CAMBRIDGE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

ENDORSED BY
~;~.~ CAMBRIDGE
t.~ lnt~mational F.11aminarmns
Cambridge
IGCSE®
Computer
Science
-
,.,,.,.__ ,ff David Watson
Helen Williams
/. HODDER
1EDUCATION

Cambridge
IGCSE®
Computer
Science

This page intentionally left blank

Computer
Science
David Watson
Helen Williams
i.7 HODDER
EDUCATION
AN HACHETTE UK COMPANY

Acknowledgements
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Photo credits
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II!) !GCSE i, the registered tcadcfilm of Cambridge International Examination,
C llivid Watson and Helen WiUiarm 2014
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ISBN 978 1471809309

Contents
Introduction
Section 1 Theory of computer science
Chapter 1 Binary systems and hexadecimal
1.1 Introduction
1.2 111c binary system
1.3 Measurement of the size ofcomputer memories
1.4 Example use ofbinary
1.5 The hexadecimal system
1.6 Use of the hexadecimal system
Chapter 2 Communication and internet technologies
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Data transmission
2.3 Error-checking methods
2.4 lntcrnet technologies
Chapter 3 Logic gates and logic circuits
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Logic gates
3.3 Truth tables
3.4 The fimction ofthe six logic gates
3.5 Logic circuits
3.6 Logic circuits in the real world
Chapter 4 Operating systems and computer architecture
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Operating systems
4.3 Interrupts
4.4 Computer architecture
4 .5 The fetch-execute cycle
Chapter 5 Input and output devices
5.1 Introduction
5.2 lnputdeviccs
5.3 Outputdevices
Chapter 6 Memory and data storage
6.1 Introduction
6.2 File formats
6.3 Lossless and lossy file compression
6.4 Memory and storage
6.5 How to estimate the size ofa file
viii
14
14
14
17
22
26
26
26
26
27
29
38
42
42
42
43
45
49
51
51
51
67
76
76
76
80
81
88

Chapter 7 High- and low-level languages 90
7.1 Programming languages 90
7.2 Translators 92
7.3 What happens when things go wrong? 94
Chapter 8 Security and ethics 97
8.1 Introduction 97
8.2 Security and data integrity 97
8.3 Cookies 100
8.4 Loss of data and data corruption 101
8.5 Firewallsandproxyservers 102
8.6 Security protocols 103
8.7 Encryption 104
8.8 Applications 109
8.9 Computer ethics 110
8.10 Freesoftware,freewareandshareware 111
Section 2 Practical problem-solving and programming 114
Chapter 9 Problem-solving and design 115
9.1 Introduction 115
9.2 Algorithms 118
9.3 Test data 119
9.4 Validation and ·erification 120
9.5 Using trace tables 125
9.6 Identifying and correcting errors 127
9.7 Producing algorithms 129
Chapter 10 Pseudocode and flowcharts 134
10. l Introduction 134
10.2 Assignment 134
10.3 Conditional statements 135
10.4 Loop structures 137
10.5 Input andoutputstatements 139
l 0.6 Standard actions 139
10.7 Exan1ples of algorithms in pseudocode 139
10.8 Standard flowchart symbols 142
Chapter 11 Programming concepts
11. l Introduction
11.2 Programming
11.3 Declaration and use of variables and constants
11.4 Basic data types
11.5 How to make your program work
146
146
146
149
150
151

Chapter 12 Data structures: arrays and using pre-release material
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Arrays
12.3 Using pre-release material
Chapter 13 Databases
13.1 Introduction
13.2 What are databases used for?
13.3 TI1e strucrnre ofa database
13.4 Practical use of a database
Index
163
163
163
168
169
169
169
169
171
178

Introduction
A ims
l11is textbook has been written to provide the knowledge, understanding and
practical skills that a student would need for the Cambridge Internntional
F.xaminations Computer Science IGCSE and GCE O Level courses.
The textbook is part ofa package which includes a student CD-ROM. A
teacher's CD-ROM is also available separately which includes additional guidance
and other useful information (see later in this introduction ).
This OC>Ok and accompanying student CD-ROM provide:
• practice end-of-chapter questions which include questions from past Cambridge
International Examinations papers
• activities which gi·e students additional guidance and practice
• sample program solutions for programming activities
• hints and tips where these provide additional help and knowledge.
Although this book has been written with the Cambridge lnter11atio11al
F.xaminatiom syllabus in mind, it can still be used as a useful reference textbook
for other GCSE computing courses. It is also a useful source of information for
those srudcnts starting an A le·el computer science course ~ especially at AS level.
Using the book
111c textbook contains 13 chapters. Although it is possible for some elements
of the practical problem-solving chapters to be examined in Paper I (Theory
of Computer Science ), and vice versa, the sections for the theory work are
in Chapters 1 to 8 and the practical work in Chapters 9 to 13. The book has
been split into Section 1 (TI1eory of computer science ) and Section 2 ( Practical
problem-solving and programming) to follow the Cambridge International
F.xaminatiom syllabus as closely as possible.
Activities are shown throughout the books as follows:
( Activity 1.1
)
Student CD-ROM
TI1e accompanying student CD-ROM contains additional guidance to enhance
the learning process in a number ofkeyareas in the textbook. The CD-ROM uses
animation and verbal commentary wherever this is found helpful in the learning
process. The CD-ROM includes sample program solutions for the programming
activities.
Where book topics are included in the CD-ROM the following symbol is used: 0
Teacher's CD-ROM
An additional teacher's CD-ROM is available to accompany this textbook. TI1is
CD-ROM includes the following material:
• possible responses to sample examination and other guestions
• each guesrion part suggests a level of difficulty
• expected responses to the guesrions at that level are included
• additional notes on why the responses meet the required level only

• answers to the end-of-chapter 'luestions in this textbook and to some of the
activities where relevant
• program files in Python and Java for activities and end-of-chapter questions.
• a scheme of work to help teacher's plan their r.110-year computer science course;
this scheme includes:
• chapter numbers from the book
• topic to be covered from the chapter
• approximate time alkx:ation adllised to cover the topic
• Cambridge lnten1ational F.xaminationssyllabus reference
• relevant page numbers from the textbook
• activities found in the textbook to help in the teaching process
• any additional notes to help plan the lessons.
The teacher's CD-ROM has not been through the Cambridge endorsement
process.
David W<Jtson and Helen Williams
September 2014

CAMBRIDGE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

G) Binary systems and hexadecimal
lnthischapteryouwilllearnabout:
e thebinarysystem
• measurement of computer memories
e thehexadecimal1ystem
e howtoconvertnumbersbetweendifferentnumberbasesystems
1.1 Introduction
As you progress through this book you will begin to realise how complex
computer systems really are. By the time you reach Chapter 12 you should ha·e a
better understanding of the fundamentals behind computers themselves and the
software that controls them.
Howe'er, no matter how complex the system, the basic building block in all
computers is the binary number system. This system is chosen since it consists of
ls and Os only. Since computers contain millions and millions of tiny 'switches',
which must be in the ON or OFF position, this lends itsclflogically to the binary
system. A s,.vitch in the ON position can be represented by l; a switch in the OFF
position can be represented by 0.
1.2 The binary system
We arc all familiar with the dcnary (base 10) number system which counts in
multiples of 10. This gives us the well-known headings of units, 10s, 100s, 1000s
and soon:
10 OOO 1000 100 10
(104) ( 101) ( 102) ( 101) ( 100)
111c BINARY SYSI"EM is based on the number 2. Thus, only the two 'values' 0 and
I can be used in this system to represent each digit. Using the same method as
dcnary, thisgi·cs the headings of 20, 21, 22, 23 and so on. The typical headings
for a bi.nary number with eight digits would be:
128 64 32 16
A typical binary number would be:
111011 I 0
1.2.1 Converting from binary to denary @
It is fairly straightfonvard to change a binary number into a dcnary number.
Each time a 1 appears in a column, the column value is added to the total. For
example, the binary number above is:
128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 - 238 (dcnary)
The Ovalues arc simply ignored.
0

1.2
Activity 1.1
Convertthelollowingb.narynumber,;
intodeoary:
a 00110011
b 01111111
c 10011001
d 01110100
e 11111111
f 00001111
g 10001111
h 11110000
i 01110000
j 11101110
1.2.2 Converting from denary to binary ®
The reverse operation, converting from denary to binary, is slightly more
complex. There are two basic ways of doing this. The first method is 'trial and
error' and the second method is more methodical and involves repetitive division.
Method l
Consider the conversion of the dcnary number, 107, into binary. This method
involves placing l s in the appropriate position so that the total equates to 107:
128 64 32 16
Method 2
This method involves successive division by 2. The remainders arc then read from
BOTTOM to TOP to give the binary value. Again using 107, we get:
Figure 1.1
Activity 1.2
readlhe,emainde,lrombottomto
toptogetlhebiM,ynumbef
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
Convertthelollowingdenarynumbersinto
biMry{usingbothmethods)
• 41
b 67
' 86
d 100
e 111
f 127
g 144
h 189
i 200
j 255
The binary system
•

1 BINARY SYSTEMS AND HEXADECIMAL
1.3 Measurement of the size of computer memories
A binary digit is commonly referred to as a BIT; 8 bits are usually referred to as a
The byte is the smallest unit of memory in a computer. Some computers
use larger bytes but they are always multiples of8 (e.g. 16-bit systems and
32-bit systems). One byte of memory wouldn't allow you to store very much
information; therefore memory size is measured in the following multiples:
1kiim,te(1KB)
(1MB)
e(1GB)
1terabvte(1Tl!)
1nPtabvte(1P!!)
(Note: 1024 x 1024 - I 048576 and so on.)
To give some idea of the scale of these numbers, a typical data transfer rate
using the internet is 32 megabits (i.e. 4 MB ) per second (so a 40 i1.B file would
take 10 seconds to transfer). Most hard disk systems in computers are 1 or
2 TB in size (so a 2 TB memory could store over half a million 4 MB photos, for
example).
It should be pointed out here that there is some confusion in the naming
of memory sizes. The IEC convention is now adopted by some organisations.
Manufacturers ofstorage devices often use the denary system to measure storage
size. For example,
l kilobyte - 1000 byte
l megabyte - 1000000 bytes
I gigabyte - l 000000000 bytes
I terabyte - 1OOO 000000 OOO bytes and so on.
111c ! EC convention for computer internal memories (including RAJ1) becomes:
1 kibibytc (l KiB ) - I 024 bytes
l mebibyte ( 1 MiB ) - I 048576 bytes
I gibibyte ( 1 GiB ) - l 073 741824 bytes
1 tebibyte ( 1 TiB ) - 1099511627776 bytes and so on.
H owe·er, the IEC terms are not universally used and this textbook will use
the more conventional terms shown in Table 1. 1. This also ties up with the
Cambridge International E'l:aminations computer science syllabus which uses the
same terminology as in Table 1. 1.
1.4 Example use of binary
This section gives an example of a use of the binary system. Ve will introduce the
idea of computer REGISTERS; this subject is covered in more depth in Chapter 4.
A register is a group ofbits; it is often depicted as follows:
0

1.5
Figur• 1.2
'hen computers (or microprocessors) are used to control devices (such as
robots), registers arc used as part of the control system. The following example
describes how registers can be used in controlling a simple device.
A robot vacuum cleaner has three wheels, A, Band C. A rotates on a spindle
to allow for direction changes (as well as forward and bachvard movement);
B and C are fixed to revolve around their ules to provide only forward and
backward mo·ement, and have an electric motor attached:
Figur• 1.3
An 8-bit register is used to control the movement ofthe robot vacuum cleaner:
BdirPCtion C directioo
fllfWards frnwards
Figur•1.4
If the register contains I O 1 0 1 0 l Othis means 'motor Bis ON and motorCis
ON t111d both motors are tuniing to produce FORiVARDS motion'. Effecti·ely, the
vacuum cleaner is moving forwards.
Activity 1.3
a What would be the effect jf the register contained the follov,iing ~alues7
1 10011000
b What would the register contain if only motor C was ON and the motors were turning in a
BACKWARDS direction?
c What would the register contain if motor Band motor C were both ON but Bwas turning in a
backwarddirectionandCwa1turninginalorwarddirection?
d What would be the effect jf the register contained the follov,iing?
11111111
1.5 The hexadecimal system
The HEXADECIMAL SYSI"EM is very closely related to the binary system.
H exadecimal (sometimes referred to as simply 'hex') is a base 16 system and
therefore needs to use 16 different 'values' to represent each digit.
The hexadecimal system
•

Because it is a system based on 16 different digits, the numbers Oto 9 and
the letters A to F arc used to represent each hexadecimal (hex) digit. (A - 10,
B - 11 ,C - 12 ,D - 13, E - 14 and F - 15. ) Using the same method asdcnary
and binary, this gi·cs the headings of 160, 161, 162, 163and so on. The typical
headings for a hexadecimal number with five digits would be:
65 536 4 096 256 16 l
(lfrl) (163) (162) (161) (160)
Since 16 - 24 this means that FOUR binary digits arc cciuivalcnt to each hexadecimal
digit. Table 1.2 summarises the link between binary, hexadecimal and dcnary.
Binaryvalu• Denaryvalu•
1.5.1 Converting from binary to hexadecimal
and from hexadecimal to binary (v
Co1wcrting from binary to hexadecimal is a fairly easy process. Starting from
the right and moving left, split the binary number into groups of 4 bits. Ifthe
last group has less than 4 bits, then simply fill in with Os from the left. Take each
group of4 bits and convert it into the cciuivalcnt hexadecimal digit using Table 1.2.
Look at the following two examples to sec how this works.
Example 1
I O1I111000 0 1
First split this up into groups of 4 bits:
101 1 111 0 0 0 0 I
TI1cn, using Table 1.2, find the CCJliivalcnt hexadecimal digits:
Example 2
100 0 0 I 111 111 0 l
0

1.5
First split this up into groups of4 bits:
I O OOO I 1111 1101
The left group only contains 2 bits, so add in two Os:
0 0 I O OOO I 1111 1101
Now use Table 1.2 to find the equivalent hexadecimal digits:
Activity 1.4
Convertthelollowingb4narynumbers
into hexadecimal·
a 11000011
b 11110111
c 1001111111
d 10011101110
e 000111100001
f 100010011110
g 0010011111110
h 0111010011100
i 1111111101111101
j 00110011110101110
D
Con'erting from hexadecimal to binary is also very straightforward. Using the
data in Table 1.2, simply take each hexadecimal digit and write down the 4-bit
code which corresponds to the digit.
Example 3
A
Using Table 1.2, find the 4-bit code for each digit:
0 100 0 1 0 I 101 0
Put the groups together to form the binary number:
0 100 0 101 l O 1 0
Example 4
Again just use Table 1.2:
1011 l 111 0 00 0 100 0
Then put all the digits together:
10111111 0000 1000
Activity 1.5
Convertthelollowinghexadedmalnumbersintobinary·
a 6C f BA6
b 59 g 9((
c AA h 40AA
d AOO i DA47
J 1AB0
The hexadecimal system
0

1.5.2 Converting from hexadecimal to denary
and from denary to hexadecimal ®
To con'ert a hexadecimal number to denary is fairly straightforward. Take each
hexadecimal digit and multiply it by its value. Add the totals together to obtain
the dcnary'aluc.
Example 1
A
First multiply each digit by its value:
256 16
(4 x 256 - 1024) (5 x 16 - 80) (10 x 1 - 10) (Note: A - 10)
Add the totals together:
denary number - 1 l 1 4
Example 2
First multiply each digit by its value:
256 16
(12 x 256 - 3072) (8 x 16 - 128) (15 x 1 - 15) (Note: C - 12 and F - 15)
Add the totals together:
dcnary number - 3 2 1 5
Activity 1.6
Coovert the following heXildedmal number,;
intodenary:
a 6B
b9 C
< 4A
d FF
e 1FF
f AOl
g BB4
h CAB
i 12AE
j A089
To con'ert from denary to hexadecimal is a little more difficult. As with the
cotwersion from binary to dcnary, there arc two very similar methods that can be
used. Again, the first method is 'trial and error' and the second method is more
methodical and im·olvcs repetitive division.
0

Method l
Consider the conversion of the dcnary number, 2004, into hexadecimal. This
method involves placing hexadecimal digits in the appropriate position so that the
total eguatesto2004:
256 16
D (Note: D - 13)
A quick check shows that: (7 x 256) + ( 13 x 16) + (4 x 1) gives 2004.
Method 2
This method involves successive division by 16. The remainders are then read
from BOTTOM to TOP to gi·e the hexadecimal value. Again using 2004, we get:
" ~
""'
16 125 ,em.;nder: 4
16 7 ,emaamier: 13
0 ,em.;nder: 7
Figur•1.5
Activity 1.7
1
rei>dtherem.;nderfmmbottomtotop
togetthehexadecimalnOO'lber:
'0'
Convertthelollowingdenarynumbers
intoheXddecimal{uloingbothmethods):
a 98
b 227
c 490
d 511
e 826
f 1000
g 2634
h 3743
i 4007
j SOOO
1.6 Use of t he hexadecimal system
This section reviews five uses of the hexadecimal system. 111c information in this
chapter gives the reader sufficient grounding in each topic at this le'el. Further
material can be found by searching the internet, but be careful that you don't go
off at a tangent.
1.6.1 Memory dumps
Since it is much easier to work with: B 5 A 4 I A F C
rather than: l O 1111001110 1 olo10010001110101111111100
hexadecimal is often used when developing new software or when trying to
trace errors in programs. The contents of part of the computer memory can
hold the key to help solve many problems. When the memory contents are
output to a printer or monitor, this is known as a MEMORY DUMP:
0

1-·· ....... ··················1
009901'77 n 20 6D 65 6D 6F 12 79 20 64 75 6D 70 20 66 72 6F 6D 20 20 61
00990E9 E 74 797069636l6C2020636F6D707574657220206D85
00990EA5 6D 6F 72 H 20 73 69 6F 77 69 611 67 20 74 68 65 20 20 63 6 F 61!
00990EBC 746561?74 73206F66206l206ll756D62657220206F66
00990ED3 6C6F63 6l 74696F61173 2020696E2020696578202020
00990BIIA 6116F74 6l 74696F61120200000000000000000000000
Figure 1.6
A program developer can look at each of the hexadecimal codes (as shown in
Figure 1.6) and determine where the error lies. The value on the far left shows
the memory location so that it is possible to find out exactly where in memory tl1e
fault occurs. This is clearly much more manageable using hexadecimal rather than
using binary. It's a very powerfid fault-tracing tool, but requires c.onsiderable
knowledge of computer architecture in order to interpret tl1e results.
1.6.2 HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML)
HYPERTEXT MARK·UP LANGUAGE (HTML) is used when writing and
de·eloping web pages. HTML isn't a progranuning language but is simply a
mark-up language. A mark-up language is used in the processing, definition and
presentation of text (for example, specifying the colour of tl1e text).
HTML uses <tags> which are used to bracket a piece of code; for exan1ple,
<td> starts a standard cell in an HTML table, and </td> ends it. Whatever is
berween tl1e two tags has been defined. H ere is a short section of HTML code:
<hJ :,Used car sales</hJ >
<h2>Cars f rom $500</h2>
<br><h2:>Cash sales only</h2></td></br>
HTML code is often used to represent colours oftext on the computer screen.
1l1e values change to represent different colours. The different intensity of the
three primary colours (red, green and blue) is determined by its hexadecimal
value. For example:
• # FF 00 00 represents primary colour red
• # 00 FF 00 represents primary colour green
• # 00 00 FF represents primary colour blue
• # FF 00 FF represents fuchsia
• # FF 80 00 represents orange
• # B1 89 04 represents tan

and so on producing almost any colour the user wants. There are many websites
available that allow a user to find the HTML code for the colour needed.
Activity 1.8
Usingtheinternet,findtheHTMLtodesforanumberofcolours
Try entering HTML code into the computer and see how the colours and font types can be
changed to good effect
Make use of websites, ,;uch as www.html .arrl toproduce your own web pages
With a little practice, you can import/embed images into your own design of web page using
freely available software.
Remember this is not a programming language. It is s.imply a mark-up language, so vecy little
programmingskillisrequilrotouseHTML
1.6.3 Media Access Control (MAC)
A MEDIA ACCESS CoNTROL (MAC) ADDRFSS refers to a number which uniguely
identifies a device on the internet. The MAC address refers to the network
interface card (NIC) which is part of the device. The ,1AC address is rarely
changed so that a particular device can always be identified no matter where it is.
A MAC address is usually made up of 48 bits which are shown as six groups of
hexadecimal digits (although 64-bit addresses are also known):
NN - NN - NN - DD - DD - DD
NN:NN:NN:DD:DD:DD
where the first half (NN - NN - NN) is the identity number of the manufacturer
of the device and the second half (DD- DO - DO) is the serial number of the
device. For example: 00 - l C - B3 - 4F - 25 - FE is the MAC address of a device
produced by the Apple Corporation (code: 001 CB3 ) with a serial number of
4F25FE. Sometimes lower case hexadecimal letters are used in the MAC address:
OO-lc-b3-4f-25 -fe. Other manufacturer identity numbers include:
• 00 - 14 - 22 which identifies devices made by Dell
• 00 - 40 - 96 which identifies devices made by Cisco
• 00 - AO - C9 which identifies devices made by Intel, and so on.
Types of MAC address
It should be pointed out that there are mu types of MAC address: the
UNIVERSALLY ADMINISTERED MAC ADDRESS (UAA) and the LocALLY
ADMINISTERED MAC ADDRESS (LAA).
The UAA is by far the most common type of MAC address and this is the one
set by the manufacturer at the factory. It is rare for a user to want to change this
MAC address.
H owever, there are some occasions when a user or an organisation wishes to
change their MAC address. This is a relati·ely easy task to carry out but it will
cause big problems if the changed address isn't unique.
There are a fei.11 reasons why the MAC address needs to be changed using LAA:
• Certain software used on mainframe systems needs all the MAC addresses of
devices to fall into a strict format; because of this, it may be necessary to change
the MAC address of some devices to ensure they follow the correct format.
•

