AFESC Differentiation and Data2012

Differentiating
Instruction in a
Climate of
Rigor and
Relevance
Ginny Huckaba, Ed.S.
Professional Development Specialist
Arch Ford Education Service Cooperative
Email: ginny.huckaba@archford.org

―In education it isn't how much
you have committed to memory
or even how much you know.

It's being able to differentiate between
what you do know and what you don't.

It's knowing where to go to find out
what you need to know
and it's knowing how to use
the information you get.‖
-William Feather

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this book study, participants will be able to:

 Identify the components of differentiated instruction.

 Understand the principles of differentiated instruction.

 Consider the three student characteristics to plan for
differentiated instruction.

 Take into account the five areas in which differentiation may
take place to plan for differentiated instruction.

 Use student data to plan for, and make adjustments to,
instruction.

 Serve as a resource to others for using formative assessment to
guide instruction.

NORMS
 Begin/end on time
 Phone on silent or ―stun‖
 Take care of your needs
 Honor talk-free zones
 Be collaborative and engaged
 Sharpen your saw and have fun!

AGENDA
 Welcome, Introduction
 Purpose of Differentiation
 Principles of Differentiation
 Using Data
 Interest
 Learning Profile/Preference
 Academic
 Formative
 Summative
 Planning
 Instruction
 Learning Environment
 Grouping
 Management
 Reflection
 Close

What do I already know…
What do I want to know…

…about differentiation?

Does differentiating how we teach
really that important?

Listen to one child’s story before your
answer that question…

http://bloggingonthebay.edublogs.org/2010/12/15/learni
ng-profile-differentiated-instruction/

What is
―differentiation
of instruction?‖

Differentiation:
changing the pace, level or type of
instruction for the purpose of
responding to individual learners’
needs, learning styles or interests.

It is:
rigorous, relevant, flexible & complex

Or, in Maggie’s words:

• "This may be true for all students, whether they are seated in
a classroom or taking an online course such as this. The
material, the activity or assignment, the setting, life in
general, and numerous other factors all help determine
what learning style will be optimum for a given task.

• Translation – vary the lessons, the amount and type of
reading, the presentation, the assignments in order to reach
the optimum learning style of the participants. In this way
you will not ―teach‖ the same consistently and may reach
more students’ zone of proximal development. "

First step:
Start where you are…
so, where ARE you?
1. Analyze your current instructional plans for degree
of challenge and variety.
2. Then modify, adapt, design new approaches to
respond to students’ needs, interests, learning
styles/preferences

Adapted from: The Differentiated Classroom, Carol Ann Tomlinson (1999)

8 Key Principles
of Differentiation
1. Teacher focuses on the essentials (KUD)
2. Teacher honors student differences
3. Teacher uses assessment & instruction as
cohesive and inseparable complements of each
other
4. Teacher modifies 5 classroom elements
5. Teacher engages all students in respectful work
6. Teacher and students collaborate in the learning
7. Teacher balances group/individual norms
8. Teacher and students work together—flexibility

5 Classroom Elements
that can be differentiated:

• Content
• Process
• Products
• Affect
• Learning Environment

3 Student Traits to respond to
when planning for
differentiation:

• Readiness
• Interest
• Learning Profile/Preference

Using Data to
understand the learner…
• Gathering data on your students gives you the
tools you need to plan, adjust and differentiate
your instruction to best meet their learning needs.
• Students also need to know what their strengths
are as learners as well as their performance on
an ongoing basis (formative).
• One set of data is NOT enough to get the ―full
picture‖ of how the learner accesses, processes
and uses what they are to learn.

DATA TYPES:
ACADEMIC

LEARNER INTERESTS

LEARNING PROFILE/PREFERENCE

ACADEMIC DATA:
• Use a variety of data sources to begin to get to know
your students’ academic level of performance:
• State tests
• Normed tests
• Content pre-assessment
• Readiness tests
• Local (district/school) assessments

• But don’t stop there, look to other types of data if
you really want to know your students, such as…

LEARNER INTEREST DATA:
• Interest inventories
• Questionnaires and surveys
• Parent –provided information
• Writing prompts
• Discussion
• Informal student interviews
• Verbal questioning

