultimately see that intelligence has already been progressively integrated into the networks by the distribution system operators (DSOs). Various technical solutions have been created worldwide to develop power distribution infrastructures. First of all, this chapter aims to give some guidelines to understanding the principles behind the conception and operation of power distribution, before examining some cases in Europe, USA and Asia. Secondly, we will also look at the limits of the classic approach for developing distribution systems in the context of the new energy paradigm. Deploying the smart grids’ architecture relies on combining multiple levels of software and infrastructure in order to introduce communication, measurement, supervision and control into the network. Some of these functions and components existed for many years, and have already been integrated into modern networks (for example, in Europe) before the idea of smart grids. The major categories of components and systems that can be found in smart grids are: – power infrastructure (transmission and distribution): transmitting either alternative or direct current;
- 55. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 56. (Commissioner Serle’s Report to the Transport Board, 28th July 1800). This money passed through the hands of the agent in the various prisons, and he was directed not to hand it over except in small amounts, lest a recipient might have sufficient to offer a too tempting bribe to a sentry. As to how the prisoners prepared their ration for their several meals, how they utilised the vegetables and the various table delicacies which they purchased in the market, we know nothing. The absence of chimneys in the caserns shows that no fires were allowed in them. It is possible that under strict regulations they were allowed to make fires in the courts, and abundance of peat from the neighbouring fen would be obtainable at a very low price. The fact that a cauldron for making the soup, which was removed from one of the cook-houses and is now preserved at Elton Hall, measures 5 feet 1 in. across and 3 feet 6 in. deep, shows that the appointed and paid French cook made the bulk of the food. Doubtless in nothing would there be more distinction between the several prisoners than in the way they dealt with the ration.
- 57. The prisoners in each casern were divided into messes of twelve, and one of their number attended at the cook-house and brought the ration for the whole mess. The monotonous recurrence of the roll-call and the visit of the doctors were daily incidents. Next would possibly come the daily ablutions, more or less extensive, probably performed, with the washing of the clothes, at the wooden troughs, represented in some of the plans, on either side of the wells, the ground around being paved with flagstones to obviate mud and dirt from the slopping. There was ample room in the airing-court for such amusements and sports as these poor cooped-up young fellows, many only boys (the separate prison for boys was a late addition to the Depot, it is only shown in MacGregor’s plan and in Foulley’s model) could devise, and in these courts was carried on much of the work in which so many of the prisoners were engaged, and which will be discussed later on.
- 58. The domestic politics of the various prisons and the various blocks must have run high; the prisoners were of course under a despotism, but the choice of delegates for the market, for inspection of the food, etc., was in their own hands. The topic of conversation which must have most interested them must have been the prospect of their liberation, and the course of the war, as far as they could gather it, from the gossip of the turnkeys and from what little they could hear in the market. Each party of fresh arrivals would bring news. They would have accounts of the escape of prisoners from other prisons, and would have secret confidences and various schemes for their own escape; they would hear of the incessant plots for a general rising of all the prisoners in Britain, of the progress and failure of the negotiations for exchange, and they would discuss these matters with the intensity of men, over all of whom at all times hung the cloud of captivity, who all felt in a greater or less degree the longing for freedom. There was also the appointment by themselves of the delegates who were to attend with the stewards of the prison and inspect the bread, meat, and vegetables as they were delivered at the western gate, in order to make sure that the goods were of proper quality. One of the Prison Regulations speaks of “the turnkey or any other officer” as the head of the prison police. As from various returns we know that there was no part of the British staff of the Depot, except the turnkeys, who could be acting in the quadrangle as police, it is probable that there was some scheme imposing on individual prisoners the duties of assisting the turnkeys in enforcing the regulations. The brigade-major could apparently march a patrol where he thought it was needed. In case of any violence or resistance, the turnkey called in the assistance of the sentries or a squad from the barracks. Even in the earlier years of the war there were doubtless many of the prisoners who would adopt teaching as their work, and who would, among the 1,500 who shared their quadrangle, find pupils willing to pay for lessons, which would relieve the monotony of their
- 59. existence. There would be fencing masters, who would fence with sticks, for any who had clandestinely obtained or manufactured weapons dared not let them be seen; there were many traders who made money legitimately, acting as middlemen between the market at the gate and the prisoners in the enclosure; and there were, the curse of the prison, those illicit traders and usurers who bought the rations and clothes of their fellow prisoners and reduced them to starvation, the unfortunate victims being, as a rule, the slaves to the vice of gambling. The moral degradation of the gambler was, from the first, a source of trouble to the authorities, and it was the wretched condition of this vicious class which was the foundation for many of the complaints made by the French agents. Both the usurious traders and their victims were liable to punishment, as were also the manufacturers of, and dealers in, contraband articles. These last were assisted by persons outside, who are best described as smugglers, their part in the proceedings being to convey from this foreign community to the British subjects outside, goods which, either from their intrinsic character or from their liability to duty, could not be sold legitimately. In the reports of the Commissioners of the Transport Board, given in full in Nos. 29 and 30 of the correspondence published in the Appendix to the Parliamentary Report already referred to, it is stated that “the prisoners in all the depots in the country are at full liberty to exercise their industry within the prisons, in manufacturing and selling any articles they may think proper excepting those which would affect the Revenue in opposition to the Laws, obscene toys and drawings, or articles made either from their clothing or the prison stores, and by means of this privilege some of them have been known to carry off upon their release more than 100 guineas each.” At some of the depots, special restrictions had to be made, on account of objections raised in the neighbourhood on the ground that the prisoners, supported out of the revenue provided by the taxes which people had to pay, were allowed to undersell the
- 60. inhabitants in their own local industries. Thus at Penryn the Frenchmen were stopped from making pastry and confectionery, and the prohibition of the manufacture of straw plait at Norman Cross was supposed to be based on the same grounds, combined with the fact that it was thrown on the market duty-free. This point will be dealt with later. For the sale of these goods, and for the purchase of goods from without, there was in each prison square a sort of market, where business was carried on, the sellers putting up stalls. Among other things, they sold provisions and vegetables, doubtless making a profit on what they had paid in the more important market which was held under strict regulations, at the eastern gate of the prison (at one period of the war twice a week only, at another period daily). In this market delegates from the prisoners met the dealers from without for traffic in the produce of the neighbourhood and in such goods as the prisoners required—clothes, feeding utensils, tools, and materials for carrying on their work, etc.; here probably were handed out to the village turner portions of bone carefully prepared for the lathe by the prisoner who made the articles portions of which were turned. Such examples are still extant. Here also opportunities were found for disposing of the illicit articles, which were a source of some profit to the prisoner, but of far larger profit to the middleman outside. The market was, as I have said, held under strict regulations; every article made in the prison had attached to it its price, and the name of the prisoner who made it. But, alas for the fame of the deft individuals, who spent long years in the prison, in the manufacture of these beautiful articles, the name was only attached in temporary fashion, and the names of six only of the artists of the 500 specimens in the Peterborough Museum are preserved: that of Jean de la Porte, the producer of several beautiful pictures in straw marquetry, Peterborough Cathedral being a favourite subject with him and with other accomplished artists in the prison; that of a M. Grieg, whose name appears on a silk holder decorated with figures,