• It may be necessary to bypass a MAC address filter on a router or a firewall;
o nly ,1AC addresses with a certain format are allowed through, otherwise the
devices will be blocked.
• To get past certain types ofnen11ork restrictions it may be necessary to emulate
unrestricted MAC addresses; hence it may require the MAC address to be
changed on certain devices connected to the nen11ork.
1.6.4 Web addresses @
Each character used on a keyboard has what is known as an ASCII CODE
(AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE). These codes can
be represented using hexadecimal values or decimal values. Figure 1.7 shows part
of an ASCII table.
,. .... Char O« ,.. Chu ,. ,.. "'"
" " <:SPACh
"
., . " "'
" " ' " " A
" "
" " " " . '" " .
SS ,, . " " ' " "
;e
" s
" .. 0
"'' " '
"
;s . " " ' '" "
'" " ' " .. ' '" " '
" " " " G
'" "
'" '" n .. " '" .. .
" " n
" ' '"' "
" >A
" <A
' '"' SA
" '"
,s .. ' '" .. .
.. K
" " ' "" "' '
" " n ., M
'"' " m
" " '" " " '" "
" " ' " " 0
"' "
.. "' 0
"" S> . "' " .
" " '
., S> Q m
"
S> ,, ' "'
s,
' '" n
S> a;
'
.,
" ' m n
s,
" ' .. " '
,,.
" '
" SS
' " SS
" "'
,s
" " . " " ' "" "
SS
" ' " " w
'" n w
'" '" . '" " ' '"
,.
" " ' "' " ' "' "
'" aA
"' SA
' m >A
" '" " '" I m
'" I
"' " " SC
' "' K
" " " so m
" I
.,
" " " "" "
" " ' " " m
" <:OHETb
Figure 1.7
A good example of the use ofASCII codes is the representation ofa web address
(or URL, which stands for uniform resource locator) such as www.hoddcr.co.uk
which becomes (using hexadecimal 11alues):
%77 %77 %77 %2£ %68 %6F %64 %64 %65 %72 %2E %63 %6F %2E %75 %6B
h d d k
(Note: the% sign is used to denote that hexadecin1al is being used.)
•

1.6
Activity 1.9
Using the ASCII rnde table (Figure 1.7) convert the following URL~ into the equivalent
hexadecimal:
a www.de.org.uk
b www.de.org.uk/computer_sdence
c httpsJ/INvwi.hodder.co.uk
d www.HodderEducation.co.uk
e http://www.ucles.ac.uk/computing.htm
Use of the hexadecimal system
Sometimes the hexadecimal addresses arc used in the address of files or web pages
as a security feature. It takes longer to type in the URL using the hexadecimal
codes, but it has the advantage that you are unlikely to fall into the trap of
copying and pasting a 'fake' website address.
1.6.5 Assembly code and machine code
Computer memory can be referred to directly using machine code or assembly
code. This can have many advantages to program developers or when carrying
out troubleshooting.
Machine code and assembly code are co·ered in much more derail in Chapter 7;
here we are simply interested in how hexadecimal fits into the picrnre.
Using hexadecimal makes it much easier, faster and less error prone to write
code compared to binary. Using true machine code (which uses binary) is ·ery
cumbersome and it takes a long time to kL-y in the values. It is also very easy to
mistype the digits in a 'sea of ls and Os'. Here is a simple example:
STO FFA4 (assembly code )
A5E4 FFA4 (machine code using hexadecimal lalucs)
1010 01011110 0100 1111 1111 1010 0100 (machine code using binary)
,lachine code and assembly code are examples of low-level languages and are
used by software dL·velopers when producing, for example, computer games. As
you will find in Chapter 7, although they look cumbersome, thL-y ha·e many
advantages at the development stage of software writing (especially when trying
to locate errors in the code).

Communication and internet technologies
2.1 Introduction
When data is sent from one device to another, it is important to consider how
that data is transmitted. It is also important to ensure that the data hasn't been
changed in any way.
The internet has now become an integral part of all ofour li·es. This chapter
will consider some of the important technologies going on in the background
which support the internet.
2.2 Data transmission
Data transmission can be either over a short distance (for example, from
computer to printer) or over longer distances (for example, over a telephone
network). Essentially, three factors need to be considered when transmitting
data (each factor has to be agreed by both sender and receiver for this to work
without error):
• the direction of the data transmission (i.e. in one direction only or in both
directions)
• the method of transmission (how many bits arc sent at the same time )
• the method of synchronisation between the two devices.
2.2.1 Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex ©
S IMPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION is in one direction only (i.e. from sender to receiver).
Example: data being sent from a computer to a printer.
HALF· DUPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION is in both directions but not at the same time
(i.e. data can be sent from 'A' to 'B' or from 'B' to 'A' along the same line, but
not at the same time). Example: a phone conversation between two people where
only one person speaks at a time.
FULL·DUPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION is in bothdirectiom sim11/taneously (i.e. data
can be sent from 'A' to ' B' and from 'B' to 'A' along the same line, both at the
same time) . Example: broadband connection on a phone line.
2.2.2 Serial and parallel data transmission ©
SERIAL DATA TRANSMISSION is when data is sent, 011e bit at t1 time, over t1 single
wireorcht1nnel (bits arc sent one after the other in a single stream).
Figure2.1
(Note: bits can be transmitted as simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.)
•

2.2
This method of data transmission works well o·er long distances. However, data
is transmitted at a slower rate than parallel data transmission. Since only one wire
or channel is used, there is no problem of data arri'ing at its destination out of
synchronisation.
An example of its use is sending data from a computer to a modem for
transmission over a telephone line.
PARAILBL DATA TRANSMISSION is when sevem/ bits ofdntt1 (umal/y 1 byte) are
sent down several wires 01' channels at the same time; one wire or channel is used
to transmit each bit.
Data transmission
I-·I l-~-1
~;,£~
Figur• 2.2 ...
;;::=,,p
(Note: bits can be transmitted as simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex. ) •
This method of data transmission works very well o·er short distances (over
longer distances, the bits can become 'skewed' - this means they will no longer be Figure 2.3 R;bbooronnector
synchronised). It is, howe·er, a faster method of data transmission than serial.
An example of its use is when sending data to a printer from a computer using a
ribbon connector.
Activity 2.1
Describewhatisme,mtby:
a serial, hatl-duplexdatatransmission
b parallel,full-duplexdatatransmiOOn
c serial,simplexdata trammission
A common use for serial data transmission is discussed in Section 2.2.4 (Universal
Serial Bus (USB)).
Parallel data transmission is used in the internal electronics of the computer
system. The pathways benveen the CPU and the memory all use this method
of data transmission. Integrated circuits, buses and other internal components
all use parallel data transmission because of the need for high speed data transfer.
The use of8 -bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit buses, for example, allow much faster
data transmission rates than could be achieved with single channel serial data
transfer. An internal clock is used to ensure the correct timing of data transfer;
it is essentially synchronous in narnre (see Section 2.2.3 ) and the short distances
between components mean that none of the issues described earlier have any real
impact on the accuracy ofthe data.
Chapter 4 covers the internal architecrnre of computer systems (including the
role of buses) and this should be read in conjunction with the information given
above.
2.2.3 Asynchronous and synchronous data transmission
AsYNCH RONOUS DATA T RANSMISSION refers to data being transmitted in an agreed
bit pattern. Data bits (ls and Os) arc grouped together and sent with CONTROL

2 COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES
1,tartbit 1, IO 1, 1, 1, 1, IO IO 1, 1, 1, IO 1, IO 1, IO Isiopbit I
cootrol bit
Figu,.2.4
This means that the recei·er of the data knows when the data starts and when it
ends. This prevents data becoming mixed up; without these control bits, it would
be in1possible to separate groups of data as they arrived.
SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION is a continuous stream of data (unlike
asynchronous data which is sent in discrete groups). The data is accompanied by
timing signals generated by an internal clock. This ensures that the sender and
recei'cr are synchronised with each other.
The recei'ercounts how many bits ( l s and Os) were sent and then reassembles
them into bytes of data. The timing must be ·ery accurate here since there arc
no control bits sent in this type of data transmission. Howe'er, it is a faster
data transfer method than asynchronous and is therefore used where this is an
important issue (for example, in network communications).
2.2.4 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
1l1e UNIVERSAL SERIAL Bus (USB) is an asynchronous serial data transmission
method. It has quickly become the standard method for transferring data between
a computer and a number of devices. Essentially, the USB cable consists of:
• a four-wire shielded cable
• two of the wires arc used for power and the earth
• two of the wires are used in the data transmission.
When a de'ice is plugged into a computer using one of the USB ports:
• the computer automatically detects that a device is present (this is due to a
small change in the 'oltagc level on the data signal wires in the cable ) Figu,. 2.5 use cable
• the de'ice is automatically recognised, and the appropriate DEVICE DRIVER is
loaded up so that computer and de'ice can communicate effectively
• if a new device is detected, the computer will look for the de'ice driver which
matches the dt.·'ice; if this is not available, the user is prompted to download
the appropriate software.
Even though the USB system has become the industrial standard, there arc still a
number ofbenefits (/ ) and drawbacks (x) to using this system:
Oevkespluggedintolhe«rnputera,reaotomabcally
detected;de,,;ced,iv,,.-,a,reautomaticallyuploaded
Thero,mec!OfScanonlyfitonew~:thisp,'-"'enls Themaximumcablelenglhisp,esentlyabootS
inror,ectconnectionsbeingmade metres
Thishasbecomethe indllSt,y,tan,fa,d;thismeans
thatcoosidefablesuppo,tisavailabletousers
Severaldiffe,entdatatransmissioo,atesare Thep,esenttransmissioo,ateislimitedtoJessthan
supported 500megabil5Jll'fsecood

2.3
2.3 Error-checking methods
Following data transmission, there is always the risk that the data has been
corrupted or changed in some way. This can occur whether data is being
transmitted over short distances or o'er long distances.
Checking for errors is important since computers aren't able to check that text
is correct; they can only recognise whether a word is in their built-in dictionary or
not. Look at the following text:
Can you racd tihs?
' I cnduo't bvleicc taht I culod aulaclty uesdtannrd waht I was rdnaieg.
Unisg the icndeblirc pweor of the hmuan mnid, aocdcrnig to rscccrah
at Cmabridgc Uincrvtisy, it dseno't mttaer in waht oderr the ltercts in a
wrod are, the olny irpoamtnt tihng is taht the frsit and lsat ltteer be in the
rhgit pclae. The rsct can be a raotl mscs and you can sit!] racd it whoutit a
pbocrlm.
Tihs is bucscac the huamn mnid dcos not racd crvcy lttccr by istlcf, but
the wrod as a wlohc.
Aaznmig, huh? Yeah and I awlyas tghhuot slclinpg was ipmorantt! Sec if
yuor fdrcins can racd tihs too'
(From an unknown source at Cambridge University)
Whilst you probably had little problem understanding this text, a computer
would be unable to make any sense of it.
This is why error checking is such an important part of computer technology.
This section considers a number of ways tliat can be used to check for errors so
that you don't end up with text as shown in the example above!
A number of methods exist which can detect errors and, in some cases, actually
correct tl1e error. The methods covered in tl1is section arc :
• parity checking
• automatic repeat request (ARQ)
• checksum
• echo checking.
2.3.1 Parity checking @
PARITY C H ECKING is one method used to check whether data has been changed or
corrupted following transmission from one device or medium to anotl1er device
or medium.
A byte of data, for example, is allocated a PARITY BIT. This is allocated before
transmission takes place. Systems that use EVEN PARITY ha·e an even number of
1-bits; systems that use ODD PARITY have an odd number of 1-bits.
Consider tl1e following byte:
p,,<itybit
Figur•2.6
Error<hecking methods

If this byte is using even parity, then the parity bit needs to be O since there is
already an even number of I -bits (in this case, 4 ).
If odd parity is being used, then the parity bit needs to be I to make the
number of I-bits odd.
Therefore, the byte just before transmission would be:
either(even parity)
parjtybit
Rgu,.2.7
or (odd parity)
parjtybit
Rgu,.2.8
Before data is transferred, an agreement is made between sender and recei·er
regarding which of the two types of parity are used. This is an example of a
Activity 2.2
Findtheparitybitsloreadiolthelollowingbytes:
a 1101101
b 0001111
c 0111000
d 1110100
eveoparjtyused
even parity used
even parity used
oddparjtyused
odd parity used
If a byte has been transmitted from 'A' to 'B', and even parity is used,
an error would be flagged ifthe byte now had an odd number of I-bits at
the recei'er'send.
Example 1@
Rgu,.2.9
In this case, the receiver's byte has three I -bits, which means it now has odd
parity whilst the byte from the sender had even parity (four I-bits). This clearly
means an error has occurred during the transmission of the data.
The error is detected by the computer recalculating the parity of the byte sent.
If c'cn parity has been agreed between sender and recei·er, then a change of
parity in the received byte indicates that a transmission error has occurred.

2.3
Activity 2.3
Whichofthefollowingbyteshaveanerrorfollowingdatatransmission?
a 11101101
b 01001111
c 00111000
d 11110100
even parity used
even parity used
even parity used
odd parity used
odd parity used
In each case where an error occurs, can you work out which bit is incorrect?
Namrally, any of the bits in Example 1 could have been changed leading to
a transmission error. Therefore, e·en though an error has been flagged , it is
impossible to know exactly which bit is in error. (Your last answer in Activity 2.3
should have been 'NO' since there isn't enough information to determine which
bit has been changed. )
0 One of the ways around this problem is to use PARITY BLOCKS. ln this
method, a block of data is sent and the number of 1-bits are totalled horizontally
and vertically (in other words, a parity check is done in both horizontal and
vertical directions). As Example 2 shows, this method not only identifies that an
error has occurred but also indicates where the error is.
Example 2 @
In this example, nine b)'tes of data ha·e been transmitted. Agreement has been
made that even parity will be used. Another byte, known as the PARITY BITE,
has also been sent. This b)'te consists entirely of the parity bits produced by the
'ertical parity check. The parity b)'te also indicates the end of the block of data.
The following table shows how the data arri·ed at the recei'ing end:
byteB 0
byte9 0
parity
"'~
A carefid srudy of Table 2.2 shows the following:
• byte 8 (row 8 ) has incorrect parity (there are three 1-bits)
• bit 5 (column 5 ) also has incorrect parity (there are five 1-bits).

First of all, the table shows that an error has occurred following data transmission.
Secondly, at the intersection of row 8 and column 5, the position of the
incorrect bit value (which caused the error) can be found.
This means that byte 8 should have the value:
Figure2.10
which would also correct column 5 giving an even vertical parity (now has four
1-bits).
This byte could therefore be corrected automatically as shown above, or an
error message could be relayed back to the sender asking them to retransmit the
block of data.
One final point: if two of the bits change value following data transmission,
it may be impossible to locate the error using the above method. For example,
using fa:ample l again:
Figure2.11
This byte could reach the destination as:
Figure2.12
Figure2.13
Figure2.14
All three are clearly incorrect; but they have retained even parity so this wouldn't
have triggered an error message at the receiving end. Clearly we need to look
at other methods to complement parity when it comes to error checking
transmitted data.

2.3
Activity 2.4
The following block of data was received after transmission from a remote computer; odd parity
beingusedbybothsenderandreceiver.Oneofthebitshasbeeochangedduringthetransmission
stage. LDG1tewherethiserrorisands.uggestamrrectedbyte value
byte1 0
byte2 1
byte3 1
byte4 0
bvt.5 1
bvte6 1
bvte7 0
bvte8 0
l bvte9 O
parity
S,w
2.3.2 Automatic Repeat Request (ARO)
Aurm,IATIC REPEAT REQuEIT (ARQ) is another method used to check whether
data has been correctly transmitted.
It uses an ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (a message sent by the receiver indicating that
data has been received correctly) and n1,rnour (this is the rime allowed to elapse
before an acknowledgement is recei·ed).
If an acknowledgement isn't sent back to the sender before rimeout occurs,
then the message is automatically resent.
2.3.3 Checksum ®
CHECKSUM is another way to check ifdata has been changed or corrupted
following data transmission. Data is sent in blocks and an additional value,
the checksum, is also sent at the end of the bloc.k ofdata.
To explain how this works, we will assume the checksum ofa block ofdata
is I byte in length. This gives a maximum value of28 - 1 (i.e. 255). 111e value
0000 0000 is ignored in this calculation. Example 3 explains how a checksum is
generated.
Example 3
If the sum ofall the bytes in the transmitted block ofdata is<• 255, then the
checksum is this value.
However, if the Slllll ofall the brt:es in the data block> 255, then the checksum
is found using the simple algorithm in Figure 2.15.
Suppose the value ofX is 1185, then tracing through the algorithm, we get:
X - 1185
1 1185/256 - 4.629
2 Rounding down to nearest whole number gives Y - 4
3 Multiplying br 256 gives Z - Y • 256 - 1024
4 The difference (X - Z) gives the checksum: (ll85 - 1024) - 161
5 This gives the checksum - 16 1
Oividethesum,X.of
thebyte,by2S6
Roondtheanswer
downtothenea,est
wholenumbef.Y
Cakulatethe
ciffereoce(X - Z)
Thi,valuei,the
checksum
Figure 2.15

When a block of data is about to be transmitted, the checksum for the bytes is
first of all calculated. This value is then transmitted with the block of data. At the
recei'ing end, the checksum is recalculated from the block of data received. This
calculated value is then compared to the checksum transmitted. If they are the
same value, then the data was transmitted without any errors; if the 'alues are
different, then a request is sent for the data to be retransmitted.
Activity 2.5
Cakulate the chedsum for blocks of
datawiththefollowingbytesums
, 148
b 905
c 14S0
d 4095
2.3.4 Echo check
With ECHO CHECK, when data is sent to another device, this data is sent back
again to the sender. The sender compares the two sets of data to check if any
errors occurred during the transmission process.
As you will ha'e no doubt worked out, this isn't 'ery reliable. If the two sets
of data are different, it isn't known whether the error occurred when sending
the data in the first place, or if the error occurred when sending the data back
for checking!
H owe·er, if no errors occurred then it is another way to check that the data
was transmitted correctly.
2.4 Internet technologies
TI1e internet is a world-,vide system of computer nenvorks and computers. All
computers attached to the internet can communicate with each other providing
a number of rules and protocols are adhered to.
2.4.1 Internet Service Provider (ISP)
Each user makes use of an INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP); tl1ese are
companies that pro'ide the user with access to the internet. A monthly fee is
usually charged for tills service. The ISP will set up a user account which will
contain a username and a password; most ISPs also gi,·e the user an email address.
Before ISPs became crnrunon in the 1990s, internet access was usually limited
to users who were part of a miiversity or a gO·ernment agency.
2.4.2 Internet Protocol (IP) Address
Each device on the internet is gi'en a unique address known as tl1e INI"ERNIIT
PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESS. This is a 32-bit number which is usually written in the
form:
109.108.158.1
A home computer is given an IP address when it connects to the internet. This is
assigned by the ISP and is unique for that particular internet session. The only IP
addresses tl1at remain fairly unchanged are web ser'ers.

2.4
An IP address can be used instead oftyping in the full URL. For example:
hnp://109. 108.158.1
would take you straight to the device corresponding to this address.
IP addresses and MAC add resses
You will recall the term MEDIA ACCESS CONrROL (MAC) ADDRESS from Chapter l.
This is a unigue number that identifies a device connected to the internet. So
what is the difference between an IP address and a ,.IAC address? The IP address
gives the location of a device on the internet, whereas the MAC address identifies
the device connected to the internet.
You can think of the IP address as the address of the house you live in (it will
have some unique way of identifying it, such as a JX)St or zip code). Using this
example, the MAC address can be thought of as a way of uniquely identifying
each person living in that house. It is possible to move house (so your IP address
will change) but the same people will be living in the new house (so their MAC
addresses will remain unchanged).
2.4.3 HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML)
H YPERTEXT MARK-UP LANGUAGE (H TML) is used when writing and
de·eloping web pages. HTML isn't a programming language but is simply a
mark-up language. A mark-up language is used in the processing, definition and
presentation of text (for example, specifying the colour ofthe text).
HTML uses <tags> which are used to bracket a piece of code; for example,
<td> starts a standard cell in an H TML table, and </td> ends it. 'Nhatever is
between the two tags has been defined. H ere is a short section of H TML code:
c:tr>
c:td>c:hl>Small carc:/hJ>
c:hl>Used car salesc:/hl>
c:h2>Cars from $500c:/h2>
c:br>c:h2>Cash sales onlyc:/h2>c:/td>c:/br>
c:/tr>
c:colgroup>
c:col span•"2" style•"background-color,red">
c:col style•"background-color:yellow">
HTML st ructure and presentation
'hen writing H TML code, it is very imixirtant to realise that there is a difference
between the structure and the presentation.
Sr&ucruRE is the essential part of the H TML document; it includes the
semantics (meaning) and strucrnral mark-up of the document.
PRESENTATION is the style of the document; i.e. how the document will look
(or even sound ifit includes multin1edia elements).
These two features must be kept separate throughout the designing of a
web page. At the end of the design process, the author should have an HTML
document (which contains the structure and the actual content) and a separate
css (CASCADING STYLE SH EIIT) file. The css file will contain t.·verything to control
the acrnal presentation ofthe web page.
Internet technologies
•

Some of the <tags> used to create a css file have been shown already in the
HTML example shown abo·e . The following section shows an example ofhow
these <tags> can be used to create a stylesheet called example2 . css. This is
then used in a web page document. The tags (hl, h3 and p) all define how the
document will look when this css file (stylesheet) is attached.
~r'"--"'"-"'f<;io,,.....-r,.;.i~E,:1.,..,.-,......
lcalo.aia!~uark
(eolo"'f:r::~~ifji;;7rlf:
Figu,.2.16 Thisshow,:howlhecssfile (examp'el.css)isc,eatedfllf useinthe
documentbelow;h1.h3andphaveall beendefined. sowhenthefileisattached
below.awebbmwserknow,:howtodisplaythi,webpage
Figu,.2.17
2.4.4 Hypertext transfer protocol (http)
HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL ( Hrrr) is a set of rules that must be obeyed
when transferring files across the internet. Vhen some form of security (e.g. SSL
~;:~fi:i::~:: :::7~ti;~~~~:es:~las ::l~;l:ss~
1
: : : :~:~ ~::~::~:sat:e~t1:::p
refers to http over i;;ecure. It is slower to use https than http; https is usually only
adopted where sensit.i·e or private data is being transferred across the .internet.
2.4.5 Web browsers
A WBB BROWSBR is software which allows a user to display a web page on their
computer screen. Web browsers interpret or translate the HTML code from
websites and show the result of the translation. This can often be in the form of
videos, images or sound. Most web browsers share the following features:
• they have a H OME page
• they have the ability to store a user's fu·ourite websites/pages
• they keep a history of the websites visited by the user
• they give the ability to go backward and forward to websites opened.