LEARNING PROFILE/PREFERENCE:
• There are thousands of ways to get an idea of each student’s
learning preference (also called their learning profile or
learning style):
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences
• Sternberg’s triarchic model
• VAK
• VARK
• Teacher observation
• Parent survey/interview
• Student interview

• BE SURE to use a style that is most appropriate (user friendly)
for the age and developmental level of your students
• Be CAREFUL in using these instruments, be aware that most
people’s learning preference is a combination of the
categories with a ―leaning‖ toward one of them

On-going Assessment
for
Adjustment to Instruction
based on
Student Learning

USING DIAGNOSTIC DATA
AS ON-GOING ASSESSMENT:
• Gathering key information about a learner and using it to
make decisions about teaching him/her.
• These decisions include:
• what and how to teach the content
• How students should learn to demonstrate their knowledge
and skill as a result of learning that content
• Where to look for diagnostic data:
• Pre-assessments in a variety of formats (not ―for a grade‖)
• Continuous formative assessments to INFORM teaching
• Some examples of diagnostic tools:
• Student writing (journal, essay, etc.), oral response,
explanation of a process, performance, demonstration

Assessment-planning Questions:
• What do I know about my students NOW?

• What is it about my students’ content knowledge, thinking
and process (demonstration of skill) that I don’t know right
now?

• How is the final assessment for this unit of study
constructed—what is it’s nature and content?

• This question indicates the necessity for ―backward design‖
• In other words, what are the important take-aways of this
unit and how do I expect my students to demonstrate that
they’ve learned the content?)

I analyzed the data; now what?:

• If students don’t understand the concepts of the content
(KUD):
• Adjust time needed to teach
• Careful selection of methods/strategies to allow vocabulary
acquisition, clarity of concepts and depth of thinking
• If students are unclear or lack depth in their thinking about
the concepts:
• Examine/adjust your questions
• Give students time and variety of ways to ask questions
• Students use journals, graphics or give examples
• Plan for opportunities of creating solutions & generalizing
ideas

Purpose/uses of Ongoing
(Formative) Assessment:
• Purpose: to continue the process of each student’s
learning
• Designed and used to determine, in a continual and
―through course‖ manner where the learner is in his/her
understanding
• To make changes, adjustments, modifications in the
instruction to meet the needs of the learner in his/her
access to and acquisition of the learning
• Reflect the actual content that is being taught at that time
• Is diagnostic and, therefore, not ―graded‖ but rather
analyzed to guide teacher’s decisions for necessary
―course corrections‖

The Power of Ongoing
Formative Assessment:
• Student self-evaluation/self-reflection: clearest view of
student performance
• Assessing at transition points (where skill load significantly
increases and critical thinking deepens/expands)
• Using exemplars with rubrics is powerful and is
appropriate in any content and any unit (self-evaluation)
• Collaborative analysis by
• teacher groups of student work

Tips for using student
(formative) self-assessment:
• Teach students, in advance, how you will use this assessment
• Make tools simple to use, easily accessible, not time-consuming
• Use information from the self-assessments to aid in planning
instruction and to communicate with parents (possibly to prepare
student for student-led parent conference)
• Keep records of patterns of learning for classes, small groups and
individuals
• Use those records to note student needs and adjustments of
instruction
• Use critical questions concepts to determine areas you will use for
self-assessment
• Can also use process, product or skill steps (spelling, scientific
process, sequence of solving math problem)
• To allow students to monitor and adjust their own learning:
• Use some as feedback tools to give specific, ongoing information to
students about their progress
• Use some for students to use to give each other feedback

Summative (final) assessments:
• Gathers information about:
• Student depth of understanding of concepts
• Level of student communication about what they know (KUD)
• Student’s ability to use the concepts to expand their learning
• To guide decisions about the next unit of study:
• Adjusting methods, materials, timing, grouping to
accommodate learning styles/needs of learners’ diversity
• May be performance-based rather than paper test, but:
• Plan carefully what goes in the directions
• Distinguish those directions from what goes in the prompt
• Contains critical questions about the key concepts of the unit
• Rubric is well-designed
• (If other teachers get same results, then it is well designed)

Assessing your assessments:

THE BIG QUESTION:

Is this assessment aligned with
the most important standard of this unit?