- 61. birds, and square and compass; Ribout, on a small box; Jacques Gourny, on a similar specimen; Godfrov, on a highly decorated work cabinet; and Corn on a silk holder. The price of all the goods brought in from the neighbourhood was also regulated by the agent, who saw that the prisoners were not charged higher than the ordinary market price. It is evident that there must have been some regulation as to who, from among the prisoners, should be admitted from each quadrangle. It is certain that the gates of the quadrangle were not thrown open for the whole of the 5,000 or 6,000 to go to the market, and it is probable that certain trusted individuals, delegates from each prison, were marched under guard across the turnkeys’ court, out on to the road between the squares, to the east gate, through which they passed into the prison market held in the space formed by the embrasure of the great outer wall. Purchases for themselves and for those of their comrades who had given them commissions were made by these privileged men. On their return to their own prison square, these men probably traded with their fellow prisoners in the small market which was held in each quadrangle. There appear to have been at one time stalls to which the public were admitted on Sundays to purchase the articles made by the prisoners—that is, if the following paragraph is well founded: “Barracks were erected on a very liberal and excellent plan for the security of French prisoners who were confined here during the late war, and employed themselves in making bone toys, and straw boxes, and many other small articles, to which people of all descriptions were admitted on Sundays, when more than £200 a day has been frequently laid out in purchasing their labours of the preceding week. It is capable of containing 7 or 8,000 men, and has barracks for two regiments of infantry.” (Crosby’s Complete Pocket Gazette, 2nd Edition, 1818, Yaxley.) The paragraph is somewhat puzzling, but it is certain that it states that people of all descriptions were admitted somewhere on
- 62. Sundays, and it can hardly have been into the bone toys, straw boxes, and other small articles. The extract was sent to me by the Rev. Father A. H. Davis (a connection through his mother of one of the French prisoners). He remarks that this Sunday trading was “very unusual for the date of the Norman Cross prison”; he suggests that the traffic may have been regarded, on the part of the purchasers, as a pure act of charity, and the sellers were of course accustomed to the Continental Sunday. [99] The markets and the trading must have afforded one of the chief interests in the prison life, and they have therefore been described as fully as is possible from scanty records. The daily inspection by the doctors has been alluded to; sickness and death came within the precincts of the Depot as to every other community of men. These will be dealt with in a later chapter. There was no prison chapel. It is possible there were attempts at something like prison worship; it is certain that at one time priests were allowed to reside in the prison, and in the last years of its existence there was a ministering Roman Catholic priest, the Bishop of Moulins, who was banished from France in 1791, and whose brief history, written by himself, will be found in Appendix G. An examination of the records shows that a large number of the prisoners were from Protestant districts of France, but the majority were, of course, if they professed any religion, Roman Catholics. This review of the chief factors in the prisoners’ life will enable the reader to form in his own mind a picture of what that life was, the main feature behind the stockade fences, which were enclosed by the outer prison wall, being that the community lived year after year with no female element—no solace from mother, wife, sweetheart, child, or female friend or adviser of any kind—and yet we have the evidence of Mr. Comm. Serle that they “show their satisfaction in the habits of cheerfulness peculiar to themselves”; [100a] and the American prisoner who, under the nom de plume “Greenhorn,” published his experiences of Dartmoor in 1813, is reported by Mr. Basil Thomson [100b] to have been most struck on entering the
- 63. prison by “the high spirits of the multitude.” He had expected “to find hunger, misery and crime, but everything indicated contentment, order and good fellowship.” Let us hope that, notwithstanding the fact that at Norman Cross many of the prisoners had been confined for ten years, while of those whom “Greenhorn” gazed upon, none had been behind the granite walls of Dartmoor more than four years, the dominant spirit was one of “contentment, order and good-fellowship”; but, unfortunately, it is beyond doubt that there was in the prison a submerged stratum of hungry, miserable, criminal individuals, who had been unable to resist the evil influence of their surroundings on natural or acquired tendencies. The preceding pages should enable the reader, throwing his imagination back a hundred years to Norman Cross, to conjure up, in place of the photographic picture of forty acres of still and silent pasture, without one human inhabitant, which the camera would produce to-day, a cinematograph series exhibiting a moving panorama, set in the great group of wooden buildings, barracks and prisons, in which lodged nearly 10,000 men, with all the busy life of such a crowd. On the roads enclosing two sides of the site (one of which—the great North Road—was then always alive with the ever- flowing streams of traffic going and returning between London and the North) are soldiers passing to and fro, and civilians of all kinds having business at the Depot. Entering the gate on the Peterborough Road, are seen the prison market on the left and the Eastern Barracks on the right, and in the space between are soldiers off duty, local merchants carrying their goods to the market, the prisoners, officers, and civilians allowed on parole, visitors with orders, friends of the British officers, etc.; while at the western gate on the North Road not only is the busy life of the main entrance to the western barracks thrown on the screen, but also the carts and porters bringing in the daily supplies for feeding the thousands within the walls, passing through the gates, and filling with envy the half-starved British workmen who, from the road, gaze on the piled-
- 64. up loads of meat, bread, and vegetables; beyond the gates the busy barrack life—companies of soldiers changing guard, sentries on their beat pass by; and then appears the outer wall of the prison, stockade fence or brick wall, according to the year in which the imaginary camera is at work; at the eastern of the four gates appears the busy market, with the vendors of the goods, vegetables, eggs, and farm produce, clothes, hardware, and other necessaries for sale at their stalls, and the prisoners from within making their purchases, and offering for sale products of their skill in handicraft; a cannon with its muzzle directed inwards to the prison commands the gate in the market fence, that of the prison itself, and the roadway to the Central Block House. Between the wall and the stockade enclosing the separate quadrangles, and on the cross roads which separate the four blocks, sixty sentries, posted day and night, are pacing their beats; while fenced in by the inner stockade are seen in each quadrangle crowds of prisoners, the majority young, a few old veterans—well fed and half-starved, well clothed and ragged, some in the yellow suit supplied by the British Government, industrious and idle—all forced to live together under the same conditions of isolation from the outer world.