2.4
Users can either dick on a link, such as .'W'','.hoddcreducation.co.uk/igcse or
they can type in the uniform resource locator (URL) manually.
The web browser will break up the URL into three parts:
http://www.hoddereducation.eo.uk/igcsc_comp11ter_science
the protocol
used {i.e
http)
(often the
web page)
The web browser translates the web server name into an IP address (see Section
2.4.2) which is part ofthe URL. The HTML code is remrned and is shown as a
correctly formatted page on the computer screen. It is also (X)SSible that cookies
may be sent from the web browser to the web server when the code is executed.
(Note: please refer to Section 8 .3 for more information about the use of cookies.)
Internet technologies
•

® Logic gates and logic circuits
e logk:gates
e truthtilbles
e logkdrcuit1
e useolBooleanalgebra
3.1 Introduction
Electronic circuits in computers, many new memories and controlling devices
are made up ofthousands of LOGIC GATES. Logic gates take bi.nary inputs and
produce a binary output. Several logic gates combined together form a LOGIC
CIRCUIT and these circuits are designed to carry out a specific function.
The checking of the output from a logic gate or logic circuit is done using
a T RlITH TABLE.
This chapter will consider the function and role oflogic gates, logic circuits
and truth tables. Also a number of possible applications of logic circuits will
be considered. A reference to BooL EAN ALGEBRA will be made throughout the
chapter, but this is really outside the scope of this textbook. H owever, Boolean
algebra will be seen on many logic gate websites and is included here for
completeness.
3.2 L
ogic gates ®
Six different logic gates will be considered in this chapter:
----[>- =D-
NOT gate ANO gate
=D- =D-
0 Rgate NANO gate
=D- =D-
NOR gate XOR gate
Figu,.3.1 Logicgate,ymbols
3.3 Trut h tables
Truth tables arc used to trace the output from a logic gate or logic circuit. The
NOT gate is the only logic gate with one input; the other five gates ha'c two
inputs.
'hen constructing truth tables, all possible combinations of ls and Os which
can be input arc considered. For the NOT gate (one input) there are only 21 (2 )
possible binary combinations. For all other gates (two inputs), there are 22 (4 )
possible binary combinations.
For logic circuits, the number of inputs can be more than 2; for example
three inputs give a possible 23 (8 ) binary combinations. And for four inputs,
the number of possible binary combinations is 2'4- (16). It is clear that the number
of possible binary combinations is a multiple ofthe number 2 in C'ery case.

3.4
To summarise in table form:
Table 3.1Truthtablesla< two threeandtou,inputs
Inputs Inputs
I','---,~
·~~ ~~-tC-
' ~-t-'-----i
3.4 The function of the logic gates
3.4.1 NOT gate
A--[>-,
Figur• 3.2
Description:
The output, X, is l if:
the input, A, is 0
3.4.2 AND gate
Figur• 3.3
Description:
The output, X, is 1 if:
both inputs, A and B, are 1
Truth table:
Input Output
A '
Truth table:
Inputs Output
' '
Inputs
The function of the logic gates
How to write this:
X - NOT A (logic notation)
X - a (Boolean algebra)
How to write this:
X - A AND B (logic notation)
X - a · b (Boolean algebra)

3 LOGIC GATES AND LOGIC CIRCUITS
3.4.3 OR gate
Figu,.3.4
Descripti on: Truth table:
TI1coutput, X, is 1 if:
either input, A or B, is 1
3.4.4 NAND gate (NOT AND)
:=O-x
Figu,.3.5
Description:
input A AND input B
arc NOT both I
Truth table:
3.4.5 NOR gate (NOT OR)
Figu,.3.6
Descripti on:
neither input A nor
input Bis 1
Truth table:
How to write this:
X - A ORB (logic notation )
X - a+ b (Boolean algebra)
How to write this:
X - A NAND B (logic notation)
X - ~ (Boolean algebra)
How to write this:
X - A NOR B (logic notation )
X - a+D (Boolean algebra)

3.5 Logic circuits
3.4.6 XOR gate
:=D-x
Figur• 3.7
Description: Truth table: How to write thi s:
The output, X, is l if: X - A XOR B (logic notation)
(input A is 1 AND input BisO)
OR
(inputAisOANDinputBis 1)
Inputs Output
0 X
X -(a · 6 ) + (i · b) (Boolean algebra)
(Note: this is sometimes wrinen
as: (a+b) · ~)
Activity 3.1
FindoutwhyX:(a,D)+(ii,b)and(a+b},a--:--obothrepresentthesamelogk:gate
(Note: the three symbols in the Boolean algebra ha·e the following meaning:
represents the AND operation
+ represents the OR operation
a bar abo·e the letter, e.g. ii, represents the NOT operation. )
3.5 Logic circuits
'hen logic gates are combined together to carry out a particular function,
such as controlling a robot, they form a logic circuit.
The output from the logic circuit is checked using a truth table. There now
follows three examples which show:
• how to produce a truth table
• how to design a logic circuit from a gi·en logic statement/Boolean algebra
• how to design a logic circuit to carry out an actual safety function.
3.5.1 Example 1 ®
Produce a truth table for the following logic circuit (note the use of • at
junctions):
Figur• 3.8

There arc three inputs to this logic circuit, therefore there will be eight possible
binary values which can be input.
To show step-wise how the truth table is produced, the logic circuit has been
split up into three parts and intermediate values arc shown as P, Q and R.
Part 1
This is the first part of the logic circuit; the first task is to find the intermediate
valucs P andQ.
Figu,.3.9
TI1e value of P is found from the AND gate where the inputs arc A and B.
TI1cvaluc ofQ is found from the NOR gate where the inputs arc B and C.
An intermediate truth table is produced using the logic function descriptions
in Section 3.4.
Input values OutputvaluH
Part 2
111c second part of the logic circuit has P and Q as inputs and the intermediate
output, R:
Figu,.3.10
•

3.5
This produces the following intermediate truth table. (Note: even though there
are only two inputs to the logic gate, we ha·e generated eight binary values in
part 1 and these must all be used in this second truth table. )
Inputs Output
Q "
Part 3
The final part of the logic circuit has Rand C as inputs and the final output, X:
Figur• 3.11
This gi·es the third intermediate truth table:
Inputs
Putting all three intermediate truth tables together produces the final truth table
which represents the original logic circuit:
lnputvaluH
Logic circuits

TI1e intermediate 'alues can be left out ofthe final truth table, but it is good
practice to lea'e them in until you become confident about producing the truth
tables. The final truth table would then look like this:
lnputvalu.. Output
Activity 3.2
Producetruthtablesforeachofthefollowinglogiccircuit"i.Youareadvisedtosplitthemupinto
intermediatepartstohelpeliminateerrors.
Figure3.12

3.5
3.5.2 Example 2 e
A safety system uses three inputs to a logic circuit. An alarm, X, sounds if input
A represents ON and input B represents OFF; or if input B represents ON and
inputCrepresentsOFF.
Produce a logic circuit and truth table to show the conditions which cause
the output Xtobe 1.
The first thing to do is to write down the logic statement representing the
scenario in this example. To do this, it is necessary to recall that ON - 1 and
OFF - 0 and also that O is usually considered to be NOT 1.
So we get the following logic statement:
Figur• 3.17
(Aa1AND8aNOT1) OR (B•1ANDCaOOT1 )
I
Th,J.,.rn I
moo~ct,,..,
the OR gate
Note: this statement can also be written in Boolean algebra as:
1
• ·SJ. (b . ,)
Logic circuits

The logic circuit is made up ofthree parts as shown in the logic statement. Ve
will produce the logic gate for the first part and the third part. Then join both
parts together with the OR gate.
Figure3.18
Now combining both parts with the OR gate gi'es us:
Figure3.19
l11ere are two ways to produce the truth table:
• trace through the logic circuit using the method described in Example 1
(Section 3.5.1 )
• produce the truth table using the original logic statement; this second method
has the advantage that it allows you to check that your logic circuit is correct.
We will use the second method in this example:
Inputs Output
B (A:1 AND 8:NOT 1) (8:1 AND C=NOT 1) X
(Note: it is optional to leave in the intermediate values or to remm·e them giving
a four-column truth table with headings: A, B, C, X. )

3.5
Activity 3.3
Orawthelogiccircuitsandcompletethetruthtableslorthefollowinglogicstatementsand
Boolean algebra statements:
a X: 1 if{A: 1ORB: 1)0R(A:OAN08 = 1)
b Y = 1 if{A = OAND B = O)AND{B = 0 OR C = 1)
c T = 1 if (switch K is ON or switch Lis ON) OR (switch K is ON and switch Mis OFF) OR (switch
Mis ON)
d X:(a.b)+(b.c}
a R= 1 if (switdi A is ON and switch 8 is ON) ANO (switch 8 is ON or switch C is OFF)
3.5.3 Example 3
A wind rnrbine has a safety system which uses three inputs to a logic circuit.
A certain combination of conditions results in an output, X, from the logic circuit
being cciual to 1. Vhcn the value ofX - 1 then the wind mrbine is shut down.
The following table shows which parameters are being monitored and form
the three inputs to the logic circuit.
Parameter
d- ription
turbinespel'd
bearingtemperature T
Mndvekx:ity
Binaryvalu• D-riptionofcondition
<a120kph
>120kph
The output, X, will ha·e a value of l if any of the following combination of
conditions occur:
• either mrbine speed<• 1000 rpm and bearing temperature> 80°C
• or mrbine speed > IOOO rpm and wind velocity > 120 kph
• or bearing temperamre <• 80°C and wind velocity> 120 kph.
Design the logic circuit and complete the truth table to produce a value ofX - 1
when any of the three conditions above occur.
This is a different type of problem to those covered in Examples l and 2.
This time a real situation is g iven and it is necessary to convert the information
into a logic statement and then produce the logic circuit and truth table. It is
ad~sable in problems as complex as this to produce the logic circuit and truth
table separately (based on the conditions given) and then check them against each
other to see ifthere are any errors.
Stage 1
The first thing to do is to convert each of the three statements into logic
statements. Use the information given in the table and the three condition
statements to find how the three parameters, S, T and W, are linked. We usually
look for the key words AND, OR and NOT when converting actual statements
into logic.
Logic circuits
•

'e end up with the following three logic statements:
i turbine speed <• I000 rpm and bearing temperature > 80°C
logic statement: (S - NOT l AND T - 1)
ii turbine speed > 1000 rpm and wind velocity> 120 kph
logic statement: (S - 1 AND W - 1)
iii bearing temperature <• 80°C and wind velocity > 120 kph
logic statement: (T - NOT 1 AND W - 1)
Stage 2
This now produces three intermediate logic circuits:
Figu,.3.20
ii ! ====O-
Figu.. 3.21
Figu,.3.22
Each of the three original statements were joined together by the word OR. Thus
we need to join all of the three intermediate logic circuits by two OR gates to get
the final logic circuit.
We will start by joining (i) and (ii ) together using an OR gate:
Figu,.3.23
•

3.5
Finally, we connect the logic circuit in Figure 3.23 to Figure 3.22 to obtain
theammrer:
Figur• 3.24
The final part is to produce the truth table. We will do this using the original
logic statement. This method has the bonus of allowing an extra check to be
made on the logic circuit in Figure 3 .24 to see whether or not it is correct. It is
possible, howe'er, to produce the truth table straight from the logic circuit in
Figure 3.24.
There were three parts to the problem, so the truth table will first evaluate each
part. Then, by applying OR gates, as shown below, the final value, X, is obtained:
i (S - NOTIANDT - 1)
ii (S - 1 ANDW - 1)
iil (T - NOT I ANDW - 1)
We find the outputs from parts (i) and (ii) and then OR these two outputs
together to obtain a new intermediate, which we will label part (iv).
We then OR parts (iii) and (i') together to get the 'alue ofX.
lnouts Outcut
T (i)(S:NOT 1 (ii)(S:1AND (iiQ(T:NOT 1 (iv) X
ANDT:1) W:1) ANDW:1)
Logic circuits

Activity 3.4
Twoscenariosaredesc:ribedbelow. lne.Khu11e,producethelogiccircuitandcompleteatruth
tabletorepreseotthesc:enario
ii Achemicalprocessisprotectedbyalogicdrcuit.Therearethreeinputstothelogiccircuit
representing key parameters in the chemical process. An alarm, X, will give an output value
of1 dependingoncertainconditionsinthechemicalprocess. The following table describes
theprocessconditionsbeingmonitored:
Puam•t..rdHcription Parametu Binarvvalu• o-riptionofcondition
chemkalrea<lionrate O rea<lion,ate <40mol/llsec
process temperature
Analarm,X,willgeneratethevalue 1 if:
either
reactionrate<40moWsec
concentration> 4 mol ANO temperature> 115°(
reaction rate>= 40 moWsec ANO temperature> 115°(
b Apo1Nerstationhasasaletysystemcontrolledbyalogiccircuit. Threeinputstothelogic
circuit determine whether the output, S, is 1. When S = 1 the power !ilation shuts down.
Thefollowingtabledescribestheconditionsbeingmonitored
Param.ierdHcription Parametu Binaryvalu• D-riptionofcondition
gas temperature O astemperature <:160"(
reactor pressure
water temperature
Output,S,willgenerateavalueofl,if
either
water temperature <:120"(
gas temperature> 160'C AND water temperature<= 120"C
gas temperature<= 160'CANDreactorpressure> 10bar
water temperature> 120°CANDreactorpressure> 10bar
3.6 Logic circuits in the real world
Anybody with an electronics background who is reading this chapter will be aware
that the design oflogic circuits is considerably more complex than has been described.
This chapter has described in detail some ofthe fundamental theories used
in logic circuit design. This will give the reader sufficient grounding to cover all
existing (l)GCSE and O level syllabuses. H owc'cr, it is worth finally discussing
some ofthe more advanced aspects oflogic circuit design.
Electronics companies need to consider the cost of components, case of
fabrication and time constraints when designing and building logic circuits.

3.6
'e will mention two possible ways electronics companies can review logic
circuit design:
1 One method is to use 'off-the-shelf' logic units and build up the logic circuit
as a number of'building blocks'.
logic circuits in the real world
2 Another method im·olves simplif)ing the logic circuit as far as possible; this may
be necessary where room is at a premium (e.g. in building circuit boards for use
in satellites to allow space exploration).
3.6.1 Using logic 'building blocks'
One very common 'building block' is the NANO gate. It is possible to build
up any logic gate, and therefore any logic circuit, by simply linking together a
number ofNAND gates. For example, the AND, OR and NOT gates can be
built from these gates as shown below:
The AND gate:
Figure3.25
The OR gate:
Figur• 3.26
The NOT gate:
Figur• 3.27
Activity 3.5
8ydrawingthetrutht<1bles,showthatthethreecircuitsabovecanbeusedtorepresentANO,
OR and NOT gates.

Activity 3.6
a Show how the following logic circuit could be built using NAND gates only.
Alsocompletetruthtablesforbothlogicdrcuit1toshowthattheyproduceidentic.aloutputs
Figure3.28
b Show how the XOR gate could be built from NAND gates only.
c Complete a truth table for your final design to show it that it produces the !>ilme output as a
single XOR gate.
Activity 3.7
Show by drawing a truth table which single logic gate has the s.ame function as the following
logic circuit made up of NAND gates only.
Figure3.29
3.6.2 Simplification of logic circuits
The second method invokes the simplification oflogic circuits. By reducing the
number of components, the cost of production can be less. T his can also impro·c
reliability and make it easier to trace faults if they occur.
The following example (Figure 3.30) can be simplified to a single gate. You are
asked to show how this can be done in Activity 3.8.
Figure3.30

3.6
Activity 3.8
Show by drawing a truth table which single logic gate has the 'Hime function as the logic circuit
drawninFigure3.30
Activity 3.9
Complete the truth tilble for the following logic circuit and then consider what s.implified design
couldreplacethewholelogiccircuit
logic circuits in the real world

Operating systems and computer architecture
4.1 Introduction
All modern computers ha'e some form of operating system which users generally
take for granted. The operating system makes it possible to communicate with
the software and hardware that make up a typical computer system.
There are many ways of representing computer architecmre, but one of the
more common ones is known as the von Neumann model which will be fully
described in this chapter.
4.2 Operating systems
1l1e OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) is essentially software running in the background
ofa computer system. It manages many ofthe basic functions which are shown in
Figure 4.1. Obviously not all operating systems carry out everything shown in the
figure but it gives some idea ofthe importance and complexity ofthis software.
Without it, most computers would be very user-unfriendly and the majority of
users would find it almost impossible to work with computers on a day·to-day basis.
Figu,.4. 1
One of the most common examples of an operating system is known as Windows
and is used on many personal computers. Other examples include: Linux,
Android, UNIX and DOS. Windows is an example of a single-user multitasking

4.3
operating system - this means only one user can use the computer at a time but
can h:we many applications open simultaneously. H ow operating systems actually
work is beyond the scope of this textbook.
When a computer is first fXJWCred up, the initiating programs are loaded
into memory from the ROM (read only memory) chip. These programs nm a
checking procedure to make sure the hardware, processor, internal memory and
bios ( basic input-output system) arc all functioning correctly. lfno errors are
detected, then the operating system is loaded into memory.
It is worth mentioning here that simple de'ices with embedded microprocessors
don't always ha·c an operating system. H ousehold items, such as cookers,
microwa·e ovens and washing machines only carry out single tasks which don't
vary. The input is usually a button pressed or a touchsc.rcen option selected which
activates a simple hardware function which doesn't need an operating system to
control it.
Activity 4.1
Findouthowapplianceslittedwithmicroprocessorscanbecontrolledandi!Clivatedby
web.enableddevicessuchassmartphones.
4.3 Interrupts and buffers
An INTERRUPT is a signal sent from a device or from software to the processor.
This will cause the processor to temporarily stop what it is doing and service
the interrupt. Interrupts can occur when, for example:
• a disk drive is ready to receive more data
• an error has occurred, such as a paper jam in a printer
• the user has pressed a key to interrupt the current process ~ an example could
be <CTRL><ALT><BREAK> keys pressed simultaneously
• a software error has occurred ~ an example of this would be if an .exe file
couldn't be found to initiate the execution of a program.
Once the interrupt signal is received, the processor either carries on vith what it
was doing or stops to sef'lice the device/program that generated the intermpt.
Interrupts allow computers to carry out many tasks or to have several windows
open at the same time. An example would be downloading a file from the internet
at the same time as listening to some music from the computer library. vVhenever
an interrupt is serviced, the status of the current task being run is sa'ed. This is
done using an INI"ERRUPT HANDLER and once the interrupt has been fully sef'liced,
the status of the interrupted task is reinstated and it continues from the point
prior to the intern1pt being sent.
BUFFERS arc used in computers as a temporary memory area. These are essential
in modern computers since hardware devices operate at much slower speeds than
the processor. !fit wasn't for buffers, processors would spend the majority of their
time idle, waiting for the hardware device to complete its operation. Buffers are
essentially filled from the processor or memory unit and whilst these are emptied
to the hardware device, the processor carries on with other tasks. Buffers are used,
for example, when streaming a video from the internet. This ensures that the
video playback doesn't keep on stopping to wait for data from the internet.
Buffers and intermpts are often used together to allow standard computer
functions to be carried out. These functions are often taken for granted by users
Interrupts and buffers

4 OPERATING SYSTEMS AND COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
of modern computer systems. Figure 4.2 shows how buffers and interrupts are
used when a docW11e.nt is sent to a printer.
Therurrenttaskissuspendedwhi!st
theinterrupti,seiviced
Figu,.4.2
Activity 4.2
Meanwhife. theproc:es<Ofis
abletocanyootothertask,
wti.lethe{prfr,ter) buffer i,
befr,gempbed
Find out how buffers and interrupt, are used when sending data to memories ~has OVD1
andsolidstate(e.g. peodrive).
( Activity 4.3
F"'d o,< how ooffm ae .,s,d wh,a swamiog a ,idro o, mo,, fmm she ioS,m,s ro "'"'
computer.
Activity 4.4
Investigate the many way; that hardware and software can cause an interrupt to occur. Are All
interruptstreatedequallyordosomehavepriorityoverothers?
)

4.4
4.4 Computer architecture
Very early computers were fed data whilst the machines were acrually running.
They weren't able to store programs; consequently, thL-y weren't able to run
without human intervention. ln about 1945, John von Neumann developed
the idea of a stored program computer, often referred to as the VON NEUMANN
ARCH ITBGnJRB concept. His idea was to hold programs and data in a memory.
Data would then mo·e between the memory unit and the processor.
There are many diagrams which show von Neumann architecture.
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show two different ways of representing this computer
model. The first diagram is a fairly simple model whereas the second diagram
goes into more detail.
Figure 4.3 shows the idea of how a processor and memory unit are linked
together by connections known as BUSFS. This is a simple representation of
von Neumann architecrnrc. These connections are described in Table 4.1.
>oc=
i~i..----...-•--.iM~
!flit)
:Z,.~rus.+
Oatabus . .
Controlbus . . .
Figur• 4.3
Table 4.1 describes the fimction of each of the three buses shown in Figure 4.3.
Buses essentially move data around the computer and also send out control signals
to make sure everything is properly synchronised.
lypeofbus o-riptionofbus
rarriessignal,relatingtoaddres,es
(seetat..)belw'-""1theproces<0<
and the memory
sendsdatabetweentheproces<0<.
thememoryunitandtheinput/
outputde,;ce,
:,~:si~',,;,,~:~_:: ~t~1
acti,,.;t>eswithintheromputer
(examplesk,dude:the,eadand
w,;tefunctions)
unldir•tion•l (si(jlalstravel in
ooedirecl>ononly)
bl-cll,-tional (datacantr..,ei ;n
OOthdirectioo,)
unidir•tional(si(jlalslfavelin
ooedirection only)
Computer architecture