To answer the alignment question, start with the
assessment piece and work backward to the standard

• Do a concept check:
• What big ideas/concepts/key vocabulary will students demonstrate?
• Do the big ideas and concepts in the assessment and standard
match?
• Examine product, process, skill congruence:
• Check for critical thinking:
• Circle verbs in your assessment prompt and directions
• Circle verbs in the standard that you want students to demonstrate
• Are the two sets of verbs aligned?
• If not, either abandon the assessment item or change it
• Examine product, process, skill congruence:
• Determine what students must do to demonstrate KUD of standard
• What product, process or skill must they demonstrate
• Look at standard and determine if that (product, process, skill) is a
logical match for demonstrating learning
• (example: standard says ―interpet‖ and your assessment is m/c)
• If not a logical math, it is best to start over

Questions to ask while analyzing students’
formative and summative results
 What % of students scored at each level?
 Look at subgroups’ performance and the adjustments you made
to instruction (if any) for each group.
 Given the results, how well did the strategies you used work?
 Which strategies would work best—based on the results?
 What was the level of critical thinking demonstrated by students?
Did it match the standards? Did it match the prompt and the
scoring guide/rubric? Did I pre-assess for this?
 Did the students receive instruction and learning opportunities at
this level of thinking before the assessment?
 What did the assignments and assessments look like in terms of
student performance? Is there any other evidence that confirms
this as a consistent and accurate level of performance?
 What might have caused these results? (Time spent learning,
resources used, strategies for both learning and instruction and
goals of the unit/lesson.)

Using Assessment Data--
In a Nutshell:
1. Before student arrival: examine available,
relevant data
2. When student arrives: interest and learning
profile surveys/observations
3. Before instruction of a unit: pre-assessment
4. During unit of study: ongoing formative
assessments (not all paper/pencil)
5. End of unit of study: summative assessment

NOTE: assessment provides direction to you about which
students need support to succeed and what particular types of
support and in what particular areas

3 Guiding Questions:
1. What misunderstandings are likely to occur during
the unit and how can I prevent them?

2. Given the makeup of my class, how can I meet the
needs of all students and ensure that they benefit
from the learning experiences in the most efficient
and effective way(s)?

3. Am I holding all of my students accountable for
meeting the learning goals—in learning the same
information and skills, although they may
approach them and reach that high level of
learning from different directions?

Before and as you design your
plan of instruction:
1. Identify essential understandings, goals,
outcomes
2. Identify students with special needs and how
to adapt to ensure they learn and achieve
at a high level as well
3. Design formative and summative
assessments
4. Design, then deliver pre-assessments based
on that unit’s summative assessment.
5. Adjust goals, outcomes based on further
thinking as designing the assessments

While you design and implement
your plan of instruction:
1. Design learning tasks/experiences based on pre-
assessment results as well as your knowledge of
students’ and your content.
2. Make a mental run through each sequence and
facet of the lesson, anticipating student needs and
possible ―glitches‖ that could occur and adjust.
3. Review plans with a colleague.
4. Gather and organize: materials, supplies, furniture,
student movement, groupings, etc.
5. Teach.
6. Make adjustments in: goals, formative
assessments, summative assessments based on
observations and data gathered during instruction.

After you deliver the instruction
to your students:
1. Examine and evaluate: the lesson’s
success with your students.
2. Reflect: what evidence do you have
that students grasped the important
concepts and skills?
3. Reflect: what worked, what didn’t, why?
4. Record: advice and thoughts about
possible changes in the lesson for the
future.

Planning- steps to take:
1. Identify the standard(s), learning goal(s)
2. Identify the essential understandings of the standards and write 3-5 essential
questions
3. Write 3-5 unit questions that point back to the essential question(s) and the
standard(s)
4. Map the curriculum (see sample map on following slide)
5. Determine what area(s) of differentiation will be most appropriate for particular
students (or if the lesson will be appropriate for all learners—use student data to
support this judgment)
6. Design the assessments (formative AND summative) before designing the
instructional pieces—use variety of assessment styles
7. Design the pre-assessment—based on #1 and #6 (use variety of styles)
8. Determine how differentiated the unit is as it is already designed (if it is a unit
you have taught in previous years)
9. NOW design the instructional pieces

AFESC Differentiation and Data2012

Data and
The Instructional Pieces:
 Decide where differentiation is most
appropriate for your students, based on data:

 content, process, product, affect and/or
environment

 readiness, learning preference and/or interest

 Or a combination of the above

Considering
Content, Process, Product,
Affect, Learning Environment:
• CONTENT: what students should know, understand and be able to do (KUD) as a
result of instruction in a particular area of study. It is what is important and
matters most, the essential knowledge, of the subject matter.