- 65. Here appear, in a somewhat crowded quadrangle, the thickly packed 1,600 or 1,700 men, groups of whom appear on the screen, some availing themselves of a clear space are dancing, others racing, or fencing with single sticks; then is seen a group carrying on, with violent gesticulation, a hot argument, so heated has it become between two of the disputants that it may end in blows, and possibly in a duel, for duels with extemporised weapons were not infrequent and were occasionally fatal; another group are discussing earnestly, but quietly and in subdued tones, the possibility of the general rising of all the prisoners in England, news having been smuggled in to them that a plan for such a rising is under consideration by the French Government. Then follow pictures of men at work; they are mostly seated on boxes or rough prison-made stools on the flagged pavement which surrounds the airing-court—they are very numerous. Here a man in the corner, which he has appropriated for months, is cutting, scraping, polishing, and fitting together the pieces of bone which he is building into the beautiful model of the
- 66. guillotine which now, a hundred years later, has found its way to the Peterborough Museum; he has bought in the market a good assortment of tools, which lie beside him. Then comes a group of men, who have selected a spot sheltered from the wind, and who are skilled in straw marquetry, employed in coating well-made work boxes, desks, etc., also all prison work, with marquetry pictures of varied and beautiful designs, so beautiful and so delicate, that we who, a hundred years after the workers and their prison vanished from Norman Cross, see the objects, can only marvel at the skill and the patient perseverance which could accomplish such work in such conditions. A Dutch sailor appears giving the finishing touch to a marvellous model of a ship made from the bones received from the cooking- house, he is just fastening the Dutch flag to the ship; grouped around him are many of his admiring countrymen. Then appears on the screen a group who reveal a different side of the life in the quadrangles: a crowd surrounds a party of gamblers, and crushing through them are several anxious, ragged, emaciated men who, having just sold in advance their rations for several days, in order to obtain money for the indulgence of their passion, are eager to join in the game. Here and there pass by wretched half-naked members of the submerged tenth, which has developed within a year of the opening of the prison, seeking for scraps of food to appease the hunger pangs which have arisen from their selling their rations to the wretch, the usurer, who now appears searching among the losers, in the dispersing crowd for a fresh victim; this man is looked upon by the authorities as a bigger sinner than the starving gamblers themselves. [103] Another group of young fellows is seen taking lessons in English from a polyglot; and so picture succeeds picture, until we see in another quadrangle more men at work, but the crowd generally engaged in and greatly excited over an election. The commissary whose duty it is to inspect, in the interest of his fellow prisoners, the supplies of food as they are delivered at the prison, has proved
- 67. unsatisfactory, and permission has been given for the choice of another prisoner to replace him. There are several parties in the prison each anxious that one of their own group should be selected, hence the contest and the excited crowd of speakers and listeners. Some of the prisoners are “mugwumps” and take no interest in politics, even such as would touch their personalinterests, and of these a crowd interested in theology fills the screen; they are listening to a hot argument between a Protestant and a Romanist— an argument frequently interrupted by a little party of those who worship only the goddess of reason. Then follow on the screen the squad told off for fatigue duties for the day; they have just finished their tasks, and are settling down to their usual occupations, some throwing themselves down to rest, others joining a party whose sides are shaking with laughter, as they listen to two or three young men, excellent actors, who are improvising a scene, caricaturing the English, and introducing the peculiarities of the agent, turnkey, and other officials of the prison. [104] The pictures of the next quadrangle are much the same. A man is seen in violent grief with the letter in his hand which has just announced to him the death of wife, father, mother, or child, leaving him more desolate than ever. At the turnkey’s gate a group of men are being led off with a guard of soldiers to the Black Hole for a brutal assault on one of their fellow prisoners. But what has happened to alter the characters of the pictures when the fourth quadrangle appears on the screen? Work has stopped, arguments have ceased, the excellent meal, with numerous luxuries which a party of prisoners well supplied with money have prepared as the great event of their day, lies on the table before them disregarded, the food untasted. Where men are speaking at all, it is with the intensity of bitter disappointment, here and there with violent expressions of anger against the authors of their misery. For some months it has been known to these men that negotiations were going on between the two Governments for a General Exchange of prisoners, and although there have been to the
- 68. knowledge of the prisoners many hitches, yet for the last few weeks it has been rumoured that these difficulties were all overcome, and the announcement of the day when the exchange should commence has been hourly expected; but, alas! in place of the expected news, one of the turnkeys has just handed in an authoritative statement that the negotiations have fallen through, and that all hope of freedom must again be banished from their thoughts! To know the agony of despair that must on such a day have seized those 6,000 men, one must have shared their captivity and gone through their experiences. The news from the outside world, the progress of the war, the successes and defeats on either side, the prospects of peace, must have varied the mood of the prisoners from day to day; we can only hope that the national contentment and cheerfulness was for the majority the usual tone. This panorama of life in the prison represents only what that life was in good weather. When the weather was too inclement for the outdoor life commanded by the regulations, and when the prisoners were crowded in the bare and dismal caserns, contentment and high spirits can scarcely have been the dominant tone of the inmates. In the surveyor’s report, [105] referred to in a former chapter, mention is made of the holes cut by the prisoners in the walls of the caserns; on such a day these would be valued not so much for light and ventilation as for the opportunity which they afforded of a glimpse of the world outside—a view of the traffic on the road and of rustic life which would remind many of similar scenes from which the conscription had torn them to fight the battles of Buonaparte. What a tale is told by those holes cut by the prisoners in the outer walls! ’Tis pleasant through the loopholes of retreat To peep at such a world.