Figure 4.4 shows a slightly more detailed diagram ofthe ·on Neumann architecture.
It brings to our attention another n<.·w concept in this computer model - the idea
ofADDRESSES and REGISIBRS. Addresses indicate where the data is stored and
registers are needed so that data can be manipulated within the computer.
Figu,. 4.4
An address is the location of where data can be found in a computer memory.
Each address in the memory is unique. The addresses arcn't actually shown in
Figure 4.4, but they are contained in the part of the diagram labelled memory
unit. T he actual function of the addresses is discussed in Section 4 .4. 1.
You will notice a number of items shown in the diagram known as registers:
MAR, MDR, ALU, PC and C IR. TI1e.se arc a little more complex and their fimction
will be fully described in the following pages. But essentially a register is simply
a high-speed storage area within the computer. All data must be represented in a
register before it can be processed. For example, iftwo numbers are to be added,
both numbers must be stored in registers and the result ofthe addition must also be
stored in a register.
Activity 4.5
Draw up a rnmmary table that show,; how buses. registers and addresses are all connected
together.Thiscanbedonebydoingadesk-topexerdse
• Use a sheet of AO (flipchart size) paper and draw a large outline of the FIVE main components
showninFigure4.4
• Cutcolouredarrowsoutolcardboardtoshowthebusesandplaceonthediagramyou·ve
justdrawn;thedataandcontrolbuseswillbeeasytofit.
• However, you will need to do a little bit of thinking to decide how the address bus fits into
your diagram
• CutthefiveregistersoutolcardboardandplacethemonthelargeAOoutline
• Above the memory unit. place an example of some memory addresses and their contents
• Cut out some 8-bit binary numbers representing your addresses and contents
• Finally by moving data around you should be able to see how buses, addresses and registers
allinterconnect;yougetfurtherhelpindoingthisdesl::-topexercisewheoyouread
Sectiom4.4.1to4.4.4
• TrytofindouthowsimpleoperationslikeadditioncanbeG1rriedoutusingyourdesk-top

4.4
4.4.1 Memory unit
The computer memory unit is made up of a number of partitions. Each partition
consists of an ADDRESS and its CONTENTS. The example shown here uses 8 bits for
each address and 8 bits for the content. In a real computer memory, the address
and its contents are acmally much larger than this.
The address will uniciudy identify every LOCATION in the memory and the
contents will be the binary.
Figure 4.4 showed five examples of registers. Their function will be described
later on, but for now, the abbreviations stand for:
• MAR memory address register
• MDRmemory data register
• ALU arithmetic and logic unit
• PC program counter
• CIR current instruction register.
Let us now consider how the two registers (,.lAR.and MDR) shown in the
memory unit arc used.
Consider the READ operation. Ve will use the memory section shown in
Table 4.2. Suppose we want to read the contents of memory location 1111 0001;
the two registers arc used as follows:
• The address of location 1111 OOO 1 to be read from is first written into the
MAR (memory address register):
MAR I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I O I O I O I 1 I
Figure4.5
• A 'read signal' is sent to the computer memory using the control bus.
• 111c contents of memory location 1111 OOO I arc then put into the MD R
(memory data register):
(Look at Table 4.2 to confirm this. )
MAR I O I 1 I O I 1 I 1 I O I 1 I 1 I
Figure 4.6
Now let us consider the VRITE operation. Again we will use the memory section
shown in T able 4.2. Suppose this time we want to show how the value 1001 0101
was written into memory location 1111 1101.
Computer architecture

• The data to be stored is first written into the MDR (mcmory data register):
MAR I 1 I O
I O
I 1 I O
I 1 I O
I 1 I
Figure4.7
• This data has to be written into the memory location with the address
11 11 1101; so this address is now written into the MAR:
MAR I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I O I 1 I
Figure4.8
• Finally, a 'write signal' is sent to the computer memory using the control bus
and this value will then be written into the correct memory location.
(Again confirm this by looking at Table 4.2. )
Activity 4.6
Us.e your model uwted in Activity 4.S to show how the two operations, read and write, are
carriedoutinthevonNeumilnnarc:hitecture
4.4.2 Processor
TI1e PROCESSOR contains the ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU). The ALU
allows arithmctic.(c.g. add, subtract, etc.) and logic (e.g. AND, OR, NOT, etc.)
operations to be carried out. How this is used is explained in Section 4.5.
4.4.3 Control unit
The CONTROL UNIT controls the operation of the memory, processor and input/
output devices. It contains the CURRENT INsrRUCrION REGisrER (CIR) and
the PROGRAM COUNTER (PC). The C l R contains the current instruction during
processing. The PC contains the address ofthe next instruction to be executed.
Essentially, the control unit reads an instruction from memory (the address
of the location where the instruction can be found is stored in the Program
Counter (PC)). This instruction is then interpreted. During that process, signals
arc generated along the control bus to tell the other components in the computer
what to do.
H ow this all fits together with the other components of the von Neumann
model is discussed in Section 4.5.
4.4.4 Input and output devices
TI1e input and output devices arc discussed in Chapter 5 and arc the main
method ofentering data into and getting data out of computer systems. Input
devices convert external data into a form the computer can understand and can
then process (e.g. keyboards, touchscreens and microphones). Output devices
show the results of computer processing in a humanly understandable form
(e.g. printers, monitors and loudspeakers).
H ow all ofthese five registers are used by a typical computer system can be
found in Section 4.5 - the fetch-execute cycle. Again other textbooks and websites
will all have different ways ofshowing how this cycle operates. The important
thing is to get a good general understanding of how the cycle functions.

4.5
4.5 The fetch-execute cycle 0
To carry out a set of instructions, the processor first of all FETCH ES some data and
instructions from memory and stores them in suitable registers. Both the address
bus and the data bus are used in this process. Once this is done, each instruction
needs to be decoded before finally being EXECU'IBD. This is all known as the
H ITCH -EXECUTE CYCLE and is the last part of this puzzle.
Fet ch
In the fetch-execute cycle, the next instruction is fetched from the memory address
currently stored in the Program Counter (PC) and is then stored in the Current
Instruction Register (CIR). 111c PC is then incremented (increased by 1) so that
the next instruction can be processed.
This is then decoded so that each instruction can be interpreted in the next part
of the cycle.
Execute
The processor passes the decoded instruction as a set of control signals to the
appropriate comix,nents within the computer system. This allows each instruction
to be carried out in its logical sequence.
Figure 4.9 shows how the fetch-execute cycle is carried out in the von Neumann
computer model. As with most aspects of computer science, there will be slight
variations on this diagram if other textbooks or websites arc consulted. The main
aim is to end up with a clear understanding of how this cycle works.
Thep,ogramcounte,(P()cootains!headdressolthe
memo:y 00000 °'1:;:fe~~!Juctioo which has to
Thisadd,ee.sis!heoropledlmm!heKtothememo,y
addr=register(MAR);!ht!sisdooellSO!lgtheaddr=
Theco!lteot,(instruction)atthememo,ykxatioo
{address)rontaonedillMAAarethMcopH'dtemporarily
illlothememorydataregiste,(MOR)
Theronlelts(instructioos)oltheMDRa,elhencopied
aodplacedintotherurrentinstructioo,egister(CIR)
Thevalueinthel'Cis!henincrementedbylsothatit
oowpointsto!hene7,~~whod!hastobe
Theinstructiooisfinallyderodedandlhenexecutedby
sendingO<ltsigllals(vialhecOftfolbus)to!hevafious
romponentsollhecomputerS)'Stl'm
Figur• 4.9
The fetch~xecute cycle
•

Figure 4.9 shows the acrual stages that take place during the fetch-execute cycle,
showing how each ofthe registers and buses are used in the process (the first five
boxes are part of the fetch cycle and the last box is part of the execute cycle).
Activity 4.7
• ltisv,,,orthtryingtodoadesk-topexert:isetocarryoutaseriesofinstructionsusingtheletch-
execute cycle. Do 'iOme research and decide on four or five operations {add. subtract, etc.)
and give the 8-bit binary codes. Then ue.ite a memory map as shown in Activity 4.5
• Once this is done, use the five registers you ueated in Activity4.S and news.bit binary
valuestotraceouteXil(tlywhathappensasinstructionsareletchedandexecutedinyour
rnmputermodel.

® Input and output devices
lnthischapteryouwinle.-imabout:
e inputdevices
e applicationsolinputdevices
e outputdevices
e applicatioosoloutputdevices
5.1 Introduction
Computer systems would be of little real use without a method of input or
output. This chapter reviews how a number of input and output devices work.
It also considers a variety of applications which make use ofthese dt.
·vices.
The input devices covered include:
• scanners
• barcode readers/scanners
• quick response (QR) code readers
• digital cameras
• keyboards
• pointing devices (such as a mouse )
• microphones
• touchscrecns
• sensors
• interacti·c whiteboards.
The output devices covered include :
• inkjetprintcrs
• laser printers
• 3Dpri.ntcrs
• 2D/ 3Dcutters
• actuators
• loudspeakers
• LCD/ LED monitors
• projectors (LCD and OLP).
5.2 Input devices
5.2.1 Scanners
SCANNERS are either two-dimensional (20 ) or three-dimensional (30).
Two-d imensional sca nners
These types ofscanner are the most common fonn and are generally used to
input hard-copy (paper) documents. The image is converted into an electronic
form which can be stored in a computer.

5 INP(JTAND OUTPUT DEVICES
A number of stages occur when scanning a document:
A bright licj>t lheo illuminates the document - modem scanners
useatypeofxeooolampwhi<hprodocesaverybfqltwhitelight
A saoh.ad r1.<Nesacrossthedorumeotuntilthewholepage
tlasbeenscanned.AAimageolthedorumentisproducedwhich
isthensenttoaleosusingase<iesofmir,Ol'S
The!ensloruseslhedocur1entimage
The focused i,r.age now fa k onto a char~ couple device (CCD);
whichronsis!sofam.mberofintegratedcirruitsetchedintosilicoo
(ssentiallytheCCDismadeupolthousarldsoflicj,k,eosilive
eler1ents(or piHl1).fa<helementcreatesaneH'ctric<hargewhen
:;;t,t:1:~t!,-::,~':""' that the scanned iff age is now turned
Software produces a digital image Imm the electronic fofm
Figuftl5.1
Computers eciuipped with O PTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (QCR) software
allow the scanned text from the document to be converted into a TEXT FILE
FORMAT. This means the scanned image can now be edited and manipulated by
importing it into a word processor.
If the original document was a photograph or image, then the scanned image
forms an image file such as JPEG (see Section 6.2.3 ).
Three-di mensional sca nners
30 scanners scan solid objects and produce a three -dimensional image. Since solid
objects have x, yand z coordinates, these scanners take images at several points along
these three coordinates. A digital image which represents the solid object is formed.
The scanned images can be used in COMPUTI!R AIDED DESIGN (CAD) or, more
recently, sent to a 3D printer (see Section 5.3.3) to produce a working model of
the scanned image.
There are numerous technologies used in 3D scanners - lasers, magnetic
resonance, white light, and so on. It is beyond the scope of this book to look at
these in any great depth; however, the second application that follows describes
the technology behind one form of3D scanning.

5.2
Applicatio n of 2D sca nners at an airport
20 scanners arc used at airports to read passports. ThL-y make use ofOCR technology
to produce digital images which represent the passport pages. Because ofthe OCR
technology, these digital images can be manipulated in a number ofways.
For example, the OCR software is able to review these images, selcc.t the text
part and then automatically put the text into the correct fields of an existing
database. It is possible for the text to be stored in ASCII format (see Chapter 1) - it
all depends on how the data is to be used.
At many airports the two-dimensional photograph in the passport is also
scanned and stored as a jpeg image. The passenger's face is also photographed
using a digital camera (a 20 image is taken so it can be matched to the image
taken from the passport). The two digital images are compared using face
recognition/detection software. Key parts of the face are compared.
Figur•5.2
The face in Figure 5.2 shows se·eral of the positions used by the face recognition
software. Each position is checked when the software tries to compare two facial
images. Oatasuchas:
• distance between the eyes
• width of the nose
• shape of the cheek bones
• length ofthe jaw line
• shape of the eyebrows
are all used to identify a given face.
Vhen the image from the passport and the image taken by the camera are
compared, these key positions on the face determine whether or not the two
images represent the same face.
Application of 3D scanning - computed
tomographic (CT) sca nners
Cm,IPUIBD TOMOGRAPHIC (CT) SCANNERS are used to create a 30 image of a
solid object. This is based on TOMOGRAPHY technology which basically builds up
an image of the solid object through a series oh·ery thin 'slices'. Together these
20 'slices' make up a representation of the 30 solid object.
Each slice is built up by use of X-rays, radio frequencies or gamma imaging;
although a number of other methods exist. Each 'slice' is then stored as a digital
image in the computer memory. The whole of the solid object is represented
digitally in the computer memory.
Input devices