• PROCESS: how the learner accesses and acquires the new knowledge,
understanding and skills. It basically begins when the teacher stops talking and
tells the learner to begin to work making personal meaning out of the information
and skills that he/she has accessed.

• PRODUCTS: how the learner demonstrates what he/she has come to know,
understand and be able to do at the end of a significant or major unit of study.

• AFFECT: the learner’s feelings about the learning environment and situation.
Affect includes feeling emotionally and physically safe, secure, belonging to a
group, feeling affirmed in their importance as a member of the group.

• LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: visible and invisible structure of the classroom that
equips the learner and the teacher to work so that individuals and the group
benefit from that work. Includes how space, time and materials are used and the
flexibility of the learning environment.

Considering
Readiness, Interest, Learning Profile:

• READINESS: the current content knowledge, understandings and skills (KUD)
a student has in relationship with the learning that is about to take place.
Student who are not ready have learning gaps, but those gaps are not
necessarily synonymous with ―ability.‖

• INTEREST: those topics and areas that the student is interested in thinking
about, doing, learning, and spending time with. Providing linkage between
the content and students’ interests help them connect with new information,
understanding and skills by making the content in ways that are appealing,
interesting, worthwhile and relevant to them.

• LEARNING PREFERENCE/PROFILE: a learner’s preferred mode of learning;
influenced by learning style, intelligence preference (Gardner), gender,
socio-economic and cultural background.

―In an effective classroom
students should not only know
what they are doing,

they should also know
why and how.‖
-Harry Wong

Characteristics of effective
differentiated instruction:
• Teachers find out where students are and begin there
• Teachers believe in the importance of learner differences
• Teachers plan and provide specific instruction that enables
each learner to learn deeply and quickly as possible
• Time is used flexibly
• Teachers use a wide variety of:
• Learning groupings
• Effective instructional strategies
• Formative assessment structures
• Collaborative (student-student, teacher-student) devices
• Teachers have a clear understanding of the power of
curriculum and how to engage learners in instruction
• Decisions about delivery, management and planning of
differentiated instruction are grounded in common sense

Instructional Strategies,
some examples:
 Stations  Choice boards
 Learning centers  4MAT
 Lab centers
 Agenda/task list  Portfolios
 Complex instruction  Small group instruction
 Orbital studies  Jigsaw
 Entry points
 Anchor activities
 Tiers
 Learning contracts  Varied organizers
 Compacting  Varied texts
 Problem-based  Varied materials
 Group investigation
 Varied homework
 Independent study
 Choices  Varied journal prompts

Healthy Classrooms:
• Teacher continually developing own expertise
• Teacher knowledge and passion for the content
• Comprehensible content and instruction
• Respect and esteem for student differences/similarities
• Relevant, authentic, meaningful content that empowers
• All are appreciated
• Teaching of the whole person
• Linkages
• High expectations, lots of ladders to success
• Metacognition
• Collaborative teaching/learning
• Understanding of purpose
• Student access to and independence in the learning
• Positive energy and humor
• Joyful teaching and learning
• Overt student discipline
• Student self-management of the learning/environment
• Engagement

Considering Physical Space
 Think of a variety of ways to arrange your space to allow for whole,
individual and small groups to work.
 Are there other areas, beyond the classroom, that may be used?
 If furniture can’t be moved, how can people be rearranged within
the space?
 How can quiet and areas of movement and conversation be set up
to coexist?
 How can exemplars, rubrics and student work be displayed while
having areas that are free of visual distractions?
 When furniture is moved temporarily, who will do it, how quickly
and at what noise level?
 How will all know where to appropriately move it?
 How will we deal with materials and supplies when furniture is
moved?
 Who is allowed to move around the room and under what
circumstances?
 What is the ―movement‖ signal? What is the ―clean up‖ signal?
 What is the signal for moving from one task/place to another?
 What happens when someone’s movement is distracting or
disruptive to others? What is the warning signal for this?