- 69. Poor fellows, the peep they got through the holes they cut was their only share for years of the world outside. It must be borne in mind that the habits and customs of the various depots would be almost identical; the Government regulations under which they lived and which ruled the life of the prisoners were the same for all. There might be points of etiquette and social intercourse, derived from local circumstances, traditional in each prison; but there were constant interchanges of prisoners, and these men would take with them to the new prison the habits, including unfortunately the worst vices, which they had acquired in the old one. At Norman Cross there were, before it was completed, men waiting to be received into the prison who had been captives at the Depot of Falmouth, where they had been distributed in the town itself in Roskoff, Kerquillack, and Penryn, whence they were removed, because, in consequence of this multiplication of the places of confinement, the administration was not only inefficient, but extravagant. Many others were brought from Porchester and other prisons on account of their overcrowded condition. Mr. Perrot, the first agent (Mr. Delafons, it will be remembered, though the first agent appointed, served only a few days, ordering the first stores from the immediate locality and from Lynn and Wisbech, but acting only until Mr. Perrot arrived) came from Porchester, and thus both the administrators and the prisoners would bring old prison customs with them. It was not until the influx of Dutch prisoners, after Duncan’s victory off Camperdown on the 11th October following the April in which the prison was opened, that any number of prisoners passed, without intermediate imprisonment, direct from the Transports to Norman Cross. Whatever the cause may have been, whether it was owing to the phlegmatic disposition of the Dutch or the mercurial temperament of the French, all accounts show that the general conduct of the former was much more commendable than that of the latter. Beyond a few escapes, which were only natural, no offences are attributed to the Dutch. For the misdemeanours and felonies, great and small, the
- 70. French were responsible. The gamblers who arrived from other prisons would doubtless find among the fresh arrivals men, without other resources, ready to relieve the dreary monotony of prison life by the excitement of dice box or cards. However it may have originated, it is certain that, within three years from the day when the first prisoner entered Norman Cross, the vice of gambling was a curse in the prison, and its slaves had become the victims of cruel, avaricious usurers, whose guilty practices thwarted the efforts of the authorities to insure the health and comfort of those in their charge. Early in 1800, Captain Woodriff, the agent, sent a report to the Transport Office which induced the commissioners to send to M. Otto, the French commissary in London, a letter, [107] from which the following is an extract: “There are in those prisons some men, if they deserve that name, who possess money, with which they purchase at the daily market whatever is allowed to enter, and with those articles they purchase of some unfortunate and unthinking Fellow-prisoner, his Rations of Bread for several days together, and frequently both Bread and Beef for a month, which he, the merchant, seizes upon daily, and sells it out again to some other unfortunate being, on the same usurious terms; allowing the former one halfpennyworth of potatoes daily to keep him alive; not contented with this more than savage barbarity he purchases next his clothes, and bedding, and sees the miserable man lie naked on the planks, unless he will consent to allow him one halfpenny a night to lie in his own hammock, and which he makes him pay by a further Deprivation of his rations when his original debt is paid.” On the 9th September of the same year, 1800, the approach of winter making the matter very urgent, Captain Woodriff again reported to the commissioners that nothing he could do prevented the prisoners from selling their rations of provisions for days to come, and their bedding, that several of the French prisoners were destitute of clothing and bedding, that one or two had died, and that
- 71. in his opinion, unless some clothing was issued to the prisoners, many of them would die should the winter be severe. These poor victims of their vicious passions are called in many documents “Les Misérables.” There is no reason to doubt that the habits described in these reports were the true explanation of the want of food and clothing, for which the French Government blamed the British; but there is also too much reason to believe that many of these prisoners, the victims of their fellow captives the usurers, and of their own passion for gambling, died of want in our prisons, a fact for which we as a nation can only plead the blinding animosity which filled the hearts and brains of the combatants in the wars from 1793 to 1815. It is possible that besides these, there were others who, although well supplied with food, were at times clothed in rags owing to the obstinacy with which each Government clung to its own view, as to whose duty it was to clothe the prisoners. On the 14th March 1800, the First Consul issued an Edict, in which among other articles was one directing that the British Government should clothe their French prisoners. To this Edict the French Minister for Foreign Affairs referred Captain Cotes (the English commissary in Paris), in order that he might see, among other things, that Buonaparte had determined “that the said prisoners should be clothed by the British Government.” [109] This Edict, cancelling an agreement previously entered into between the two Governments, was not communicated direct to the British Government; and from a letter written by the Secretary of State for War to the Lords of the Admiralty on the 4th December 1800, it is clear that the issuing of this Edict, practically an order from the head of the Government of the country with which we were at war, directing the British Government to adopt a certain course, had only increased the determination of the Government to hold its own. The Secretary for War, Mr. Dundas, in this letter justifies the action of the British Government, and to strengthen his appeal to the French