Depending on how the image is formed, the type of tomographic scanner can
have different names. For example:
• X-rays CT scanners computerised tomography
• radio frequencies MRI magnetic resonance imaging
• gamma rays SPECT single photon emission computed tomography.
Figure 5.3 shows a simple example of how tomography works.
X·raysou,ce
Figure5.3
5.2.2 Barcode readers/scanners ®
~~~::Sm
"sjice," - each
"sjice"isstorl'dasa
digital image;nthe
-"'~
A barcode is a series of dark and ligln parallel lines of 'arying thickness. 1l1e
numbers O to 9 are each represented by a unique series oflines. Various barcode
methods for representing these digits exist. The example we shall use adopts
different codes for digits appearing on the left and for digits appearing on the
right (known as UPC (Universal Product Code ) 'ersion A).
The actual left-hand and right-hand sides of the barcode are separated using
guard bars. The structure of these guard bars is shown in Figure 5.4. Figure 5.5
is an example of a barcode showing the left-hand side and right-hand side and the
three sets of guard bars.
Each digit is represented by bars of 1 to 4 blocks thick as shown in Figure 5.6.
Left.tland
side of
Gu¥dbars
Figure5.4
"''""'
Ri't!t;:'i"d
barcode
light
1111.IIIJJIJlmJ~IIII
Thisshows lhe use ofthe guar<l barsseparntingtheleltlfomthe right.
Figure5.5 Figure 5.6
Right.tlandside

5.2
The barcode to represent the number 5 4 3 0 5 2 would therefore be as shown in
Figure 5.7.
IIIJI~11.11~1111,1~I~I~Ill
Figur•5.7
Each digit is made up of two dark lines and two light lines. The width representing
each digit is the same, thus the speed ofscanning isn't important. The digits
on the left ha·e an odd number of dark elements and always begin with a light
bar; the digits on the right have an even number of dark elements and always
begin with a dark bar. This arrangement allows a barcode to be scanned in any
direction.
Activity 5.1
• UsingthedatainFigureS.6,designthebarcodeslor
i 900340(threedigitsontheleh;threedigit5ontheright}
ii 12576648(fourdigitsontheleft;lourdigitsontheright)
111 0588902918(fivedigitsontheleft;fiwdigit1ontheright).
b Look at some barcodes on a variety of products and ..ee how Jllilny lit the above ~em;
lorthosethatdoo't,trytodrawupatables.imilartothatinFigure5.6toshowthe
barrndeloreac:hdigit
So what happens when a barcodc is scanned?
• TI1c barcodc is first read by a red laser or red LE D (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE).
• Light is reflected back off the barcodc; the dark areas reflect linlc or no light
which allows the bars to be read.
• The reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells).
• As the laser or LED light is scanned across the barcodc, a pancrn is generated
which is converted into digital data - this allows the computer to understand
the barcodc.
• For example: the digit '3' on the left generates the pattern L D D D D L D
(where L - light and D - dark); this has the binary equivalent of O 1 1 1 1 0 1
(where L - O and D - 1).
Barcodc readers arc most commonly found at the checkout in supermarkets.
There arc se·eral other input and output devices at the checkout:
lnpuUoutputdevice How it isused
ke)1)ild tokey;nthenumbe,ofsameitemsbought;tokey inaw~t;tokey
:::,=!:.uOOl'f the batcodeilit canootbe read by the barcode
speak'-" tomakeabeep;ngsoundf'!-lerytimeabatcodeisreadcorrectt,,;butalso
tomakeanothersoundifthereisanermrwhen,eadingthebarcode
p,inte, top,intoutareceiptr.temised list
m.,gne~c,tripe reade, to,ead the custome,"s crediVdebitcard
tos.elect itemsbytoucNnganic:oo(suchasfreshlruitMichmaybesold
loos.ewithoutpadaging)
Input devices

So the barcode has been read, then what happens?
• The barcodc number is looked up in the stock database (the barcodc is known
as the KEY FIELD in the stock item record); this key field uniquely identifies each
stock item.
• Vhen the barcodc number is found, the stock item record is looked up.
• The price and other stock item details are sent back to the checkout (or POINT
O F SALE TERMINAL (PQS)).
• The number of stock items in the record is reduced by one each time the
barcodc is read.
• This n,:,,11 value for number of stock items is written back to the stock item
record.
• The number of stock items is compared to the re-order level; if it is less than
or equal to this value, more stock items arc automntical/y ordered.
• Once an order for more stock items is generated, a flag is added to the record
to stop re-ordering every time the stock item barcode is read.
• When new stock items arrive, the stock l,:,,•els are updated in the database .
Advantages of using barcodes to the management include:
• much easier and faster to change prices on stock items
• much better, more up·to-date sales information/sales trends
• no need to price e'ery stock item on the shelves (this reduces time and cost
to the management)
• allows for automatic stock control
• possible to check customer buying habits more easily by linking barcodes to, for
example, customer loyalty cards.
Advantages of using barcodes to the customers include:
• faster checkout queues (staff don't need to remember/look up prices of items)
• errors in charging customers are reduced
• the customer is given an itemised bill
• cost savings can be passed on to the customer
• better track of'sell by dates' so food should be fresher.
TI1e barcode system is used in many other areas. For example, it can be utilised
in libraries where barcodes arc used in books and on the borrower's library card.
Every time a book is taken out, the borrower is linked to the book automatically.
This allows automatic checking ofwhen the book is due to be rernrned, for
example.
Activity 5.2
FindoutmoreabouthowbarcodescanbeuIB!inalibrary.Considerthetypesollilesneeded
and how the system can track where books are in the library, which books are out on loan, which
cu1tomerha1borrowedabookandsoon.
Activity 5.3
Carryoutsomeres&1rchandlindoutaboutasmanydillerentbarcodeapplicationsasyoucan
Try to find out why barrndes are used in each applic.ation and determine the advantage of using
this type of technology.

5.2
5.2.3 Quick response (QR) codes @
Another type ofbarc.ode is the QUICK REsroNSE (QR) CODE. This is made up
of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background.
For example, the QR code in Figure 5.8 contains the message: 'computer
science textbook - CIE syllabus'.
To make a comparison, normal barcodcs (as described in Section 5.2.2 ) can
hold up to 30 digits; QR codes can hold over 7000 digits. This obviously gives
greater scope for the storage of information.
Because of modern smart phones, which allow internet access on the mo·e,
QR codes can be scanned anywhere. This allows ad·ertising of products on trains,
buses, shopping malls and many other places. By using the built·in camera facility
on modern phones and down.loading the appropriate application (or app), it is
possible to read the QR code. The code may contain a website link or some form
of advertising (e.g. special offers on pizzas).
For example, the QR code in Figure 5.9 contains a phone number and an
advertisement for free pizzas if ordered today. On scanning the QR code, the
phone number and ad·ertisement will appear on the mobile phone's screen.
Advantages ofQRcodes include:
• there is no need for the user to write down or key in a website address;
scanning the QR code does this automatically
• QR codes can store website addressesfURLs that appear in magazines, trains,
buses or even on business cards, giving a very effective method of advertising.
5.2.4 Dig ital cameras
Digital cameras ha·e essentially replaced the more traditional camera that used
film to record the photos. The film required de·eloping and then printing before
the photographer could see the result of their work. This made these cameras
expensive to operate since it wasn't JX)Ssible to delete unwanted photographs.
Modern digital cameras simply link to a computer system via a USE port or by
using Bluetooth (which enables wireless transfer of photographic files).
These cameras are controlled by a microprocessor which can automatically
carry out the following tasks:
• adjust the shutter speed
• focus the image automatically
• operate the flash automatically
• adjust the aperture size
• adjust the size ofthe image
• remove 'red eye' when the flash has been used
and soon.
•
,·.l!J
t ~
I!],,.
Figure5.8
Figure5.9
Input devices
The photograph is captured when light passes through the lens onto a light- figuN 5.10 Digital came,a
sensitive cell. This cell is made up of tiny elements known as pixels. TI1e number
of pi'l:els determines the size of the file used to store the photograph (e.g. a
14-megapi'l:el camera will need 42 megabytes to store each raw (uncompressed)
photograph). By reducing the resolution to, for example, a jpeg image, the

storage reguirement is reduced to 4 megabytes (sec Section 6.2.3). The guality of
the photograph also depends on many other factors, such as:
• the type of lens used
• the lighting
and soon.
,1obile phones have caught up with digital cameras as regards number of
pixels. The drawback is usually JXX>r lens quality and limited memory for the
storage of photos. But this may all change in the next fe,11 years.
5.2.5 Keyboards
KL,'boards are by far the most common method used for data entry. They are
used as the input device on computers, tablets, mobile phones and many other
electronic items.
The keyboard is connected to the computer either by using a USB connection
or by wireless connection. In the case of tablets and mobile phones, the keyboard
is often VIRTUAL or a type ofroucHSCREEN technology.
As expbincd in Chapter 1, each character otl a keyboard has an ASCII value. Each
character pressed is crnwcrtcd into a digital signal, which the computer interprets.
Keyboards arc a relatively slow method of data entry and are also prone to
errors. Bur they are probably still the easiest way to enter text into a computer.
H owever, frcgucnt use of these devices can lead to injuries, such as RBPETITNE
STRAIN INJURY (RSI) in the hands and wrists.
Ergonomic keyOOards can help to overcome this problem - these have the keys
arranged differently as shown in Figure 5.12. They are also designed to give more
support to the wrists and hands when doing a lot of typing.
5.2.6 Pointing devices
l11e selection of an application often requires the user to 'click' on an icon.
Selection ofthe icon is usually done with a POINI"ING DEVICE (such as a MOUSE
or a TRACKERBAU..) or by using a touchscreen.
The mouse is probably still the most common JXJinting device and comes
in various forms:
• the more traditional type ,vith a mechanical ball arrangement; connected to the
computer through a USB JXJft
• the more modern type that use red LEDs to detect movement in the x-y
direction; these arc a type of optical mouse
• mice that use either of tl1e above types of technology but use a wireless
connection to the computer.
Whatever type of mouse is used it will rcguire an area of desk space to allow
movement. They often reguire a mouse mat since some surfaces, such as paper,
prevent the correct operation of the device. Depending on the type ofcomputer,
tl1e mouse is fitted witl1 one or two buttons to allow for selection and otl1er
fimctions. Many designs of mouse have a scroll wheel to allow rapid movement
up and down the screen.
Trackerballs are seen more often in an industrial environment - such as a
control room. Because they don't need to move, the trackerball doesn't need any
desk space or special surface. The operator is also less likely to suffer from injuries
Figure5.11Keyboard
Figure5.12E,gonomicke)O<lard
Figure5.13T,a<l<erball

5.2
such as RS I. A ball on the top of the trackerball is moved to control a cursor on
the screen. As with the mouse, buttons are used to select icons and to carry out
otherfimctions.
Most laptop computers have a built-in T OUCH PAD. lbis contains a tactile
sensor which allows the user to control a cursor by simply moving a finger over
the surface of the pad. Buttons to the left and right of the pad act in the same
way as buttons on a mouse. H owever, by simply tapping the surface this acts
as a ciuick method of selection on many touch pads.
5.2.7 Microphones
M icropho nes are used to input sound to a computer. For example:
• doing a 'voice over' in a presentation
• part of a speech recognition system
• part of a voice recognition system
• enabling a disabled person to communicate with a computer.
Micropho nes are either built into the computer or are external devices connected
through the USB port or using wireless connectivity.
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates producing an electric
signal. This signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values and
stored in the computer.
lfthe microphone is being used in a VOICE RBCOGN m ON system, the user's
voice is detected and then converted into digital. A few words spoken produce
a digital wave pattern. Software compares this wave pattern to wave patterns
stored in memory to see if they match. If th<.,' match, then the person has been
correctly identified. Only certain words can be used since the system is designed
to recognise only a few key phrases (e.g. a user may be asked to say their name ).
This technology can be used in security systems.
S PEEC H RECOGNITION is a different and more complex technology. This again
uses a microphone to input words spoken by a user. But this time the software
doesn't try to recognise the person talking. The spoken words are recognised and
shown on a screen, input into a word processor or used in other application. The
basic differences to voice recognition are described below.
1 Suppose a person says the word ' H UT'; the sound card in the computer will
convert the sound wave into a digital form:
....._ _~ ::::::::
D;gitalvalueaftercooversioo
Figure5.15
2 The software takes the digital image (shown in Figure 5.15 ) and breaks it up
into phonemes (these are the smallest elements that make up a language); in
this case ' H U H T'.
Input devices
Figure5.14Microphone

3 These phonemes arc compared with words found in the built-in dictionary:
figuN5.1 6
4 The word ' H UT' would then be suggested by the software in whatever
application is being run.
5 This, of course, is a very simple example and the whole concept of speech
recognition is ·cry complex. In trying to recognise which words arc being
spoken, the software has to take into account different dialects, different
accents and so on. Just to indicate how difficult this is, consider the following
well-known example:
The two phrases: 'recognise speech' and 'wreak a nice beach', ifspoken quickly,
arc almost identical. Using phonemes, they become:
'r eh k ao g nay z / s p iy eh' and 'r eh k / ay /nays/ b iy eh'
One way round this is to 'train' the computer to understand a cross-section
of people; but some problems arc difficult to rcsol-c. H uman beings have
problems ~th dialects and accents; so it should come as no surprise that this
continues to challenge the software developers ofspeech recognition systems.
Activity 5.4
Oe,;cribehowspeechrecognitioncouldbeusedto:
ii teachlanguageskillstopeoplewhohavedifficultyinlearning
b teachapersontosaywordsinaloll.'ignlanguage
Both voice recognition and speech recognition can be used in various other
applications. For example, 'oicc recognition is used in cars to allow the dri·cr to
say commands: 'make warmer', 'switch on GPS' or 'open window'. Key words
have to be used so that the software can compare ·oicc patterns with the limited
dictionary of words already stored. These systems arc becoming increasingly
sophisticated so that normal speech in the car doesn't trigger an unwanted
response by the computer. Newer systems can also be set up to only respond to
commands from the driver.
Activity 5.5
Coo1idertheplu'ieSandminu'ieSolulingvoicerecognitioninacar. lsitsaler?Forex.arnple,it
may allow a driver to re~nd to an email while drMng etc. Try to develop this argument and
drawavalidcondusionlromyourfindings

5.2 Input devices
5.2.8 Touchscreens
Touchscreens are now a very common form of input device. TI1ey allow simple touch to
launch an application or to carry out many ofthc functions of pointing devices such as a
mouse.
One ofthe main uses of touchscrcen technology is in mobile phones. At present, there
are three majOI" types oftouchscn:en technologies applied to mobile phone screens:
• capacitive
• infra-red
• resistive.
Ve will consider how each of these technologies work and what their main benefits and
drawbacks are.
• Thisismadeupofmanyla)"'"ol
glassthatact likeacai,adror,
creatingelec!ricfieldsbetweeothe
glassplate,;inlayers.
- ~thetopgl.:ts,;layertltouched,
:.:!.::::~:'
!ournedisde!e<minedbyan
or.-bo.YdmicropmcesSO<
• Thisisaml'dlJmrosttedmok,gy.
• Saeenvtlibililyi,good.....,,;n
strongSIK'llight
• ltpe<mitsmuttf-lOI.Chcapabiity.
• Thesaeenisve,ydurable;ittal::es
amajofimpac!tob<eaktheglass
Figure 5.17
5.2.9 Sensors ©
INFM-IIED(heatandoptkall
Hut-,en>itM!
-~:=~
- Need,awa,mobject
(e.g. finge,s)IOGl<f}'
out an input
operatioo
Optical
-::.t::1
:.:
- Usesao.,,,~of
Sl'O<OfS(in!heform
~:Z~~~oo
;:t'i!/1.e~cooolinate
• Bo!hsyrtem:sallowmutti-touchcapabiities
• Theoplical,ystemalb.vstheuseofba,e
fi"9'-"',gkNedfinge"orastylusforinput
• 8o!hsy;tem:shavegoodsc""-"1durabilily;it
!akeamajorirnpacttobreaktheglass
• ltisrelati,Plye,:peo<ivetedloology.
• Heat-';ensiNesy;temonlyalowsb.arefingers
robeusedforinput(gk,,edfioger,orst~,
tloo'twork)
• Bothsy;tem:s(oplicalaodheat-seositwe)ha....
taiflygoodscrerovisibilityinrooogsonlight
figuN5.18
• Thismakesuseofaoupperlaye<ol
polyester(afoonolplastic}and
abonomla)'l'lolgla'5
• Whentl>etoppofye<terlajoer,S
touched,thetoplayeraodthebonom
layercompleteaci-cuit
• Signals are !hen sent out which are
~r~.t~...m,;:;.;:;;i!':tes
ofw!ieretl>esc""-"1wastooc:hed
• ltisrelaWPlyinexpensivetedmology.
• ltispossi,letousebarelingers,glo,,ed
fi"9'-"'ora,~"'IOG1ffY001aoinJ11l!
operatioo
• Saerovislbilityispoorinmoog
sunlight
• ltdoesn'tperm~rnulti-touchca~~ty.
·::;,mscr;:t~u;:~~ ~;::!:en
wea"outthJOOqltime
figuN5.19
SENSORS are devices which read or measure physical properties. 1l1esc can include
temperature, pressure, acidity and so on. Real data is ANALOGUE in nature - this
means it is constantly changing and doesn't have a discrete value. Analogue data usually
reciuires some form of interpretation; for example, the temperature measurement on a
mercury tl1ermomcter requires the user to look at tl1e height of the mercury to work
out the temperature. The temperarnre can therefore have an infinite number ofvalues
depending on the precision of how the height oftl1e mercury is measured. Equally an
analogue clock fuce requires the user to look at the hands on tl1e clock fucc. The area
Svept out by the hands allows tl1e number of hours and minutes to be interpreted. There
are many other examples.

H owever, computers cannot make any sense of these physical quantities and
the data needs to be converted into a digital format. This is usually achieved by an
ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTI!R (ADC). This device converts physical values into
discrete digital values.
AAalogoedata
Figu,.5.20
Oigitajdata
When the computer is used to control devices, such as a motor or a valve, it is
necessary to USC a DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTER (DAC) since these devices
need analogue data to operate in many cases. Frequently, an AcrUATOR is used in
these control applications. Although these arc technically output devices, tl1cy arc
mentioned here since tl1cy arc an integral part ofthe control system. An actuator
is an electromechanical device such as a relay, solenoid or motor. Note tl1at a
solenoid is an cxan1plc of a digital actuator; part of the device is connected to
a computer which opens and closes a circuit as required. Vhcn energised, tl1c
solenoid may operate a plunger or armature to control, for example, a fuel injection
system. Other actuators, such as motors and valves, may require a DAC so that they
receive an electric current rather than a simple digital signal direct from the computer.
Table 5.2 shows a number of common sensors and examples of applications that
use the nan1cd sensors.
Apn~cation
temperature • mntrnlacentulhea~ngsy,tem
• mntrnVmooito< a chemical prnces,
• mntrnVmooito< the temperature in a c,eenhouse
moisture/humidity • mntrnVmooito< the moisture fevel, in SO<l in a greenhouse
• mntrnVmooito< the hooiiclity fevel, in the air in a g,reenhouse
o mor,j()(damfl"'-"Slevelsinanindustrialapplicatioo(e.g..
mooit()(moi,tureinap,l'nt,prayboothinacarlactory)
li~t • switchstreeth~tingooatnightandoffduOOgtheday
• mooi!()(/cootmlli<j,tlevelsinac,eenhouse
• automatically switch on acar~headlightswhen itgetsdait
• tumoothewindscreenwiper,onaca,automatically
• detectintrudefSinaburgla,alatmsystem
• (OUntpeopleenteri~iWingabuiiding
• detectintrudefSinaburgla,alatmsystem
• wei~thing,(e.g.checkthewei~tofavehide)
• mooito,/cootmlaprocesswhefegaspressu,ei,important
• r,kkupnoiselevel,(e.g.footstep,)inab<.xglarala,msystem
• detectthenoiseofliquidsdriW,nginapipe
gas(e.g. 0,()((02) • mooil()(polltrtionlevelsinafiveror intheair
• measmeO,andCO,H'velsinagreenhouse
• cheO::forC02 1eaksinapower,tation
pH • mooi!()(/cootmlac:idity/aik,-initylevel,in the SO<l in ~greenhouse
• poUution/envimnmentalmooitoringinfivers
miKJrieticfield • anyilppicalionwt.eredetectiooofchangesinamagneticfield
isrequired (e.g.inceUphor,e,.CDplayers.etc.)
• usedinanti·kldbrakingsystemsinmoto<vehide,

5.2
Sensors are used in both monitoring and control applications. 1l1cre is a subtle
difference between how these two methods work:
SellSOl'SsendsiCJOalslothe
miaopmcPSs.xk.omputer
Thesignals..-econvertedto
digital(ifnecl'S"")')usingan
analoguetodigitalcorwerte,
(AOC)
Thecomputerhnoanprocessor
aoal)'5<-;lhedatareceiwdby
<hec:kingrtagainststoredvaiUl'S
Themicmprncesso<lcomputer
hasnoeffectonwhatisbe;ng
monitored - itissimply
'watchong'thep«xes,
Theoutputlrnmthesystem
affectsthenextsetofinputs
Monitoring system Cootfolsystem
Figur• 5.21
Examples of monitoring include:
• monitoring a patient in a hospital for vital signs such as heart rate, temperature, etc.
• monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system
• checking the temperature levels in a car engine
• monitoring pollution levels in a river.
Examples of control include:
• turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight
• regulating the temperature in a central heating/ air conditioning system
• changing the traffic lights at a road junction ©
• operating anti-lock brakes on a car when necessary
• regulating the environment in a greenhouse.
Input devices

5.2.10 Monitoring applications
Burglar alarm system
Aa,ustk
lnfra-<ed
•o=
f'rp,;sure
Figu,.5.22
A burglar alarm monitoring system will carry out the following actions:
• The system is activated by keying in a password on a keypad.
• The infra-red sensor picks up the movement of an intruder in the building.
• The acoustic sensor picks up sounds such as footsteps or breaking glass.
• The pressure sensor picks up the weight of an intruder coming through a door
or through a window.
• The sensor data is passed through an ADC if it is in an analogue form to
produce digital data.
• The computer/microprocessor will sample the digital data coming from these
sensors at a given frequency (e.g. every five seconds); the data is compared with
the stored values by the computer/microprocessor.
• If any of the incoming data 'alues are outside the acceptable range, then the
computer sends a signal to:
• a siren to sound the alarm, or
• a light to start flashing.
• A DAC is used ifthe devices need analogue values to operate them.
• The alarm continues to sound/lights continue to flash until the system is reset
with a password.
Monitoring of patients in a hospital
• A mm1ber of sensors arc attached to the patient; these measure vital signs such
as:temperan1re,heartrate, breathingrate,etc.
• These sensors are all attached to a computer system.
• The sensors constantly send data back to the computer system.
• The computer san1ples the data at fre'luent intervals.
• The range of acceptable 'alues for each parameter is keyed in to the computer.
• The computer compares the 'alues from the sensors with those values keyed in.
• Ifanything is out of the acceptable range, a signal is sent by the computer to
sound an alarm.
• Ifdata from the sensors is vithin range, the values are shown in either graphical
form on a screen and/or a digital read out.
• Monitoring continues until the sensors are disconnected from the patient.

5.2
5.2.11 Control applications
Control of street lighting
figu N5.23 figu N5.24
This next scciuence shows how a microprocessor is used to control the operation
of a street lamp. The lamp is fitted with a light sensor which constantly sends
data to the microprocessor. The data 'alue from the sensor changes according to
whether it is sunnr, cloudy, raining or it is night time etc.
• The light sensor sends data to the ADC interface.
• lb.is digitises the data and sends it to the microprocessor.
• The microprocessor samples the data every minute (or at some other
frequency rate ).
• If the data from the sensor< value stored in memory:
• a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp
• and the lamp is switched on.
• The lamp sr:i.ys switched on for 30 minutes before the sensor readings are
sampled again (this prevents the lamp flickering off and on during brief
hcary cloud cover, for example ).
• If the data from the sensor >• value stored in memory:
• a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp
• and the lamp is switched off.
• 111c lamp stays switched off for 30 minutes before sensor readings arc sampled
again (this prevents the lamp flickering off and on during hcary cloud cover, for
example ).
Activity 5.6
Draw a flow diagram to ,;how the steps in how a mkroprocessor controls the switching off and
on of a si-t lamp. Remember to include a method to stop the lamp switching on and off every
few seconds
Anti-lock braking syste ms (o n cars)
ANTI -LOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS (ABS) on cars use magnetic field sensors to stop the
wheels locking up on the car if the brakes have been applied too sharply.
• When one of the car wheels rotates too slowly (i.e. it is locking up), a magnetic
field sensor sends data to a microprocessor.
• 111c microprocessor checks the rotation speed of the other three wheels.
• lfthcy arc different (i.e. rotating faster), the microprocessor sends a signal to
the braking system:
Input devices

• and the braking pressure to the affected wheel is reduced
• the wheel's rotational speed is then increased to match the other wheels.
• Checking the rotational speed using these magnetic field sensors is done several
times a second and the braking pressure to all the wheels can be constantly
changing to prevent any ofthe wheels locking up under heavy braking; tills is
felt as a 'judder' on the brake pedal as tl1e braking system is constantly switched
off and on to equalise the rotational speed of all four wheels.
• If one of the wheels is rotating too quickly, braking pressure is increased to that
wheel until it matches tl1e other three.
Activity 5.7
Find out more details about how the ABS system works and how it is modified in modem
systemssuchastractioncontrol
lnvestigateotherusesofmagneticlieldseosor,;
5.2.12 Interactive whiteboards
Interactive whiteboards are devices that allow computer images to be displayed
on a whiteboard using a digital projector. They also allow a user to write on the
wlllteboard and the text or drawings produced are then stored in an electronic
form for later use. Basically the information wlllch is hand-drawn or hand-written
can be stored so notlllng from, for example, a meeting is lost.
Suppose a new car has been designed and its image has been projected onto
tl1e whiteboard from a computer-stored file. It is possible for this image to be
annotated by adding labels, a description or even changes to the design for later
use. The annotated version can then be saved in an electronic form to allow
tl1ese changes to be made.
Itwouldlookg,oodwithsom~
klrguwhulscrodtyre.s
Figu,.5.25
w~ shooldputo
.sunroofontht.cor
Nobompus
mokesth~ cor
pronetodoioogt.
Thecarandallol
thecommentsafld
anootationsshown
wouklbestored(in
~~l~~r:!':t!!I;:
theneetingwoold
be automatically
captured
It is also possible to nm software on the whiteboard and users can interact
by simply using their fingers on the whiteboard surface. This allows tl1e user
to demonstrate all of the features of the software to, for example, a group of
people at a meeting or even a demonstration of a new game in a shopping
mall. Any application that runs on a computer can be used on an interactive
whiteboard. It is even possible to surf the net, annotate a spreadsheet or

5.3
demonstrate a drawing package, for example, in real time. The whole
audience can see what is happening and even become actively i1woked in the
demonstration.
5.3 Output devices
5.3.1 lnkjet printers
INKJET PRINTERS are essentially made up of:
• a print head which consists of nozzles which spray droplets of ink on to the
paper to form characters
• an ink cartridge or cartridges; either a group of cartridges for each colour ( blue,
yellow and magenta) and a black cartridge or one single cartridge containing all
three colours+ black (Note: some systems use six colours.)
• a stepper motor and belt which moves the print head assembly across the page
from side to side
• a paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are reguircd.
The ink droplets arc produced currently using n·o different technologies.
• Thermal bubble: tiny resistors create localised heat which makes the ink
vaporise. 111is causes the ink to form a tiny bubble; as the bubble expands,
some of the ink is ejected from the print head onto the paper. When the bubble
collapses, a small vacuum is created which allows fresh ink to be drawn into the
print head. This continues until the printing cyde is completed.
• Piezoelectric: a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle.
The crystal is given a tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate. This vibration
forces ink to be ejected onto the paper; at the same time more ink is drawn in
for further printing.
Vhen a user wishes to print a docwnent using an inkjet printer, the following
sequence of events takes place. Whatever teclmology is used, the basic steps in the
printing process are the same.
Sta<:1einprocHs DHaiptionofwhathapp•n•
l Thedatafromthedocumentissenttoa printe< oiv..-
~~~:drive, ensures thatthedataisin a fomat that the chosen pmter can
Ached<:ismadebytheprinterclrivertoensurethatthed>osenprinte,isavaiab!eto
print(e.g.is jbusy.isitoffline.isitootofjnk.anclsooo)
The data is then sent to the printer anditisst"'edin a temp<><a,ymemorykoownas a
printerbulf..- (sees.ectioo4.3)
Asheetolpape,isthenfedintothemainbodyoltheprinte,;asenso,detectswhether
pape,isavailable in thepaperleedlfay - i/;tisoot ofpaper(orthepape,isjammed)
then an errn, message is sent bad to the computer
Asthesheetofpaperisfedlhf~theprinte,.theprintheadma,eslfomsidetoside
acr=thepaperpr;ntingthetextor;mage;thefoorinkcoloorsare'f)fayedintheir
exi>damoontstop,oducetheoesi,edlinalrolou,
Attheendofeachfullpassoltheprinthead.thepape,isadvanc:edve,yslgltlyto
allowthenextlinetobeprinted;thiscontinuesuntilthewholep;,gehasbeenprinted
tlthen>isJnOfedataintheprinte,buffe,.then!hewholeprocessfmmst.,.ge5is
,epeateduntilthebufferisfinaltyempty
Onc:etheprinterbufferisempty. theprinterseodsan interrupt (seeSection4.3)to!he
processo,in!hecomputer;thisisa,equestlorJnOfedatatobesenttotheprinte,;the
wt.oleprocesscontim,esuntilthewhaeolthedor:umenthasbeenprinted
Output devices
Figure5.261nkjetprinte,