Considering Materials

 What materials/supplies are always available in the classroom?
 What materials/supplies are occasionally needed and available?
 How will materials/supplies be rotated and stored?
 Which materials may students access?
 Which materials may only the teacher access?
 How will students know what materials are appropriate for them to
use at a given time?
 Who will get out/put up materials? What is the signal for that? What
is the appropriate noise level?
 What are the guidelines for sharing materials when it’s necessary?
 How will we care for materials and supplies?
 What are the consequences for inappropriate and/or disruptive use
of materials and supplies? What is the warning signal for this?

Considering Time
 When will working as a whole group be best?
 When will small group or individual work helpful?
 How will students know where to work in certain group configurations and what is the
signal to tell them?
 How will students self-manage when teacher is not directly supervising their work?
 What rules and procedures will govern the variety of work places and types?
 How will students signal for help when: teacher is busy with others and teacher is
available?
 What will students do when they have completed their task and others are still working?
 What will students do if they need more than the allotted time to complete their task?
 What is the procedure for each student/group to turn in completed work?
 At what times is student movement appropriate and not?
 How will students know which task to work on at a particular time and place?
 How will students be able to know if they are working at a high quality level?
 What is the procedure and format for students to keep track of their goals, work and
accomplishments?
 How will the teacher manage providing feedback to individual and groups of students?
 While different student-group configurations are in play, how will the teacher monitor the
work of those who are able to work independently as well as those needing closer
teacher guidance?

Flexible Groupings
 Theheart of differentiation!
 Optimal times: at exit points
 When some haven’t yet mastered and
others are ready to move on OR
 Some would benefit from an advanced
task and others from a more basic activity
 Is NOT: tracking, ability, performance-
based or cooperative groups
 Is not necessarily a full-time grouping;
there IS a time and place for whole-group
and individual instruction

So…what is flexible grouping?
 Determined by evidence of learning needs or
teacher’s perceptive judgment
 Based on specific learning needs, strengths or
preferences
 Fluid membership (moving in and out of)
 Groups work on different activities based on needs,
strengths, preferences
 Students grouped and regrouped as appropriate for
particular activities
 Occurs as needed
 Grouping based on individual students’ skill
proficiency, content mastery, interests or learning
preferences
 Number of members is variable, depending on
teacher’s judgment, may be single, pairs, triads or
quartets
 Appropriate in all class configurations-even IEP & AP!

How do I manage it all?
 Before differentiation of
instruction goes ―online,‖
you must have the foundation
of effective classroom management
solidly in place.
 If you do, then move past ―Go‖ to the next steps
for management of differentiated lessons!
 If your classroom management leaves you
breathless—and not in a good way, get that taken
care of first!

REMEMBER: Deep and authentic learning does not
take place in chaos!

Management Basics
 Be strong about WHY you are differentiating—rationale based on student readiness,
interest and learning profile
 Start small
 Start with what you’re already doing—keep and tweak
 Transition students into the process with short activities for warm-up and cool-down
 Begin at a pace you’re comfortable with
 Communicate differentiation methods with parents and students
 Decide what you can do ahead of time
 Save time: laminate materials, standardize emails/letters, copy/paste, delicious.com
for links you refer to often, think how to utilize technology to save printing costs and
time at the printer
 Empower students in management tasks—you do not have to do it all!
 Plan directions thoughtfully and purposefully—ahead of time
 Time differentiated activities when they will best support student success
 Collaborate with other teachers to build differentiated units that can be shared
 Allot less time for a task than the student’s attention span—less for basic, more for
advanced students
 Anchor activities for some allow you to focus on those who need your attention
 Use great care—creating and delivering instruction

Management Basics
 Streamline methods of assigning and moving students into grouping configurations
 Have a ―home base‖ group for students
 Plan, plan, plan
 Give students as much responsibility for their learning as possible
 Engage students in discussions—bring them into the conversation about procedures,
your own thinking, the entire group’s experience with a particular issue in the
classroom
 Be collaborative with students
 To have power, give power
 Maintain appropriate relationships with students, neither too soft nor too firm
 Demonstrate perseverence and flexibility to your students through talking to them
about adjustments you make and frustrations that you had and how you overcame
them
 Plan for ways students are held accountable for completing tasks, managing
materials and time, and working together collaboratively
 Have a signal or sign that lets students know when you are available to help them
 Have a procedure for students to use when they want help and you are busy with
another student (create a mind map, for example—must not be ―busy work‖)