- 72. Authorities to do what he considered their duty, and clothe the prisoners, he quotes the fact “that misery, sickness, and a heavy mortality prevail among the French prisoners in the various depots in this country, while the Dutch, under the same management, and with the same allowances in every respect as the French, but clothed by their own Government, continue to enjoy their usual health.” Those who read this correspondence, now in this twentieth century, when the bitter animosity between the two countries has died away, must feel that the obstinacy was not confined to the French, and must wish that the British had done sooner, what they ultimately did, clothe the prisoners and debit the French Government with the cost. In the correspondence I have quoted, the usurer, rather than his victims, is spoken of as the cause of the misery, and no mention is made of gambling. But in other reports this vice is mentioned as the root of the evil, the result of which was that when an epidemic broke out, the mortality among these naked, starving wretches was terrible. Among the material relating to Norman Cross, picked out from the miscellaneous thousands of papers at the Record Office, was a bundle of long slips of paper—Certificates—ruled out with columns, eleven in all, corresponding to those in the prison register, and ending with one for the date of death, and another for the fatal disorder or casualty. Among the large bundle for the year 1800, a year of terrible mortality owing to the presence of an epidemic, is a certificate, dated 14th June, which bears an irregular note in pencil, made apparently by the surgeon when he forwarded the slip to the agent; the pencilled note on this certificate is a terrible revelation of what, in that year, was going on in the prison at Norman Cross. “You see, my dear Sir, since our selection of the invalids, and the benefit of warm weather, we have had but one death this ten days. If another batch of those vagabonds, who by their bad conduct defy all the benefits the Benevolence of this country bestows upon them, were to be sent away in
- 73. September next, we might expect great benefit from it in the winter, for to a certainty all these blackguards will die in the winter. Compare sixty a week with one in ten days.” From this scrap we learn how terrible was the mortality, and how bad was the character of these wretched men; we learn also that when all the steps taken to reform them had failed, some system of segregation and removal to the hulks or elsewhere was finally recommended. There is evidence in a letter of M. Otto’s that a large number of invalids and men of the class spoken of as “Les Misérables,” or less sympathetically by the surgeon as “these blackguards,” was sent back to France. Two years after this pencilled note was written, all the prisons, both in Britain and France, were emptied, and the prisoners restored to their native countries; but when they refilled after the renewal of the war in 1803 under the same conditions, the same depravity and suffering developed. At Dartmoor, 1809 to 1816, there are records, especially those of the Americans, which furnish full particulars of the internal life of that prison, particulars which in the case of Norman Cross can only be gathered from scraps such as the pencilled note just referred to. Mr. Basil Thomson has permitted the reprint in this history of his chapter on these reprobates in Dartmoor. It is terrible reading, but I avail myself of Mr. Thomson’s permission, because there is little doubt that much of the description of these self-styled “Romans” at Dartmoor would apply equally to “Les Misérables” at Norman Cross, and that the Norman Cross “Blackguards” were, like the “Romans,” ostracised by their fellow prisoners, and were in a similar, if in a less systematic fashion than their Dartmoor brethren, segregated by natural selection from their comrades, and herded together in special parts of the prisons. From a careful perusal of the death certificates for the year 1801, when the terrible epidemic, commencing in November 1800, carried off a thousand victims, it would appear that Block 13, that behind
- 74. the hospital caserns in the north-east quadrangle, was the habitat of “Les Misérables.” There are constantly recurring notes at the end of the certificate to the effect: “This prisoner had sold his clothes and rations; he was from No. 13.” The cause of death given was debility. There are other entries, with the simple note, “Debility, from 13.” [111]
- 75. CHAPTER VI “LES MISÉRABLES” AND THE “ROMANS” OF DARTMOOR What are these So wither’d and so wild in their attire, That look not like th’ inhabitants o’ th’ earth, And yet are on’t? Shakespeare, Macbeth. The prototypes of the self-styled “Romans” of Dartmoor were the prisoners of Norman Cross, known and mentioned, ten years before Dartmoor was built, in various official documents as “Les Misérables.” It has already been stated that the absence of any description of the internal life of the Norman Cross Prison, written by an inmate, renders it impossible to give details which in the case of Dartmoor can be gathered from accounts published by French and American prisoners who were there incarcerated. The author has, therefore, gladly availed himself of the permission given by Mr. Basil Thomson, to reproduce here the chapter of his book in which he describes “Les Misérables” of Dartmoor. The incidents in their life presented by Thomson are not, of course, identical with those of the same class at Norman Cross. The Norman Cross prisoners were not banished to a cockloft, and, although they may have been confined to one floor in one block, probably No. 13, they still retained the hammocks, in which many
- 76. (during the awful epidemic of 1801) died before they could be removed to the hospital, succumbing at once to the malady owing to the debility resulting from their nakedness and starvation. The description of the sleeping arrangements of the “Romans” does not therefore apply to “Les Misérables” of Norman Cross. Similar vices and similar conditions of life produce similar results, but the impression left after reading Thomson’s graphic and terrible picture of the “Romans” of Dartmoor is only more intense, in consequence of its details, than that left after reading the laconic statements contained in the letters and reports of Captain Woodriff, Commissioner Serle, and others as to the same class at Norman Cross. The authorities at both prisons were equally powerless to put down the gambling and the usury with all its attendant miseries. It is somewhat singular that the “Romans” appear to have withstood disease, while in the epidemic at Norman Cross, which was probably enteric fever, a disease at that date not differentiated from other conditions, such as debility, diarrhoea, simple fever, etc., “Les Misérables,” as evidenced by the surgeon’s notes, succumbed. [113] There were well-defined grades of society among the prisoners. The first, called “Les Lords,” consisted of men of good family who were drawing on their bankers or receiving regular remittances from home; “Les Labourers” were those who added to their rations by the manufacture of articles for sale in the market; “Les Indifférents” did nothing but lounge about the yards, and had to content themselves with the Government rations; “Les Missables” were the gamblers and hatchers of mischief. The fifth grade is so remarkable that it deserves a chapter to itself. It was also composed of habitual gamblers, nick-named ironically “Les Kaiserlies” by the other prisoners, but generally known by the title chosen by themselves, “Les Romains,” because the cockloft, to which they were banished in each prison, was called “Le Capitole.” The cock-lofts had been