5.3.2 Laser printers
LASER PRINTERS differ greatly from inkjet printers in the way they print pages.
l11ey use dry powder ink rather than liCJuid ink and make use of the properties
ofstatic electricity to produce the text and images. Unlike inkjet printers,
laser printers print the whole page in one go (inkjet printers print the page line
byline).
Their advantage is the speed at which they can carry out large print jobs
(e.g. 2000 leaflets) and the fact that they don't run out of ink halfway
through.
The following table describes briefly the stages that occur when a document
is printed using a laser printer:
SU •inproc..s c ..c,iptionofwhathappens
1 Thedatafromthedocumentissenttoa ?"int0<dii""'
~~t::idiiver em<XPSltlatthe data isina lormatthatlhe chosenprinte< can
Acl>eckismadebytheprinte,drive<toensurettlatthed,osenprintefisavailableto
print(e.9.isitbos,:isitoffline.isitoutofink.andsoon)
Thedataisthensenttolheprinte<anditisstoredinalemporarym<>mClfYkno.vnasa
pnntefbuffN (refe<toSec!ion4.3fllfmoredetails)
Thestartofthe printing procPSsk,vONes a princngdrum t,e;nggiltffia JX)SJttv, ~ :
asthisdrumrotates.alaserbeamisscannedacrossitremcMngthepositivechargein
ce,tainareas;thisleaves neg;,liYefy ch~go,d areaswhichexactlymatchthetexVim.,.ges
olthepagetobeprinted
Thedrumisthenooatedwithpositivelyctlargedrotu(powderedink);sinc:ethetone,
ispositivelycharged.itonlystidstolhenegatJVelychargedpa,tsoftheclrum
AnegativelyctlargedsheetofpaperisthenrolledOYe<!hedrum
The toner on the drum nowstids tolhe pape,to pmdoce an exactrnpyoflhe page
senttolheprintef
Thepape,linallygoeslhmugh~luSl'IIM>ichisasetoll>eatedrolle,s;thel>eatmelts
theinksothatitf,xPSpe,manentlytothepaper
Atthevef"jend.adischargelampr
itreadytoprintthenextp.:,ge
alltheek>ctricchilfgefromthedrummaking
App li cations of inkjet and laser printe rs
The choice of whether to use an inkjct printer or laser printer depends on
which fcamres make it the most appropriate output device for the given
application.
INKJET PRINTERS are best for one-off photos or where only a few pages of good
quality, colour printing arc needed; the small ink cartridges or small paper trays
would not be an issue with such applications.
LASER PRINTERS produce high quality printouts and arc very fast when making
multiple copies of a document; any application that needs high-volume printing
(in colour or monochrome) would choose the laser printer (for example, producing
a large number of high quality flyers or ix,sters for ad·crtising) - they have two
advantages: they ha·c large toner cartridges and large paper trays (often holding
more than a ream of paper).
Figure5.27Lue,printef

5.3
Activity 5.8
Find out how the operation of colour laser printers differ,; from the operation of monochrome
laser printers
5.3.3 3D printers @
30 PRINTERS are primarily used in COMPUTER·AIDBD DESIGN (CAD)
applications.
They can produce solid objects which actually work. The solid object is built
up layer by layer (refer to Section 5.2.l for more details) using materials such as
powdered resin, (X)Wdered metal, paper or ceramic powder.
The motorcycle in Figure 5.29 was made using an industrial 3D printer. It was
made from many layers (0.1 mm thick) of powdered metal using a technology
known as BINDER 30 PRINTING.
The following describes some of the features of 3D printing:
• Various types of 3D printers exist; they range from the size of a microwave oven
up to the size of a small car.
• 30 printers use ADDITIVE manufacturing ( i.e. the object is built up layer
by layer); this is in sharp contrast to the more traditional method of
SUBTRACTIVE manufacturing (i.e. removal of material to make the object ).
For example, making a statue using a 30 printer would involve building it
up layer by layer using powdered stone until the final object was formed.
The subtractive method would im·olve car'ing the statue out of solid stone
(i.e. remo'ing the stone not required ) until the final item was produced.
Similarly, CNC machining removes metal to form an object; 30 printing
would produce the same item by building up the object from layers of
powdered metal.
• Direct 30 printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move left: to right
as in a normal printer. H owever, the print head can also move up and down to
build up the layers of an object.
• Binder 30 printing is similar to direct 30 printing. H owe·er, this method
uses two passes for each of the layers; the first pass sprays dry powder and
then on the second pass a binder (a type of glue ) is sprayed to form a solid
layer.
• Newer technologies are using lasers and UV light to harden liquid polymers;
this further increases the diversity of products which can be made.
Output devices
Figure5.283Dprinter
Figure5.29 Moto<cyde

How to create a solid object using a 3D printer
l11crc arc a number ofsteps in the process of producing an object using these
30 printers. The steps arc summarised in Figure 5.30.
Adesignismadeusingrnmpuler·aideddesi(jl(CAO)softwa,e
Thefiflilliseddrill<ingisimpo<tedintosomespec:ialsoftwarethat
prep,aresitinalormatwhkhisunde,stoodbythe3Dprinter
The3Dprinterissetuptoallowthesolidobjecttobemade
The,ojidobjectisbuiltuplayerbylayer(oltenonly0.1m'll lhid);
thiscantal<eseveralhours.dependingoothethid<nessolthe
laym. thematerialusedandthesizeofthefiflillobject
Theobjectis,ema,edfmmtheprinterandisthenp<epared;lor
exampH'.someuseajeliy.lii::esupportwhidneedstobewashed
awaybyimme"""1inwater.somerequi,etherema,alofexc=
plasticpowderandothersrequi"etheruttingawayoluro.ised
material;inmanycases,tti;~~astobeleftto"ru,e"lora
Figu,.5.30
Uses of 3D printing
30 printing is regarded as being possibly the next ' industrial revolution' since it
will change the manufacturing methods in many industries. The following list is
just a glimpse into what we know can be made using these printers; in the years to
come, this list will probably fill an entire book:
• prosthetic limbs made to exactly fit the recipient
• items to all011 precision rcconstructi·c surgery (e.g. facial reconstruction
following an accident); the parts made by this technique arc more precise in
their design since they arc made from exact scatUJing ofthe skull
• in aerospace, manufacturers arc looking at making wings and other parts
using 30 technology; the bonus will be lightweight precision parts
• in fashion and art - 30 printing allows new creative ideas to be dc·clopcd
• making parts for items no longer in production, e.g. suspension parts for a
vintage car.
l11csc arc just a few ofthc exciting applications which make use of this new
technology.
Activity 5.9
Do a search on the internet to find new and inno~ative 30 printer applications
Have a class discussion on how these printers could herald the start of a new 'industrial
reYOlution'

5.3
5.3.4 2D and 3D cutters
A three-dimensional (3D) laser cutter works in a similar way to a two-dimensional
(2D ) cutter. The main difference is that the 3D cutter can recognise an object in
the x-y-z direction rather than just x-y.
3D laser cutters can cut the following materials:
• glass • polymer
• crystal • wood.
• metal
Very complex designs can be cut since the cutters are controlled by computers
and ·cry sophisticated software.
A 3D cutter can cut beyond the surface of the material and produce 'cry
intricate designs.
It is interesting to contrast this method of shaping objects with 3D printers,
although it is true to say that not all the materials which can undergo 3D cutting
can be used in 30 printing methods.
5.3.5 Actuators
These arc co·cred in detail in Section 5.2.9. AcruATORS arc used in many control
applications invol'ing sensors and d<:'lices such as ADC and DAC.
5.3.6 Loudspeakers/headphones
Sound is produced from a computer by passing the digital data through a DIGITAL
TO ANALOGUE CONVERTER (DAC) and then through an AMPLIFIER; finally the
sound emerges from a (loud)sPBAKER.
The sound is produced by voltage differences 'ibrating a cone in the speaker
housing at different freciuencies and amplitudes:
Figur•5.31
The rate at which the DAC can translate the digital output into analogue 'oltages
is known as the SAMPLING RATE. lfthe DAC is a 16·bitde'lice, then it can
accept numbers between +32767 (216 -1 ) and - 32768 (216); the digital value
containing all zeros is ignored. The speed at which these w.lues can be converted
is the sampling rate.
Most textbooks indicate that the standard sampling rate is 44 100 samples per
second. This basically means that the the DAC can convert 44 100 'alues in the
range +32 767 to - 32 768 e·ery second.
Suppose a CD is being produced to contain a number of music tracks. Each piece
of music is sampled 44100 rimes a second. Each sample is 16 bits. Since the music
is in stereo this also needs to be taken into consideration.
The abo'e information means that 44 100 x 2 x 16 - 1411200 bits per second
sampling (the number '2' is used in the calculation to account for the sound being
in stereo).
Since l byte - 8 bits, this eciuates to l 411200/8 bytes per second.
This works out at 176400 bytes per second.
Output devices

Activity 5.10
a Calculate how much memory is needed to store a four-minute music track using the number
ofbytesneededpersecondfromabove
Convert your answer into megabytes (using the data from Chapter 1)
b If the CO has a capacity of 800 megabytes, haw many lour-minute songs could be stored on
the CO?
5.3.7 LCD and LED monitors
111c days of the old cathode-ray monitors arc almost gone. Most monitors and
television sets these days arc made using LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY/DIODE (LCD)
technology.
This means that the front layer of the monitor is made up liquid crystal diodes;
these tiny diodes arc grouped together in threes or fours which arc known as
pixels (picture elements). The three colours which arc grouped together use red ,
green and blue diodes. Those systems that use groups of four include a yellow
diode - this is said to make the colours more vivid.
Modern LCD monitors arc back lit using LIGHI" EMITTING DIODE (LED)
technology. TI1is gives the image better contrast and brightness. Before the use
of LEDs, LCD monitors used a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as the
back.lighting method.
Essentially, CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen which
supplies the light source. Vhcn LEDs arc used, a matrix of tiny LEDs is used
behind the LCD screen. Because LCD doesn't emit any light, some form of
back-lit technology needs to be used.
LEDs ha·c become increasingly more popular because of a number of
advantages over older CCFL tcclmology:
• LEDs reach their maximum brigl1tncss almost immediately (there is no need
to 'warm up' before reaching full efficiency)
• LEDs give a whiter light which sharpens the image and make the colours
appear more vivid; CCFL had a sliglnly ycllmvish tint
• LEDs produce a briglncr ligln which improves the colour definition
• monitors using LED teclmology arc much thinner than monitors using CCFL
technology
• LEDs last almost indefinitely; this makes the technology more reliable and
means a more consistent product
• LEDs consume very little power which means they produce less heat as well as
using less energy.
Furnrc LED technology is making USC of ORGANIC LIG HT EMJ'IT ING DIODES
(OLEDs). These use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to
create semi-conductors which arc very flexible. Organic films arc sandwiched
between two charged electrodes (one is a metallic CATH ODE and the other a
glass ANODE) . Vhcn an electric field is applied to the clcc.trodcs they gi·c off
light. This means that no form of backliglning is required. This allows for ·cry
thin screens.
•

5.3
It also means that there is no longer a need to use
LCD technology, since OLED is a self-contained
system.
As can be seen in Figure 5.32, OLEDs allow the
screen to be curved. This ensures a good picmrc
from any angle.
But the important aspect ofthe technology is how
thin this makes the screen. It is now possible, using
OLED technology, to bend screens to any shape. If
this is adopted by mobile phone manufacturers, it will
be possible to develop phones which can wrap around
your wrist - much like a watch strap.
Imagine screens so thin that they can be folded up
and placed in your pocket until th<.-y are needed. Or FiguN
5_
32
how about using folding OLED displays attached to
fabrics creating 'smart' clothing (this could be used on
outdoor survi'al clothing where an integrated circuit,
mobile phone, GPS receiver and OLED display could
all be se,~l into the clothing)?
Advantages of using OLED compared with existing LEDs and LCDs include:
• the plastic, organic layers ofan OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible
than the crystal structures used in LEDs or LCDs
• the light-emitting layers ofan OLED are lighter; OLED layers can be made
from plastic rather than the glass used in LED and LCD screens
• OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs
• OLEDs do not reciuire backlighting like LCD screens - OLEDs generate their
own light
• since OLEDs reciuire no back.lighting, they use much less power than LCD
screens (most of the LCD power is used todo the back.lighting); this is very
important in battery-operated devices such as mobile phones
• since OLEDs are essentially plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets
(this means they could be used on large advertising boards in airports, subways,
and so on)
• OLEDs have a very large field of view, about 170 degrees, which makes them
ideal for use in television sets and for ad·ertising screens.
Activity 5.11
Carry out some research into OLEO technology (then! all! numerous internet sites to help you}
andanswerthefollowingquestions:
a Why all! inkjet printers helping to keep down the cost of OLED screens?
b Howarediffell!ntcoloursgeoeratedusingOLEDtechnology?
c Howisthebrightnessolthedisplaycontrolled?
d OLEDs n!fresh 1000 timl'S faster than LCDs; why would this be an advantage? Where could it
beusedtogre;itellect?
Output devices

LCD/LED screens are used on many hand-held devices with touchscrecns, such
as mobile phones, tablets and game consoles. The technology behind such screens
was discussed at great length in Section 5.2.8.
,1odern LCD screens are very thin and very lightweight and are ·ery
rcs1x:msive to touch. Obviously, the m.·w technologies described above will change
the way we use these hand-held devices in the very near future.
5.3.8 Light projectors
l11ere are two common types of light projector:
• digital light projectors (DLP)
• LCD projectors.
Projectors are used to project computer output onto larger screens or even onto
interactive whiteboards. They are often used in presentations and in multimedia
applications.
The following two sections describe the basic differences behind these
projector technologies.
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
l11e USC of millions of micro mirrors on a small DIGITAL LIGHT PROJBCT"OR (D LP)
chip is key to how these devic.cs work.
The number of micro mirrors and the way they are arranged on the OLP
chip determines the resolution of the digital image. When the micro mirrors
tilt towards the light source, they are ON. When the micro mirrors tilt away
from the light source, they are OFF. This creates a light or dark pi.'l:el on the
projection screen. The micro mirrors can switch on or off several thousand
times a second creating various gn.1' shades - typically 1024 grey shades can be
produced (for example, if the mirror switc.hes on more often than it s,~tches
?ff, it will produce a lighter shade of grey). This is known as the grey scale
image.
A bright white light source (e.g. from a xenon bulb) passes through a colour
filter on its way to the OLP chip. The white light is split into the primary colours:
red, green and blue - the DLP projector can create over 16 million different
colours. l11e ON and OFF states of each micro mirror are linked with colours
from the filter to produce the coloured image.
The whole concept is a little like reverse black and white photography. With
OLP technology, the grey scales arc interpreted as colours rather than grey
representing colours as used in photography.

5.3
LCD projectors
These are older technology than DLP. Essentially a high-intensity beam oflight
passes through an LCD display and then onto a screen. How this works in
principle is described below.
• A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb or LED inside the
projector body.
• TI1is beam oflight is then sent to a group of chromatic-coated mirrors; these
reflect the light back at different wavelengths.
• When the white light hits these mirrors, the refh:cted light has wavelengths
corresponding to red, green and blue light components.
• These three different coloured light components pass through three LCD
screens; these screens show the image to be projected as millions of pixels
in a grey scale.
• When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a red, green and blue
'ersion of the grey image emerges.
• 1l1ese images arc then combined using a special prism to produce a full colour
image - this final image consists of millions of colours (each shade of grey in
the original image produces a different shade in each ofthe colour images).
• Finally the image passes through the projector lens onto a screen.
Output devices

® Memory and data storage
e filelormatssuchasMIOl,MP3andjpeg
e filernmpresskmtechniques
• primary,secondaryandoff-linestorage
e magnetic,optkalandsolid-st.-itemedia
6.1 Introduction
There are many file formats used to store data, be this text, images or sound, in
computer systems. This chapter will consider how file compression is used to sa'e
memory when storing different types of files.
All computer systems ha·e primary memory and secondary memory storage.
111c main technologies used arc magnetic, optical and solid state. Storage devices
which use each ofthese technologies will be described later in this chapter,
together with a number of applications.
6.2 File formats
A number ofdifferent file formats are used in computer systems. We will look at
the following ones:
• Musical Instrument Digital lntcrfu.cc (M IDI)
• MP3
• MP4
• jpcg
• text and number format.
6.2.1 Musical Instrument Digit al Interface (MIDI)
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT DIGITAL INTERPACE (iUDI) is always associated with the
storage of music files. H owever, MI D I files arc not music and don't contain any
sounds; they arc ·cry different to, for example, MP3 files. MIDI is essentially a
communications protocol that allows electronic musical instruments to interact
with each other. The ,1IDI protocol uses 8 -bit serial transmission with one start
bit and one stop bit, and is therefore asynchronous (sec Section 2.2.3).
A MI D I file consists of a list of commands that instruct a device (for example,
an electronic organ, sound card in a computer or in a mobile phone) how to
produce a particular sound or musical note. Each MIDI command has a specific
sequence of bytes. The first byte is the status byte - this informs the MIDI device
what function to perform. Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel. MIDI
operates on 16 different channels, which arc numbered Oto 15.
Examples of MIDI commands include:
• note on/off: this indicates that a key (on an electronic keyboard ) has been
pressed/released to produce/stop producing a musical note
• kL-y pressure: this indicates how hard the key has been pressed (this could indicate
loudness of the music note or whether any vibrato has been used, and so on).
Two additional bytes arc required, a PITCH BITE, which tells the MID I device
which note to play, and a VELOCITY BYIB, which tells the device how loud to play
the note. Vhcn music or sound is recorded on a computer system, these MIDI
messages arc saved in a file which is recognised by the file extension .mid.
0

6.1
If this .mid file is played back through a musical instrument, such asan
electronic keyboard, the music will be played back in an identical way to the
original. The whole piece of music will have been stored as a series of commands
but no actual musical notes. This makes it a ·cry versatile file structure, since
the same file could be fed back through a different electronic instrument, such
as an electric guitar, with different effects to the original. However, to play
back through an instrument such as a guitar would need the use of SEQUENCER
SOFIWARE, since the MIDI files wouldn't be recognised in their 'raw' form.
Both the electronic instruments and the computer need a MIDI interface to allow
them to 'talk' to each other. It was mentioned earlier that the M ID I operates on
16 channels. In fact the computer can send data out on all 16 MIDI channels at
the same time. For example, 16 MI D I devices, each set up for a different MID I
channel, could be connected to the computer. Each device could be playing a
separate line in a song from the sequencer software, effectively creating an electronic
orchestra. This implementation is being used more and more today in the
recording studio, by major orchestras and in musical scores used in films.
Because MIDI files don't contain any audio tracks, their size, compared with
an MP3 file, is considerably smaller. For example, a 10 megabyte MP3 file only
requires about 10 kilobyte file size when using the M ID I format. This makes
them ideal for devices where memory is an issue; for example, storing ring tones
on a mobile phone.
6.2.2 MPEG-3 (MP3) and MPEG-4 (MP4)
i-IPEG-3 (MP 3) uses technology known as AUDIO COMPRESSION to convert music
and other sounds into an MP3 file format. Essentially, this compression teclmology
will reduce the size of a normal music file by about 90 per cent. For example, an
80 megabyte music CD can be reduced to 8 megabytes using MP3 technology.
MP3 files are used in MP3 players, computers or mobile phones. Files can be
downloaded from the internet, or CDs can be converted to MP3 format. The CD
files are converted using FILE COMPRESSION software. Vhilst the music quality can
never match the 'foll' version found on a CD , the quality is satisfactory for most
general purposes.
But how can the original music file be reduced by 90 per cent whilst still
retaining most of the music quality? This is done using file compression
algorithms which use PERCEPTUAL MUSIC SHAPING; this essentially removes sounds
that the human ear can't hear properly. For example, if two sounds are played at
the same time, only the louder one can be heard by the ear, so the softer sound
is eliminated. This means that certain parts ofthe music. can be removed without
affecting the quality too much.
MP3 files use what is known as a LOSSY FORMAT (see Section 6.3.2 ) since part
of the original file is lost following the compression algorithm. This means that
the original file can't be put back together again. H owe·er, even the quality of
,lP3 files can be different since it depends on the BIT RATE - this is the number
of bits per second used when creating the file. Bit rates are roughly between 80
and 320 kilobits per second; usually 200 or higher gives a sound quality close to
a normal CD.
MPEG-4 (MP 4) files are slightly different to MP3 files. This format allows
the storage of multimedia files rather than just sound. Music, videos, photos
and animation can all be stored in the MP4 format. Videos, for example, could
be streamed over the internet using the M P4 format without losing any real
discernable quality.
File formats

6 MEMORY AND DATA STORAGE
Activity 6.1
A CO is being used to store music Each minute's worth of recording takes up 12 megabytes
a TheCOcontainsninetrackswhicharethelollowinglength{inminutes):3,5,6,4,5,2,
7, 8, 8. How much memory would these nine tracks occupy on theC07
b If the CO was downloaded to a computer and then all the tracks were put through an MP3
compression algorithm, how much memory would the nine tracks now occupy {you may
as.sumea90percentfilereductionsize)7
c Find the average size of each of the MP3 tracks, and then estimate how many MP3 files could
be stored on an 800 megabyte CO.
6.2.3 Joint Photographic Experts Group (jpeg) files
Look at the following fo·c photographs of the same car wheel:
Figu,.6. 1
TI1e resolution ofthe photographs is reduced from A to E. Photographs A and B
arc very sharp whilst photograph Dis very fuzzy and Eis almost unrecognisable.
This is the result of changing the number ofPIXELS per centimetre used to store
the image (that is, reducing the PicrURE RESOLu n oN).
Vhcn a photographic file undergoes file compression, the size of the file is
reduced. The trade -off for this reduc.ed file size is reduced quality of the image.
One of the file formats used to reduce photographic file sizes is known as JPEG.
This is another example of lossy file compression. As with M P3 format, once
the image is subjected to the jpeg compression algorithm, a new file is formed
and the original file can no longer be constructed. Jpeg will reduce the RAW
BITMAP image by a factor of between 5 and 15 depending on the guality of the
original.
An image that is 2048 pixels wide and 1536 pixels high is egual to 2048 x 1536 pixels;
in other words, 3 145 728 piJ:els. This is often referred to as a 3-megapixcl image
(although it is obviously slightly larger). A raw bionap can often be referred to as a TIFF
or BMl' image (file extension .TIP or .BJilP). The file size ofthis in1,1ge is detemtined
by the number ofpixels. In the previous example, a 3-megapixel image would be
3 megapixels x 3 colours. 1n other words, 9 megab~'tes (each pixel occupies 3 bytes
because. it is made up ofthe tlm:e main colours: red, green and blue). TIFF and B,ll'
are the highest image guality because, rnilike jpeg, tl1<.-y are not in a compressed format.
The same image stored in jpeg format would probably occupy benveen
0.6 megabytes and 1.8 megab)'tes.
Jpeg relies on certain properties of the human eye and, up to a ixiint, a certain
amount of file compression can take place without any real loss of guality. The
human eye is limited in its ability to detect very slight differences in brightness
•

6.1
and in colour hues. For example, some computer imaging software boasts that
it can produce o·er 40 million different colours - the human eye is only able to
differentiate about 10 million colours.
Activity 6.2
a An image is 1200pixelsby1600pixels.Calculate:
I the total number of pixels in the original image
II thenumberofbytesoccupiedbythislile
Iii thelilesizeolthejpegimage(inkilobytes)iftheoriginal
imagewasreducedbyafactoro/8
b A second image is 3072 pixels by 2304 pixels. Cakulate:
I the total number of pixels in the original image
Ii thenumberofbytesoccupiedbythislile
Iii the file size of the jpeg image (in megabytes) if the original
imagewasreducedbyafactorofS
Iv How many uncompres,;ed files of the size calculated in p;1rt
W) could be stored on a 4-gigabyte memory card?
v Howmanyrnmpressedfilesofthesizecalculatedinp;irt(iii}
rnuld be stored oo the same 4-gigabyte memory card?
Activity 6.3
The very sharp image A in Figure 6.1 was blown up to about lix
times its size:
Figur•6.2
Findoutwhythisiniliallysharpimagenowappearsluzzyatthi1
magnification
Howcanthi1problembeovercome?
File formats

6.2.4 Text and number file formats
Text and numbers can be stored in a number of formats. Text is usually stored
in an ASCII format (see Section 1.6.4).
Vhcn using spreadsheets or databases, for example, numbers can be stored
in a number of different formats:
• real, e.g. 2.71678
• integer, e.g. 3
• date, e.g. 12/08/2016
• time, e.g. 19:45:50
• currency, e.g. R$ 15.50
It is important that the correct format is chosen ifsome form of processing is
to be done. If number files undergo any form of file compression, then it tends
to be lossless. Since it 'ery important that none of the information/data is lost
(sec Section 6.3 ).
If ASCII format is used to store text on a file, then the table in Figure 1.7 is
used to store each of the characters. For example, the word COi1.PUTER would
be stored as either:
67 79 77 80 85 84 69 82 or %43 %4F %40 %50 %55 %54 %45 %52
(the first code is in denary and the second in hexadecimal).
Text files can also undergo file compression. These use complex algorithms that
work on redundancy or repeated sections of words (e.g. OU in yOUr, cOUntry
or mOUntain). The following section shows, in 'ery simple terms, how this
could work:
The phrase 'THIS SECTION SHOWS YOU HOW THIS WOULD
VORK' consists of35 memory units (ignoring spaces). Repeated words, such as
'THIS' could be put into a data dictionary and be replaced by 'l '. Repeated word
sections, such as ' H OV' and 'OU' could be replaced by the numbers '2' and '3'.
Our phrase then becomes ' I SECTION S2S Y3 2 I W3LD WORK'.
Again, ignoring spaces, this compressed form now uses only 23 memory
units. This is about a 33% sa'ing in file size. Ob'iously ifwhole pages are to be
stored, then repeated words and word sections become even more numerous.
Compression algorithms take many things into account when creating these
compressed files - but this is outside the scope ofthis textbook.
This is clearly an example oflosslcss compression since the original phrase
can be reformed if necessary using the data dictionary and compressed file.
6.3 Lossless and lossy file compression
6.3.1 Lossless file compression
With LOSSLESS FILE COMPRESSION, all the data bits from the original file arc
rcconstmctcd when the file is again uncompressed. This is particularly important
for files where loss ofany data would be disastrous - for example, a spreadsheet file.
6.3.2 Lossy file compression
Lossy FILE COMPRESSION is very different to lossless file compression. With this
technique, the file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary bits ofdata as
seen in M P3 and jpcg formats.