Let Students Help Manage
 Procedures, rules and routine:
 discuss with and teach to students.
 Regardless of grade level—model and students practice.
 Allow time for practicing and mistakes—and tell students.
 Be consistent and constant in their use—students need and want it.
 Examples:
 Getting teacher’s help signal—when T is busy and available
 Noise: what’s acceptable, how to manage and signal to warn
 Turning in work
 Making use of physical space for learning—moving self and things
 Off-limit areas
 Preventing and policing ―roaming‖ or ―stray‖ movement behaviors
 Teacher’s acknowledgement of on-task behaviors
 What to do if (authentically) finish before others
 Beginning and ending signals and procedures
 Resolving conflicts—especially when working with others
 Student record keeping

Flexible-group Management
 Not every group will need as much of your time, be flexible about that (cut
yourself some slack).
 Plan for more time with groups that you suspect will need it.
 Create tasks for groups that are self-directed--give them checklists of
steps to follow as they work.
 Provide rubrics, checklists and examples (exemplars).
 Establish and teach behavior guidelines, including the difference between
productive/disruptive noise.
 Set up procedures for students to ask for your help as well as a signal for
letting them know when you’re available to help.
 Teach students expectations for accountability; provide a method (forms,
etc.) for them to use to document their work.
 Establish procedures for students who finish early (having produced quality
work).
 Plan for those students who work productively but still need more time.
 Consider debriefing with a whole-group discussion, activity, reflection,
sharing of work—either at end of the session or beginning of the next class
time.
 Provide opportunities for all students to share—use your observations to
bring out points and provide feedback, this will show students you are
watching and listening and also adds another dimension to their
accountability.

ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES
OF
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
1. Good curriculum always comes first.
2. All tasks are respectful of every learner.
3. When in doubt, teach ―up!‖
4. Flexible groupings are used.
5. Ongoing assessment and data analysis, always.
6. Grade for growth to yield student persistence in
learning. (Opportunities to improve and
re-evaluate—teaches students perseverence.)

So--Where do I begin?
1. Focus first on how to think about teaching and learning and
individual student needs
2. Start small—start with what you already are doing and refine
3. Grow—slowly, but grow
4. Begin with the end in mind (envision the activity)
5. Plan—collaboratively with others when possible/appropriate
6. Purposefully design your directions, groupings, environment,
grading, routines, procedures, organization, student choices
7. Teach students to work for quality
8. Get to know your students, early & often
9. Empower your students in their learning
10. Communicate with parents
11. Reflect as you go—be analytical as you look at things
12. Don’t give up!

Sources:
• Gregory, G., editor (2011). Differentiated Instruction. Corwin Press.
• Gregory, G. & Kuzmich, L. (2004). Data Driven Differentation in the Standards-
Based Classroom. Corwin Press.
• Heacox, D. (2002). Differentiating Instruction in the Regular Classroom. Free Spirit
Publishing.
• Imbeau, M. (2010). Workshop: Teaching Academically Diverse Learners and
Differentiated Instruction: Ideas and Issues to Consider for the Elementary
Classroom.
• Nunley, K. F. (2006). Differentiating the High School Classroom. Corwin Press.
• Strickland, C. A. (2009). Professional Development for Differentiating Instruction.
ASCD.
• Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability
Classrooms. ASCD.
• Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The Differentiated Classroom: Responding the Needs of
All Learners. ASCD.
• Tomlinson, C. A. & Cunningham-Eidson, C. (2003). Differentiation in Practice: A
Resource Guide for Differentiating Curriculum (Grades 5-9). ASCD.
• Tomlinson, C. A. & McTighe, J. (2006). Integrating Differentiated Instruction +
Understanding by Design: Connecting Content and Kids. ASCD.
• Wormeli, R. (2007). Differentiation, From Planning to Practice Grades 6-12. NMSA.

―The success of education
depends on adapting
teaching to individual
differences among learners.‖
--Yue zheng, 4th century, B.C.
―Xue Ji‖ treatise

AFESC Differentiation and Data2012

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