- 77. intended by the architect for promenade in wet weather, but they had soon to be put to this baser use. To the sociologist there can be nothing more significant than the fact that a body of civilised men, some of them well educated, will under certain circumstances adopt a savage and bestial mode of life, not as a relapse, but as an organised proceeding for the gratification of their appetites and as a revolt against the trammels of social law. The evolution of the “Romans” was natural enough. The gambling fever seized upon the entire prison, and the losers, having nothing but their clothes and bedding to stake, turned these into money and lost them. Unable to obtain other garments, and feeling themselves shunned by their former companions, they betook themselves to the society of men as unfortunate as themselves, and went to live in the cockloft, because no one who lived in the more desirable floors cared to have them as neighbours. As they grew in numbers they began to feel a pride in their isolation, and to persuade themselves that they had come to it by their own choice. In imitation of the floors below, where a “Commissaire” was chosen by public election, and implicitly obeyed, they elected some genial, devil-may-care rascal to be their “General,” who only held office because he never attempted to enforce his authority in the interests of decency and order. At the end of the first six months the number of admitted “Romans” was 250, and in the later years it exceeded 500, though the number was always fluctuating. In order to qualify for the Order, it was necessary to consent to the sale of every remaining garment and article of bedding to purchase tobacco for the use of the community. The communism was complete. Among the whole 500 there was no kind of private property, except a few filthy rags, donned as a concession to social prejudice. A few old blankets held in common, with a hole in the middle for the head like a poncho, were used by those whose business took them into the yards. In the Capitole itself every one lived in a state of nudity, and slept naked on the concrete floor, for the only hammock allowed was that of the “General,” who slept in the middle and allocated the lairs of
- 78. his constituents. To this end a rough sort of discipline was maintained, for whereas 500 men could sleep without much discomfort on a single floor in three tiers of hammocks, the actual floor space was insufficient for more than a third of that number of human bodies lying side by side. At night, therefore, the Capitole must have been an extraordinary spectacle. The floor was carpeted with nude bodies, all lying on the same side, so closely packed that it was impossible to get a foot between them. At nightfall the “General” shouted “Fall in,” and the men ranged themselves in two lines facing one another. At a second word of command, alternate files took two paces to the front and rear and closed inward, and at the word “Bas” they all lay down on their right sides. At intervals during the night the “General” would cry “Pare à viser” (Attention!), “A Dieu, Va!” and they would all turn over. From morning till night groups of Romans were to be seen raking the garbage heaps for scraps of offal, potato peelings, rotten turnips, and fish-heads, for though they drew their ration of soup at mid-day, they were always famishing, partly because the ration itself was insufficient, partly because they exchanged their rations with the infamous provision-buyers for tobacco, with which they gambled. Pride was certainly not a failing of which they could be accused. In the alleys between the tiers of hammocks on the floors below you might always see some of them lurking. If a man were peeling a potato, a dozen of these wretches would be round him in a moment to beg for the peel; they would form a ring round every mess bucket, like hungry dogs, watching the eaters in the hope that one would throw away a morsel of gristle, and fighting over every bone. Sometimes the continual state of starvation and cold did its work, and the poor wretch was carried to the hospital to die; but generally the bodies of the Romans acquired a toughened fibre, which seemed immune from epidemic disease. Very soon after the occupation of the prison the Romans had received their nickname, and had been expelled from the society of decent men, for we find that, on August 15th, 1809, five hundred
- 79. Romans received permission to pay a sort of state visit to No. 6 prison. At the head of the procession marched their “General,” clad in a flash uniform made of blankets, embroidered with straw, which looked like gold lace at a distance. Behind him capered the band— twenty grotesque vagabonds blowing flageolets and trumpets, and beating iron kettles and platters. The ragged battalion marched in column of fours along the grass between the grille and the boundary wall without a rag on any of them but a breech clout, and they would have kept their absurd gravity till the end, had not a rat chanced to run out of the cookhouse. This was too much for them; breaking rank, they chased it back into the kitchen, and the most nimble caught it and, after scuffling for it with a neighbour, tore it to pieces with his teeth and ate it raw. The rest, with whetted appetites, fell upon the loaves and looted them. The guard was called out, and the soldiers marched into the mêlée with fixed bayonets; but were immediately surrounded by the naked mob, disarmed with shouts of laughter, and marched off as prisoners towards the main gate amid cries of “Vive l’Empereur!” Here they were met by Captain Cotgrave hurrying to the rescue at the head of a strong detachment. The “General” of the Romans halted his men and made a mock heroic speech to the agent. “Sir,” he said, striking a theatrical attitude, “we were directing our steps to your house to hand over to your care our prisoners and their arms. This is only a little incidental joke as far as your heroic soldiers are concerned, who are now as docile as sheep. We now beg you to order double rations to be issued as a reward for our gallantry, and also to make good the breach which we have just made in the provisions of our honourable hosts.” Captain Cotgrave struggled with his gravity during this harangue, but the “General” had nevertheless to spend eight days in the cachot for his escapade, while his naked followers were driven back to their quarters with blows from the flat of the muskets. For a long time after this the life of the soldiers was made miserable with banter, and they would bring their bayonets down to the charge whenever a prisoner feigned to approach them.