6.4
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is compressed. This is why
it is chosen for files where removing certain bits doesn't detract from the quality.
6.4 Memory and storage
Memory and storage devices can be split up into three distinct groups:
• primary memory
• secondary storage
• off-line storage.
Figure 6.3 shows how these all link together:
[ Se<ondarystorag• I
j Harcf.diskdrive(HD0) ·1J _.
I Sohd-stateO"ive(SSD) II ~
Figure 6.3
Ve will now consider each of the three parts in the diagram.
6.4.1 Primary memory
Random Access Memory (RA M)
The fcamrcs ofllANDOM AccBSS MEMORY (RAM) are:
Off-line storage
IDVDK:OandDVO.RAM I
lllu-raydisk
I us~=~kf I
I Removableha,dOOle I
• it is volatilc/temix,rary memory (the contents of the memory are lost when the
power to the RAM is turned off)
• it is used to store:
• data,
• filcs,or
• part of the operating system that are currently in use
• it can be written to or read from and the contents ofthe memory can be
changed.
In general, the larger the size ofRAt1 the faster the computer will operate. In
reality, the RM1 never mns out of memory; it continues to operate but just gets
slower and slower. As the RAM becomes full, the processor has to continually
access the hard disk drive to overwrite old data on RAM with new data. By
increasing the RAt1 size, the number of times this access operation is carried out
is reduced, making the computer run faster.
RM1 is much faster to write to or read from than other types of memory;
but its main drawback is its volatility.
Memory and storage
Figure6.4 RAM

Buffers were introduced in Chapter 4 (see Section 4.3). These often use
RAt1 since they need to be a fast memory and the data only needs to be held
temporarily. As outlined earlier, buffers allow the processor to do other tasks
while slower peripheral devices send data to and receive data from the computer.
There arc currently two types of RAt1 technology:
• dynamic ram (DRAM )
• static RAM (SRAt1 ).
Dynam ic RAM (DRAM)
Each DYNAMIC RAM (D RAA-I) chip consists of a number of transistors and
capacitors. Each of these parts is tiny since a single RAt1 chip will contain
millions of transistors and capacitors. The function of each part is:
• capacitor - this holds the bits ofinfonnation (0 or 1)
• transistor - this acts like a Sllitch; it allows tl1e chip control circuitry to read the
capacitor or change the capacitor's value.
This type of RAt1 needs to be constantly REFRESH ED ( that is, the capacitor needs
to be recharged every 15 microsecondsothcnvise it would lose its value). lfit
wasn't refreshed, the capacitor's charge would leak away very guickly, leaving
e·erycapacitorwith the value 0.
DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAi1s:
• they are much less expensi•e to manufacrnrc tl1an SRAM
• they consume less JX>WCr than SRM1
• they have a higher storage capacity than SRAM.
Static RAM (SRAM)
A big difference between SRAt1 and DRAM is that this type of memory doesn't
need to be constantly refreshed.
It makes use of'flip flops' which hold each bit of memory.
SRAM is much faster than DRAtl when it comes to data access (typically,
access rime for SRAM is 25 nanoseconds and for DRAM is 60 nanoseconds).
DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers, but where
absolute speed is essential, then SRAM is tl1e preferred technology. For example,
tl1e processor's MEMORY CACH E is tl1e high speed portion of the memory; it is
effective because most programs access tl1e same data or instructions many times.
By keeping as much of this information as JX)Ssible in SRAM, the computer avoids
having to access the slower DRAM.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
The main features of READ ONLY MEMORY(ROM) can be summarised as follows:
• they arc non-volatile/permanent memories (tl1e contents of the memory
remain even when tl1e power to the ROM is rnrncd oft)
• they are often used to store the start-up instructions when the computer is first
switched on (for example, ROM might store the basic input/output system
( BIOS ))
• the data or contents of a ROM chip can only be read; they cannot be changed.
Figure6.5DRAM
Figure6.6SRAM

6.4
Applicatio n
Ve will now consider an application, other than a computer, where both RAM.
and ROM chips are used.
A remote-controlled toy car has a circuitry which contains both RAM and
ROM chips. The remote control is a hand-held device.
We will consider the function of each type of memory independently:
• ROM
• stores the factory settings such as remote control frequencies
• stores the 'start-up' routines when the to)' car is first switched on
• stores the set routines; for example, how the buttons on the hand-held device
control turning left, acceleration, stopping, and so on.
• RAM
• the user may wish to program in their own routines; these new instructions
would be stored in the RAM. chip
• the RAM. chip will store the data/instructions recei·cd from the remote
control unit.
Activity 6.4
Describe how ROM and RAM chips could be used in the following devices
a a microwave oven
b arelrigerator
c a remote-controlled model aeroplane; the movement of the aeroplane
isrnntrolledbyahand-helddevice
6.4.2 Secondary storage
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
HARD DISK DRIVES (HOD) are probably still the most common method used to
store data on a computer.
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the disks (or
platters, as they arc frequently called). The hard disk drive will have a number of
platters which can spin at about 7000 times a second. A number of read-write
heads can access all of the surfaces in the disk drive. Normally each platter will
ha·e two surfaces which can be used to store the data. These read-write heads
can move very quickly - typically tl1ey can move from the centre of the disk to
the edge of the disk (and back again) 50 times a second.
Data is stored on the surface in sectors and tracks (see Figure 6.8 on next page).
Memory and storage
A sector on a given track will contain a fixed number of bytes. Figur• 6.7
Unfortunately, hard disk drives have very slow data access when compared to,
for example, RAt1. Many applications require the read-write heads to constantly
seek for the correct blocks of data; this means a large number of head movements.
The effects of LATENCY then become very significant. Luency is defined as the
time it takes for a specific block of data on a data track to rotate around to the
read- write head.
Users will sometimes notice the effect of latency when they see messages such
as 'please wait' or, at its worst, 'not responding'.

Solid-state Drives (SSD)
Latency is an issue in HDDs as described earlier. SOLID-STATE
DRIVES (SSD) remove this issue considerably. They have no
moving parts and all data is retrie·ed at the same rate. They
don't rely on magnetic properties; the most common type
ofsolid-state storage devices store data by controlling the
movement ofelectrons within NANO chips. The data is stored
as Os and ls in millions of tiny transistors within the chip. This
effectively produces a non-volatile rewritable memory.
H owever, a number ofsolid-state storage devices sometin1es
use ELE,CI"RONICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY
MEMORY (EEPROM) technology. The main difference is the
use ofNORchips rather than NANO. This makes them faster
in operation but devices using EE PROM are considerably
more expensive than those that use NAND technology.
Figu,..6.8
EEPROM also allows data to be read or erased in single bytes at a time. Use of
NANO only allows blocks of data to be read or erased. This makes EE PROM
technology more useful in certain applications where data needs to be accessed or
erased in byte-sized chunks.
Because of the cost implications, the majority ofsolid-state storage devices use
NANO technology. The two types arc usually distinguished by the terms FLASH
(use NANO) and EEPROM (use NOR).
So what are the main benefits ofusingSSD rather than HOD? The main
benefits ofSSDs are summarised below:
• they are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)
• they are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
• they don't have to 'get up to speed' before they work properly
• they have a lower power consumption
• they run much cooler than HDDs (these last two points again make them very
suitable for laptop computers)
• because they have no moving parts, they are ·cry thin
• data access is considerably faster than HOD.
111c main drawback ofSSD is the questionable longevity of the technology. Most
solid state storage devices are conservati·ely rated at only 20 GB write operations
per day o·er a three-year period - this is known as SSD endurance. For this
reason, SSD teclmology is not used in servers, for example, where a huge number
of write operations take place e·ery day. H owever, this issue is being addressed by
a mm1ber of manufacturers to improve the durability of these solid-state systems.
6.4.3 Off-line storage
Off-line storage includes:
• CD/DVD/DVD-RAM (optical storage systems)
• Blu-ray disks (optical storage systems)
• USB flash memory/memory sticks/SD-XD cards (solid state storage systems)
• removable/external hard disk drives (magnetic storage systems).

6.4
CD/DVD disks
CDs and DVDS are described as OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES. Laser light is used to
read data and to write data in the surface ofthc disk.
Memory and storage
Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-scnsiti·e organic (I)
dye to store the data. As can be seen in Figure 6.9, both systems use a single, spiral
track which runs from the centre of the disk to the edge.
The data is stored in 'pits' and 'bumps' on the spiral track. A red laser is used
to read and write the data. CDs and DVDs can be designated R (write once only)
or RW (can be writt~n t~ or rea_d from many times)._ . -
DVD technology is sliglnly different to that used m CDs. One of the mam
differences is the use of DUAL-LAYERING which considerably increases the storage Figur• 6.9
capacity. Basically, this means that there are mu individual recording layers. Two
layers of a standard DVD arc joined together with a transparent (ix,lycarbonatc )
spacer, and a very thin reflector is also sandwiched between the two layers.
Reading and writing of the second layer is done by a red laser focusing at a
fraction of a millimetre difference compared to the first layer.
polycarbonate lay'-" lase,readslayer2
Figur• 6.10
Standard, single layer DVDs still have a larger storage capacity than CDs because
the 'pit' size and track width arc both smaller. This means that more data can be
stored on the DVD surface. DVDs use lasers with a wa·clcngth of650 nanometres;
CDs use lasers with a wavelength of 780 nanometres. The shorter the wa·clcngth
of the laser light, the greater the storage capacity of the medium.
DVD-RA M
DVD·RAA-1 uses a very different technology to CDs and DVDs. TI1cy ha'c the
following features:
• Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number of concentric tracks (sec
Figure 6.11 ).
• Use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write operations to take
place.
• TI1cyallow numerous read and write operations (up to 100000 times) and
ha'c great longevity (o'cr 30 years) which makes them ideal for archiving.
Blu-ray disks
B LU·RAY DISKS arc another example ofoptical storage media. H owever, they arc
fundan1cntally different to DVDs in their construction and in the way they carry
out read~writc operations.
The main differences arc:
• a blue laser, rather than a red laser, is used to carry out
read and write operations; the wa'clcngth of blue light is
only 405 nanometres (compared to 650 nm for red ligln)
Figure6. 11
Figur•6.12

• using blue laser light means that the 'pits' and 'bumps' can be much smaller;
consequently, Blu-ray can store up to fi·c times more data than normal DVD
• Blu-rayuscs a single 1.1 mm thick polycarbonate disk; normal DVDs use a
sandwich of two 0.6 mm thick disks
• using two sandwiched layers can cause BIREFRINGENCE (light is refracted into
nvo separate beams causing reading errors); because Blu-ray uses only one layer,
the disks don't suffer from birefringence
• Blu-ray disks automatically come witl1 a secure encryption system which helps
to pn.·vcnt piracy and copyright infringement.
Table 6.1 summarises the main differences between CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray.
Disk type Wavelength of Trackpitch(distance
laser light between tracks)
sin~1.2mm 1.60µm
....k,,-,rbooatelave,
two0.6mm 0.74µm
nnlur,IOO(atelay.,"
lllu·ray sin~l.lmm O.JOµm
oolvca!booatelaye,
(Note: nm - JQ""9 metres and pm - JQ-6 metres. )
All these optical storage media arc used as back-up systems (for photos, music
and multimedia files). This also means that CDs and DVDs can be used to
transfer files between computers. Manufacturers often supply their software using
CDs and DVDs. When the software is supplied in this way, the disk is usually in a
read-only format.
The most common use of DVD and Blu-rayisthe supply ofmovics or games.
111c memory capacity of CDs isn't big enough to store most movics.
The future of optica l media
In recent times both the CD and DVD arc showing signs ofbecoming obsolete.
Many computer systems now come with USB connectors only and no DVD or
CD drive. The main method oftransfcrring files between devices has become tl1c
flash memory. Many people now store all tl1cir music in the following ways:
• on hard disk drive systems (set up as sound systems as shown in Figure 6.13)
• in i11'3 format on:
• a computer/tablet
• tl1cir mobile phone
• a portable music player (such as iPodlll)
• using tl1e 'cloud' to store all their files so they can access tl1cir music from
anywhere in the world
• by 'streaming' their music from the internet; provided the user has an internet
connection, they can access music tl1rough a laptop computer, mobile phone,
tablet or any other receiving device.
It is also a similar story for movics where streaming is becoming increasingly more
common. Many television sets are now set up as 'smart' TVs - this means it is
now possible to stream movics or television programmes ON DEMAND witlmut the
need for any DVD or Blu-ray players. In effect, the television set has become the
central computer witl1 a link to the internet using wireless connection.
•
Figure6.13

6.4
Floppy disks met the same fate in the early twenty-first century. H ow often do
you see floppy disks nowadays? It is very likely that CDs and DVDs will meet the
same fate and will be replaced by one of the systems described above or
something entirely new.
Activity 6.5
Do some research, using this book and the internet, to find out all the dillerrot way,;. to store
musiclilesandmovieliles
Draw a table and show all the benefits and drav'ibac:k.l of each of the methods yoo have identified
USB fl ash me mo ries
Memory and storage
M EMORY STICKS/FLASH MEMORIES (also known as pen drives) use solid-state
technology (see Figure 6.14 ).
They usually connect to a computer through the USB port (see Section 2.2.4). 4j
"
m?'!esi~i~:~1::~:a:;:::~~~:!~:f:~i1::r~1:~:~~~~1
~::!~:,~:~~~;::i::nn;~:e ~-
.
'• ,..
be used as small back-up devices for music or photo files, for example.
Complex or expensive software, such as an Expert System, often uses memory
sticks as a DONGLE. 111c dongle contains additional files which arc needed to nm
the software. Vithout this dongle, the software won't work properly. It therefore
prevents illegal or unauthorised use of the software, and also prevents copying of Figure 6.14
the software since, without the dongle, it is useless.
Digital cameras (see Section 5.2.4) use a slightly different form of solid-state
memory, known as XD (cXtrcmc Digital) or SD (Secure Digital) cards. The
technology is essentially the same as memory sticks. These memory cards allow
photos to be tr.1.nsfcrred from camera to computer via the USB port. Many
printers and computers also ha·c card slots allowing the device to read the
memory card directly.
Each memory card is made up ofNAND chips (see Section 6.4.2) and, as with
all solid-state memories, there are no moving parts.
All solid-state memories need to be treated with some care. If they arc removed
from a device before being made safe (for example, while still in the middle ofa
read- write operation), data on the memory card or stick can be corrupted. In
extreme cases, the memory card or stick become totally unusable. It is essential to
wait for the message: 'it is now safe to rcmo·e your device' if plugged into a
computer. Vith mobile phones or digital cameras, it is usually advisable to switch
them offbcfore removal oftl1e card.

Removable hard disk drives
REMOVABLE HARD DISK DRIVES are essentially HDD but can be connected to the
computer using one of the USB ixirts. In this way, they can be used as a back-up
device or as another way of transferring files between computers.
6.5 How to estimate the size of a file
Estimating the size ofa text file is rclati·cly straightforward. In Chapter 1 we
introduced the idea ofASCII code. Each character from the keyboard has a value
ofl byte.
Suppose we typed in the following message:
This is text from the computer science text book
and then sa·cd it under the filcnamc 'samplc_tcxt_for_book'. If we then looked
at the properties ofthc file just sa'cd, we would sec:
IJ'__...._
.._,..,.._.. - ~
~n·-r-- _
..J
just stored
Figu,.6.15
If we count the number of characters in the text t)'pcd in, we get the number 48.
TI1is exactly matches the file size shown in the screcnshot in Figure 6.15 - so each
character equals I byte. Ve can therefore use tills to cstin1atc the size of a text
file. Obviously tl1crc arc other codes stored with tl1c file which make its real size
slightly different, but we aren't concerned about tl1at in tills section of the book.
Earlier on in the chapter we looked at file sizes for photos and for sound.
TI1is is obviously a little more complex, but we saw that one pixel, for example,
occupies 3 bytes of memory.
Suppose we imported the photograph shown in Figure 6.16 into a document. Figu,.6.16

6.5
Looking at the properties of the photograph, we find this:
I '"-
~
~-:--:·
-- (i]-""Wmd ~
L.oc-.c C- '°""''1-,"""-"•
- - -+-Filesizeis318kilobytl's
,.,,,.,.,.,,..,.,=,....,..1 lortheactualpictureand
~Jobytesf0<therodes
Figur• 6.17
The photograph was 424 by 256 pixels which confirms the file size of
325 632 bytes (318 kilobytes).
Activity 6.6
a UsingNotepad,typeinthefollowingme5Silge
This text should have a file size ofover 100
bytes. We can check this by saving the file
How to estimate the size of a file
and then looking at the file properties.
Saveyourlileandtheolookatitspropertiesandfindoutthe lilesizeolthetextyoutypedin.
Wasitthevalueyouexpected?
b lmportaphotointoawordprocessorandrnec:ktheoliginalfilesizeagainstthelilesizeol
the document. Then import about 3K of text and recheck the file size of the new document
Wasthefile,;izeasyoupredicted?
Activity 6.7
Estimatethesizeolalileloreacholthelollowing
a Textfilernntaining256character.;
b Word processor document containing 1000 character.; and a =all image which
is 256 >< 256 pixels in size (aswme an extra 14KB for other document fe;itures)
c Adataba..eistornntainapernm'1nameandtheiraddress
I Decide the maximum number of characters you would need to input a name
and an address.
Ii Estimate the maximum size of file needed to store the name and address.
d Asecuritysystemrnntainsapassword{16diaracter.;long),ausername{20diarilderslong),
asmallphoto(2S6x640pixelsinsize}andasecurityquestion(upto72character.;long}
Estimatethefilesizeneededtostoreall thisdata

0 High-and low-level languages
e programminglanguages
• high-levellanguages
• low-levellanguages
• translators
• compilers
• interpreter,;
• assemblers
7.1 Introduction
People use many different languages to communicate with each other. In order
for two people to understand each other they need to speak the same language
or another person, an interpreter, is needed to translate from one language to
the other language. Programmers use many different programming languages to
communicate with computers. Computers only ' understand' their own machine
code. A program needs to be translated into machine code before it can be
' understood' by a computer.
7.2 Programming languages
7.2.1 What is a program?
Programs are our way oftelling a computer what to do, how to do it and when
to do it. This enables a single computer to perform many different types oftask.
A computer can be used to stream videos, write reJX>rts, provide weather forecasts
and many, many other jobs.
An example ofa simple task that can be performed by a computer is the
provision of a multiplication tables test. Figure 7. 1 shows a simple program to set
this up and Figure 7.2 shows an example of the test in use.
Figure7.2Proc_,am inuse
0

7.2
Activity 7.1
Find at least ten different tas.ks that computer programs perform in your school
A COMPurER PROGRAM is a list of instructions that enable a computer to perform
a specific task. Computer programs can be written in high-k·vel languages or low-
level languages, depending on the task to be performed and the computer to be
used. Most programmers write programs in high-le'el languages.
7.2.2 High-level languages
High-level languages enable a programmer to focus on the problem to be solved
and require no knowledge ofthe hardware and instruction set of the computer
that will use the program. Many high-level programming languages are portable
and can be used on different types of computer.
H igh-level languages are designed with programmers in mind; programming
statements are easier to understand than those written in a low-level language.
This means that programs written in a high-level language are easier to:
• read and understand as the language used is closer to human language
• write in a shorter time
• debug at the development stage
• maintain once in use.
The following snippet of program to add two numbers together is a single
program statement written in a typical high-le·el language. It shows how easy
it is to understand what is happening in a high-level language program:
::~~~::::;:;::::i.i:
i.::
~!~~~ii-:::::;:::~~i~~~~~:
~
:
;.::: :··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··:··,
There are many different high-level programming languages in use today
including C++, Delphi, Java, Pascal, Python, Visual Basic and many more.
Once a programmer has learnt the techni'lues of programming in any high-level
language, these can be transferred to working in other high-level languages.
Activity 7.2
High-level programming languages are x1id to be problem Dfieoted. What type of problems
are the languages named above used for? Find out about five more high-level languages
Name eadi programming language and find out what it is used for.
7.2.3 Low-level languages
Low-level languages relate to the specific architecture and hardware of a particular
type of computer. Low-level languages can refer to machine code, the binary
instructions that a computer understands, or an assembly language that needs
to be translated into machine code.
Assembly lang uages
Fe,,11 programmers write programs in an assembly language. Those progranuncrs
who do, do so for the following reasons:
• to make use of special hardware
• to make use of special machine-dependent instructions
• to write code that doesn't take up much space in primary memory
• to write code that performs a task ·cry quickly.
Programming languages

7 HIGH- AND LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGES
The following snippet of program to add two numbers together is written
in a typical assembly language and consists of three statements:
In order to understand this program the programmer needs to know that
• LDA means load the value ofthe variable into the accumulator
• ADD means add the value of another variable to the value stored in the
accumulator
• STO means replace the value of the variable by the value stored in the
accumulator.
Activity 7.3
Find out about two assembly languages. Name each assembly language and find out what type
olcomputeriti1usedf0f.
Machine code
Programmers do not usually write in machine code as it is difficult to understand
and it can be complicated to manage data manipulation and storage.
The following snippet of program to add two numbers together is written in
typical machine code, shown in both hexadecimal and binary, and consists of
three statements:
I: : :::: ::::::::1
0
Hnadec1
mal Binary •
Figu,.7.3
As you can sec, this is not easy to understand in binary! Machine code is usually
shown in hexadecimal (sec Section 1.5).
Activity 7.4
Find out about two different types of machine code. Name each chip set the machine rnde
isusedlorandlindthecode1f0flo.-id,.-iddandstore
7.3 Translators
Computer programs can exist in several forms.
Programs are written by humans in a form that people who arc trained as
computer programmers can understand. In order to be used by a computer,
programs need to be translated into the binary instructions, or machine code ,
that the computer understands. H umans find it very difficult to read binary
(hexadecimal is easier to understand) and computers can only perform operations
written in binary.