- 80. Strange as it may seem, there were among the Romans a number of young men of good family who were receiving a regular remittance from their friends in France. When the quarterly remittance arrived, the young man would borrow a suit of clothes in which to fetch the money from the Agent’s office, and, having handed over £1 to the “General” to be spent in tobacco or potatoes for the community, would take his leave, buy clothes, and settle down in one of the other floors as a civilised being. But a fortnight later the twenty-five louis would have melted away at the gaming-tables, clothes and bedding followed, and the prodigal would slink back to his old associates, who received him with a boisterous welcome. During the brief intervals when he was clothed and in his right mind, many efforts were made by the decent prisoners to restrain him from ruin; but either the gambling fever or a natural distaste for restraint always proved too strong, and no instance of permanent reclamation in the prison is recorded. It was otherwise when the Romans were restored to liberty. One would think that such creatures—half-ape and half-hog—had finally cut themselves off from civilised society, and that they ended their lives in the slums and stews of Paris. That this was not the case is the strangest part of this social phenomenon. In the year 1829 an officer who had been in Dartmoor on forfeiture of parole attended mass in a village in Picardy, through which he happened to be passing. The curé preached an eloquent and spiritual sermon, a little above the heads of his rural congregation. One of his auditors was strangely moved, not by the matter of the sermon, but by vague reminiscences, gradually growing clearer, evoked by the features and gestures of the preacher. So certain did he feel that he had last seen this suave and reverend priest raking an offal heap in the garb of Adam that he knocked at the sacristy door after the service. The curé received him formally with the “to-what-do-I-owe-the-honour” manner. “Were you not once a prisoner at the Depot of Dartmoor?” The priest flushed to his tonsure and stammered, but at last faltered an affirmative, adding sadly that imprisonment was very harmful both to body and soul.
- 81. “Do you remember me?” the officer asked. “Of course I do. It was you who so often preached good morals to me. It is a long time ago, and, as you see, God has worked a miracle in my soul. Evil example and a kind of fatal attraction towards vice dragged me down; I was young then. But do not let us talk of that horrible time, which I look upon as an incurable wound in my life.” An invitation to dinner followed the interview, and the visitor noticed that his host was no anchorite in the matter of food and drink. As he warmed with wine he became more confidential, and even a little scandalous, though he took occasion more than once to remind his guest that if in his youth his life had been shameful, at least he had the consolation of remembering that it was never criminal. Nevertheless, in the later stages of the repast, there seemed to be a faint afterglow of the volcanic eruption of his youth when he lived in the “Capitole.” This man had been one of those who had received regular remittances from his friends in France, and who, after a brief orgy at the gaming-tables, had rooted his way back to the swine-pen in the cockloft. His parishioners affirmed him to be a man of great piety and open-handed charity. They knew nothing of his past, and his guest was careful to respect his secret. In August 1846 one of the highest administrative posts under Louis Philippe was filled by a man of great ability, one of those officials who are selected by the Press for flattering eulogium. Yet he, too, had been a Roman, and there must have been many in France who knew that the breast then plastered with decorations had once been bare to the icy winds of Dartmoor. In 1844 there was in Paris a merchant who had amassed a large fortune in trade. His little circle of vulgar plutocrats was wearied with the stories of his war service and the leading part he had taken in the internal affairs of the war prison at Dartmoor. He seemed quite to have forgotten that the “leading part” was an unerring nose for fish offal in the garbage heap, wherein he excelled all the other naked inmates of the “Capitole.”
- 82. As they grew in numbers, from being objects of commiseration the Romans became to be a terror to the community. Theft, pillage, stabbings, and the darkest form of vice were practised among them almost openly. Unwashed and swarming with vermin, they stalked from prison to prison begging, scavenging, quarrelling, pilfering from the provision carts, throwing stones at any that interfered with them. It was this formidable body whose condition so shocked the Americans on their first arrival. They were the analogues of the “Rough Alleys” in the American prison, but they were more bestial and less aggressive. As it is not mentioned in the official records, let us hope that one horrible story, told by a French prisoner, is untrue. He says that when the bakehouse was burned down on October 8th, 1812, and the prisoners refused to accept the bread sent in by the contractor, the whole prison went without food for twenty-four hours. The starving Romans fell upon the offal heaps as usual, and when the two-horse waggon came in to remove the filth, they resented the removal of their larder. In the course of the dispute, partly to revenge themselves upon the driver, partly to appease their famishing blood thirst, these wretches fell upon the horses with knives, stabbed them to death, and fastened their teeth in the bleeding carcases. This horror was too much for the stomachs of the other prisoners, who helped to drive them off. Occasionally the administration made an attempt to clothe them. In April 1813, fourteen who were entitled to a fresh issue were caught, scrubbed from head to foot in the bath-house, deprived of their filthy rags, and properly clothed, but on the very next day they had sold every garment, and were again seen in the yards with nothing to cover their nakedness but the threadbare blanket common to the tenants of the “Capitole.” In 1812 they were banished to No. 4 prison, and in order to keep them from annoying their fellow prisoners the walls were built which separated No. 4 and its yard from the rest of the prison, for it was hoped that where all were destitute, those who would sell their clothing, bedding and
- 83. provisions would be unable to find a purchaser. But though new hammocks and clothing were given to them by charitable French prisoners as well as by the Government, they disposed of them all through the bars of the gate and went naked as before. Unquestionably, the greatest evil which Captain Cotgrave was called upon to face was the sale of rations. Serious crime could safely be left to the prisoners themselves to punish, but this inhuman traffic was the business of nobody but the persons who indulged in it. Each prisoner was served with rations every day, but if he chose to sell them instead of eating them, it was very difficult to interfere. Certain prisoners set up shops where they bought the rations of the improvident and sold them again at a profit. Gambling, of course, was at the bottom of the evil. To get a penny or two to stake at the tables, men who had sold all their clothes would hypothecate their rations for several days, and, having lost, and knowing that to beg would be useless, they would sit down to starve, until, in the last stage of weakness, they were carried to the infirmary to die. Sometimes these miserable creatures would forestall the end by hanging themselves to a hammock stanchion, rather than be forced out of their beds by the guards. In February 1813, very much to their surprise, Captain Cotgrave clapped a few of the most notorious food buyers into the Cachot, and kept them there for ten days, on two-thirds allowance. To their remonstrances he replied as follows: “To the Prisoners in the Cachot for Purchasing Provisions. “The orders to put you on short allowance from the Commissioners of His Majesty’s Transport Board is for purchasing the provisions of your fellow prisoners, by which means numbers have died from want of food, and the hospital is filled with sick not likely to recover. The number of deaths occasioned by this inhuman practice occasions considerable expense to the Government, not only in coffins, but the hospital
- 84. filled with those poor unhappy wretches so far reduced from want of food that they linger a considerable time in the hospital at the Government’s expense, and then fall a victim to the cruelty of those who have purchased their provisions to the disgrace of Christians and whatever nation they belong to. “The testimony of your countrymen and the surgeons prove the fact.” But it was all to no purpose, and in the following month we find him appealing to the whole body of prisoners. “Notice to the Prisoners in General.” “The infamous and horrible practice of a certain number of prisoners who buy the provisions of some evil-conducted and unfortunate of their fellow-countrymen, thereby tearing away from them the only means of existence they possess forces me to forewarn the whole of the prisoners that on the first appearance of a recurrence of this odious and abominable practice I shall, without any exception prevent any person from keeping shops in the prison, and I will stop the market. “As it would be entirely against my wishes and inclination to have recourse to these violent measures, I strongly request of the well-conducted of the prisoners to use all their exertions to put a stop thereto.” The threat was an empty one; the well-conducted prisoners discountenanced the practice, but the Romans bought and sold among themselves. After their attack upon the American prisoners in July 1813, they were further isolated, by being confined to the small yard on the south side of No. 4 (now the separate cells yard). For more than four years they had skulked about the yards by day, almost naked, exposed to the damp fogs of summer and the icy blasts of winter; had huddled by night upon a wet and filthy stone floor, had
- 85. subsisted half-starved upon garbage until the wind seemed to blow through their skeleton ribs; had neglected every elementary law of sanitation, and yet, strange to relate, every succeeding epidemic had passed them by, and it was notorious throughout the prison that sickness was almost unknown among the Romans. When General Stephenson and Mr. Hawker held their inquiry in 1813, the scandal of their mode of life was so great that the principal recommendation of the Commission was that “the prisoners calling themselves Romans” should be removed and compelled to live like human beings in some place where they could be kept under strict surveillance. And so, on October 16th, 1813, the scarecrow battalion of 436 “Romans” was mustered at the gate, decently clothed, and marched under a strong escort to a prison hulk in Plymouth, and kept under strict discipline until the peace. Fit products of the Terror these Romans, who as children may have hooted after the tumbrils in Paris, and shrieked with unholy glee as the boats went down in the Noyades under the quai at Nantes.
- 86. CHAPTER VII EMPLOYMENTS OF THE CAPTIVES—STRAW PLAIT CONTROVERSY—CONDUCT—ESCAPES Ye, to your hot and constant task Heroically true, Soldiers of Industry! we ask, “Is there no Peace for you?” Lord Houghton, Occasional Poems. It is a relief to turn over the last page of the chapter which illustrates the darkest side of the prison’s history, and to pass on to the consideration of what probably was the greatest solace which those in confinement experienced. This was work. Not the work done daily by the fatigue parties, but work by which the prisoners could earn something. By far the largest amount of the earnings was money brought into the prison from without, of which a portion circulated in the prison, finding remunerative work for other inmates. Much was spent in the market, and again left the prison, but a considerable amount accumulated in the hands of the thrifty, and sent the prisoners back to their own country all the richer for having been in Norman Cross. Although remunerative is as a rule more attractive than unremunerative work, any work done by the prisoners must have been cheering and elevating to those condemned to the deadly monotony of an idle prison life. To those gifted with artistic taste,
- 87. the production of the thousands of specimens of beautiful and ingenious articles of value must have been a positive joy. The work open to the industrious prisoners included that of an ordinary labourer, of a skilled artisan, and of a man with a trade, and ranged up to that of a teacher, an actor, an author, or an artist! A complaint of the French Government was that the British did not employ their prisoners on works outside the walls, as the British were employed in France. The answer to this is that the French male labour market was exhausted by the serious depletion due to conscription of the adult male population, and that the French Government, in the interests of France, gladly availed itself of the services of the British, under military surveillance, for public works, etc. No such necessity pressed on the British; there was an ample supply of labour, and the introduction of competing gangs of prisoners of war would have led to trouble, and was in fact a domestic impossibility. There were occasions when the prisoners were employed on large constructive works connected with their own prisons. Dartmoor Chapel was built by the prisoners in 1810– 14; the masons were paid 6d. a day, it being understood that the money should accumulate, and that should any workman escape, the whole of the pay due to the gang would be forfeited. By this means every prisoner was made a warder over his fellows. [125] They were also regularly employed in their prisons as labourers, and those who knew a trade as tradesmen. From the accounts of Norman Cross Prison (which are scattered among various bundles, and difficult to find) has been selected the wage sheet for the midsummer quarter of 1789. The total is £408 1s. 6d.; of this £13 7s. 6d. was paid to the Dutch, and £32 to the French prisoners employed as labourers. Under the head of tradesmen’s bills for the same quarter are entered, French prisoners £35 3s. 4d.; Dutch prisoners £541 6s. 2d. These sums represent the employment of a considerable number of men, as, the recipients being lodged and fed at the expense of the State, the wage each man received was very
- 88. small, much below the normally low wage paid for labour at that date. The accounts show that the practice of employing and paying the prisoners was in vogue in the first years of the Depot’s existence, and that it went on until its last year is shown in the report of Mr. William Fearnall, the surveyor, [126] who recommends certain repairs, and states that Captain Hanwell, the Agent, can find thirty-six carpenters, two pairs of sawyers, and three masons from among the prisoners. Further, as already stated, the prisoners held several paid posts, such as cooks, nurses, hospital porters, and the like, within the prison walls. In the sketch of the prison life, allusion has been made to the retail traders and merchants; there were also craftsmen—men who knew a trade—tailors, shoemakers, cooks, etc. These carried on a business, their customers being their fellow prisoners. The regulation made for the protection of the revenue and in the interests of our own workers, to the effect that in making slippers and shoes, they might use list, but no leather, must have applied only to articles made for sale outside. The employments by which the prisoners earned money from outside and brought it into the prison have, perhaps, the greatest interest to us. The greater part of this money was either transmitted for safe keeping to France or
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