7.3
Figure 7.4T,amlatioo
A program must be translated into binary before a computer can use it; this is
done by a utility program called a translator. There are several types of translator
program in use; each one performs a different task.
Compilers
A COMPILER is a computer program that translates a program written in a high-
level language ( HLL) into machine code so that it can be directly used by a
computer to perform a required task. Once a program is compiled the machine
code can be used again and again to perform the same task without
recompilation.
The high-level program statement
!Sum :• FirstNumber + SecondNumber
···-·········-···-····-··········-·-·-········-·-·-·······-·-·····-··--·····-·-··
becomes the following machine code instructions when translated
Interpreters
An INTERPRETER is a computer program that reads a statement from a program
written in a high-level language, performs the action specified and then docs
the same with the next statement and so on.
Assemb lers
An AS.SEMBLER is a computer program that translates a program written in
an assembly language into machine code so that it can be directly used by a
computer to perform a required task. Once a program is assembled the machine
code can be used again and again to perform the same task without re-assembly.
Translators

The assembly language program statements
become the following machine code instructions when translated
i OOOl 00010010
· 0100 00010011
•oooo 00011010
·------·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-····-····-···-·-·-···-····-···-·-·-···--·---·-----·---·----·-·-···-·
Table71Surrrnaryoftrans!atiooprograms
Compiler lnt..preter
TransiatPSahi~levellanguage ExecutPSahi~levellaogoage T,aoslatesaJow.levellanguage
program into ma.mine rnde program a statement at a ~me program into madline rode
Anexecutablefileolmachinerode Noexerutilblefileo/mad,;necode Anexl'CUtablefieolmachinecode
is produced is prOWCed is produced
One h"]h~evel lang~ statement One ho~-~vel language program One klw~evel langua.ge statement
~::::'.::;.:=;al ~ta!':;'~;~:=:.:~:~ ~.::;,:s1i;,,~~:,"""
CompiledplO<Jfamsareused
withoutthecompilPr
lnte,pretedpmgramsrannotbe
usedwilhouttheinterp<ete,.
A compiled program is usually An interpreter is often used w+>en a An assembled program is llSUally
distributedforgeneralllSI' program is being developed distributedlorgene,aluse
7.4 What happens when things go wrong?
As programs are written by humans, they may contain errors. TI1ere are several
different types of error. A SYNTAX ERROR is where a program statement doesn't
obey the rules of the programming language. A program cannot be translated if
it contains syntax errors. A LOGIC ERROR is where the program doesn't do what
the programmer wanted it to do. Logic errors are found when a program is
being run.
7.4.1 Syntax errors
When a program is being compiled, if any syntax errors are found no translated
program is produced. Instead, a list of all the errors in the whole program is
produced. The programmer corrects these errors and recompiles the program.
'hen a program is being interpreted, the interpreter performs the actions
specified by each statement until a syntax error is found. The programmer is
then alerted to the place in the program where the error was found. The error
is corrected by the programmer and the interpretation continues until the next
error is found or the task is completed.
7.4.2 Logic errors
When a program is being run, ifit doesn't do what it should do there is a logic
error. TI1cse can be found by tracing what the program does and using test data
with expected results - sec Chapter 9.

7.4 What happens when things go wrong?
7.4.3 Using an Integrated/Interactive Development
Environment (IDE)
,ilost high-level programming languages offer the use ofan IDE for program
de·elopmcnt. This contains an editor with an interpreter and/or compiler
together with debugging tools, which can impro·e the speed of program
de'elopmcnt.
&le16it-~.... c.,t;.... w-n1-i,.;,
Pyt .•on , . , . a 1~, . , . a ,c<10.co,o.ne,, , -,. ,o >OH, 10,> s, n) [J<SC v . H aa ,a b>t [< •
;,, I .. . . . .- .. .11 • • i .
Figur• 7.51'ythonlDE
Activity 7.5
Havealookatthedevelopmentenvironmentyouareusinglorprogramming
What facilities are offered to help with program development?

End-of-chapter questions
l Use the words below to complete the following
assembler compiler interpreter
To translate a program written in a high-le·el
language, you can use a _ _ _ or an
_ _ _. To translate a program written in a
low-level language you must use an _ _ _.
2
Table7.2
Program A
RRADFi n t,Second
Fin t, - Fin t • Se cond
ProgramB
a Vhich program is easier to understand?
b Whyisiteasiertounderstand?
c Which program is written in a high-k·vel
language?
3 Give three advantages of writing a program in a
high-level language rather than using a low-level
language.
4 Give three advantages of writing a program in a
low-le'el language rather than using a high-level
language.
5 Explain what a com piler docs and what an
interpreter does. In your explanation include a
description of the differences between them.
6 Choose which type of translator you would use
to de·elop a program written in a high-level
programming language. Give three reasons to
supportyourcl10ice.
•
7 Look at these two pieces of code:
A CLC
LDX #0
Loop: LDA A, X
ABC B, X
STA C, X
CPX #16
BNE loop
B FOR loop • 1 TO 4
INPUT Number!, Number2
Sum - Number! + Number2
Print Sum
a Which of these pieces ofcode is written in a
high-le'el language? [l]
b Give o ne benefit ofwriting code in a high-level
language. [l]
c Give o ne benefit ofwriting code in a low-level
language. [l]
d H igh-level languages can be compiled or
interpreted.
Gi·c two differences between a compiler and an
interpreter. [2]
Cambridge !GCSE Computer Studies 7010/0420
Paper 12 Ql3June 2012

® Security and ethics
• keeping data safe from acddental or malkious damage
• keepingdatasafelromunauthorisedusl'!'S
• use of pa=rds, firewalls, proxy 51'rvers, SSL, ns and encryption
e risksposedbyphishingandpharming
• securitysafeguardswhenc,myingoutonlinetransactions
e computerethics
8.1 Introduction
Keeping data safe is extremely important for a number of reasons. It may be
personal data that you want to keep within your family or your close friends,
or commercial data, such as passwords and bank account details, which need to
be kept safe to protect your money.
Data can be cormptcd or deleted either through accidental damage or through
a malicious act. There arc many ways to keep data safe and some of the methods
available will be covered in this chapter.
There is also a short section on computer ethics since this is becoming an
increasing])' important topic for discussion.
8.2 Security and data integrity
'hether a user is working on an off-line computer or on a computer connected
to the internet, keeping data safe is ·cry important.
Data is threatened by malicious software, hackers or accidental damage. This
section co·ers a number of different security risks and considers ways to overcome
or minimise them.
Each security risk, together with its description, possible effects and risk
mitigation will be set out as follows:
Possible effect of the
sec..-;tyrisk
Figur• S.1
Oescriptiooofthe
seru,;tyrisk
Name of the
,eru,;tyrisk
Methodsto,ema,e
sec..-ityrisk

8 SECURITYAND ETHICS
8.2.1 Hacking
• Thiscanleadtoideobty
;~t;:.~ningpersooal
• Data can be deleted,
changedorcorrnpted
Figure8.2
Theactofgainingillegal
iK:CPSSloacompute,
s,s=
Hacking
Note the difference between CRACKING and HACKING.
H acking is breaking into a computer system to steal personal data without
the owner's consent or knowledge (e.g. to steal a password file).
Cracking is where someone edits a program source code (i.e. looks for a 'back
door' in the software so that the code can be exploited or changed for a specific
purfXlse ). This is usually done for a malicious purpose (e.g. legitimate software
could be altered by a cracker to perform a different task e.g. send a user to a
specific website).
Esscntiallr, hacking isn't necessarily harmfitl whilst cracking is ALWAYS totally
illegal and is potentially very damaging.
8.2.2 Viruses
• Cancausethe~ter
to crash.stop
functiooingoormallyor
.~~,:~%~~·
• Cancom1ptfiles/data
Figure8.3

8.2
8.2.3 Phishing
Thecreatorsendsouta
legitimate-looking email; as
soooastherecipientcltl,on
ali~n,!:i~~~::~71,
• Thecreatoroltheemail
~:,~"'~;!~
numbers Imm use"
~~visit the fake
• ThiscanH'adtofraudor
identity theft
Figur• S.4
8.2.4 Pharming
bogus website
Phishing
Mahdouscode imtaHedona
user",Mrddriveoroothe
,:f:::'tn"',i!':.:1:t'.:1
~
boguswebsotewithootthei,
knowledge
• Thecreatorofthe
malicious axle can gain
~~:c:~=~
~;:.,"';.:.,:~~::1
• Thiscanieadtofraudor
identity theft
Figur• S.5
Pharming
Security and data integrity

8.2.5 Wardriving
·~!~:!!J~a
alocationbydoo.vnloading
largeMes(e.9.moviefiles)
·;;.:~::~k·~~~
steajause<'spassword
andolhe,persooaldetaals
Figur• S.6
Wardriving
8.2.6 Spyware/key-logging software
Figur•S.7
Softwa<ethatgathm
infom,atioobymooitorjngkey
pree,;esonlheuser's
keyboard; theinfo,mabonis
the~n~~!"so~
Spyware/key-
loggingsoftwar•
• Useolant~spywa<esoftware
·::;i'::i=~~~~:::.
that thei, keyboardac~vityis
beingmonito<ed
• Wngamousetoselect
cha<acte"frompasswords
(etc.)ratherthantypinglhem
;~~',;~~dcanhelp
8.3 Cookies
AcooKII! is a packet of information sent by a web server to a web browser.
Cookies are generated each time the user visits the website. A message is
frequently displared sa)'lllg 'cookies are required to access this site' (or some
equivalent message). Every time a user visits the website, cookies will have
collected some key information about the user. Ther are able to carry out user
tracking and also maintain user preferences (for example, when a user buys a CD

8.4 Loss of data and data corruption
on a music website , the cookies will have remembered the user's previous buying
habits and a message like this often follows: 'Customers who bought items in
your Recent H istory also bought: YYYY').
Cookies aren't programs but are simply pieces of data. They can't actually
perform any operations. 1l1cy only allow the detection of web pages viewed by
a user on a particular website and store user preferences, as described above.
The information gathered by cookies forms an ANONYMOUS USER PROFILE and
doesn't contain personal information (such as credit card numbers or passwords).
Because of the information they do collect, however, they are subject to privacy
and security concerns.
8.4 Loss of data and data corruption
Section 8.2 considered a number of security issues which could lead to loss
of data or the corruption of data.
This section covers the potential impact on d ata caused by:
• accidental mal-operation
• hardware malfunction
• sofuvare malfimction
on a computer system. In each case:
• safeguards
• recovery methods
to pre·ent the loss or corruption of data arc considered.
Acddl'lltall=ofdata
(forexample.lheaccidental
deletiooofalie)
~~(f.,~~;.":~
disk drive)
Softwarelault(e.g
inc:ompatiblesoltl'.•,.-e
imtalledonthesystem)
Incorrect computer
operalion(e.g. inc:Offect
shut<lownpmcedure0<
inc:Offectpmcedureforthe
,ema,al ola memorys~O:)
Figure 8.8
• Useofbad·upsin=dataislost0<conupted
throoc,ianacridmtaloperatioo
• 'i.avedataonaregul,.-ba,is
• Useofpasswordsanduse,idstorestrictacc5Sto
authorised users only
• Useofback·upsincasedataisi<><torcorrupted
throociilhehardwa,efault
• UseofUPS(uninterruptablepowe,supply)to
pteYl'fltpow..,i<><scausingha,dwaremaflunction
• 'i.avedataonaregu!arbasis
• Useofpa,allelsystemsasback·uphardwMe
• Useolback·upsincasedataisi<><torcorrupted
throoc,ilhesoftw,.-efault
• Savedataona,egu!arbasisincasethesottware
suddenly"freezes"0<"aashes"whilsttheuseris
workingooit
• Useofback·upsincasedataisi<><torcorrupted
throoc,iv,rnngoperaboo
• Conecttrainingproceduressothatusers,.-eaware
oltherorrectoperationofha,dware

8.5 Firewalls and proxy servers
A FIREWALL can be either software or hardware. It sits between the user's
computer and an external network (e.g. the internet) and filters information
in and out of the computer.
~
Figu,.8.9
Tasks carried out by a firewall include:
• examining the 'traffic' between the user's computer (or internal network)
and a public network (e .g. the internet)
• checking whether incoming or outgoing data meets a given set of criteria
• if the data fails the criteria, the firewall will block the 'traffic' and gi·e the user
(or network manager) a warning that there may be a security issue
• logging all incoming and outgoing 'traffic' to allow later interrogation by the
user (or network manager)
• criteria can be set to prevent access to certain undesirable sites; the firewall can
keep a list of all undesirable IP addresses
• helping to prevent viruses or hackers entering the user's computer (or internal
network)
• warning the user if some software on their system is trying to access an external
data source (e.g. automatic software upgrade ); the user is gi'cn the option of
allowing it to go ahead or rcguesting that such access is denied.
TI1e firewall can be a hardware interface which is located somewhere between
the computer (or internal network external link) and the internet connection.
It is often referred to in this case as a GATEWAY. Alternatively, the firewall can
be software installed on a computer; in some cases, this is part of the operating
system.
H owever, there arc certain circumstances where the firewall can't prevent
potential harmful 'traffic':
• it cannot pre'cnt indi'iduals, on internal networks, using their own modems
to bypass the firewall
• employee misconduct or carelessness can.not be controlled by firewalls
(for example, control of passwords or use of accounts)
• users on stand-alone computers can chose to disable the firewall, leaving their
computer open to harmful 'traffic' from the internet.
All of these issues reguire management control or personal control (on a single
computer) to ensure that the firewall is allowed to do its job effccti·cly.
PROXY SERVERS act as an intermediary between the user and a web server:
Webb<owse, Webb<owse,
I I:·:•II l'::::1 ~
1
response is filtered bad response to
prnxyse,ve,
Figu,.8.10

8.6
Functions of proxy servers include:
• allowing the internet 'traffic' to be filtered; they can block access to a website
if necessary (similar type or reaction as a firewall )
• by using the fcamre known as a CACHE, they can speed up access to information
from a website; when the website is first visited, the home page is stored on the
proxy server; when the user next visits the website, it now goes through the
proxy server cache instead, giving much faster access
• keeping the user's IP address secret - this clearly improves security
• acting as a firC'.vall.
8.6 Security protocols
Ve will now consider two forms of security protocols when using the internet:
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
• Transport Layer Security (TLS).
SECURE SocKETs LAYER (SSL) is a type of protocol (a set of rules used by
computers to communicate with each other across a network). This allows data
to be sent and received securely over the internet.
When a user logs onto a website, SSL encrypts the data - only the user's
computer and the web server are able to make sense ofwhat is being transmitted.
A user will know ifSSL is being applied when they see https or the small padlock
e, in the stams bar at the top of the screen. So what happens when a user wants
to access a secure website and receive and send data to it?
The use,"s web browse, sends a message so that it can comect
wilhlherequiredwebsitewhKhi,securedbySSL
Thewebbrowserlhenrequeststhatthewebserve,ioentifiesitsett
ttthewebb<owse,canaulhenticatelhiscertificate.itsendsa
message bad< to the web serve, to allow communicabon to begin
Oncethismessagei,,eceived.lhewebserverackno.Yledge,the
webb<owse,.andtheSSL-elCJ'll'tedtwo--waydatalfansferbegim
Figur• S.11
TRANSPORT LAYER SECURITY (TLS) is similar to SSL but is a more recent security
system. Tl.S is a form of protcx:ol that ensures the security and privacy of data
between devices and users when communicating m ·er the internet. It is essentially
designed to provide encryption, authentication and data integrity in a more
effective way than its predecessor SSL.
Vhen a website and client (user) communicate o·er the internet, Tl.S is
designed to pre·e11t a third party hacking into this communication causing
problems with data security.
Security protocols

TLS is formed of two layers:
• record protocol: this part of the communication can be used with or without
encryption (it contains the data being transferred over the internet).
• handshake protocol: this permits the website and the client (user) to
authenticate each other and to make use of encryption algoriduns (a secure
session between client and website is established).
Only the most recent web browsers support both SSL and TLS which is why the
older SSL is still used in many cases. But what arc die main differences between
SSL and Tl...S since diey both cffccti·cly do the same d1ing?
• It is ix,ssiblc to extend Tl.S by adding new aud1cntication methods.
• Tl.5 can make use ofSESSION CACHING which improves the overall performance
compared to SSL (sec Section 8.6.1 ).
• Tl.5 separates the handshaking process from die record protocol (layer) which
holds all the data.
8.6.1 Session caching
When opening a Tl.S session, it requires a lot of computer time (due mainly to
the complex encryption keys being used - sec Section 8.7). The use ofsession
caching can avoid the need to utilise so much computer time for each connection.
TI..S can either establish a new session or attempt to resume an existing session;
using the latter can considerably boost system performance.
8.7 Encryption
Encryption is used primarily to protect data in case it has been hacked. Whilst
encryption won't prevent hacking, it makes die data meaningless unless the
recipient has the necessary decryption tools described below.
There are two types of encryption:
e svmmctric
• a.symmetric or public key.
8.7.1 Symmetric encryption
SYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION is a secret key which can be a combination of characters.
If this key is applied to a message, its content is changed which makes it
unreadable unless die recipient also has the decryption key.
One key is needed to encrypt a message and another key is needed to decrypt
a message.
It is obviously imix,rtant that the sender and receiver have the same encryption
and decryption key. 1l1crc is clearly a security risk here, since the sender has to
supply the key to the recipient. 1l1is key could be intercepted by, for example,
a hacker which puts die security of the encrypted message at risk. This sirnation
is referred to as die KEY DISTRIBUTION PROBLEM.
So the question is, how can both sender and receiver have the required key
without sending it electronically in some way? The following routine shows how
this is done. Follow it through, and you will sec that both sender and recipient
end up with a key which is effectively secret, but didn't involve sending the actual
key electronically.

8.7
Stage Sender
Thesenderusesaoenayptklna"]Orithm(see
Secbon8.73)andchoose<avalue
e.g. X•l{thisiskeptseael)
Thisvah;eofXisput;ntoa5'mplealgo,ithm
]X(MQQ1))
(M00rj,estheremainde<M1endividir,ga
numberby11)
Hlisgives
7>(M0Dl1)•49(M0011)
wt>Khrj,esthevalu.e
S (ie.4remaindef5)
Hl<'sendernowsendslhevaluejustcakulated
(i.e. S} totherecipient
Hlisnewvalueisputintothesamealgofilhm -
lhenewvalue,eplaces'7'
] X(MQQ11)
Hi s gives
3'(MOD11)•9(M0011)
wt.kht;j,,esthevalue
9(i.e.Oremaindef9)
Recipient
e.g.Ya4(thisisalsokeptsecrel}
Thevalc;eo!Yisputintothesamealgorilhm
]Y(M0011)
(MODgivestheremalr>derwhendividir,ga
numbe,byll)
This gives
7•(MOO l1)•240l(MOD11)
whic:hgi,,....thevalue
3 (i.e.2l8remainde< 3)
TheredpH'ntnowsrodsthevaluejustcakulated
(ie. 3)tothesende,
Thisnewvall1!'isputintolhesamealgorithm -
thenewvalJerepl;,ces'7'
S
Y(M0011)
This gives
5'(M0011)a6lS(M0011)
which gives the value
9(i.e.56remainde,9)
Thus both sender and recipient end up with the same encryption and decryption
key of9. This gives us the basis ofhow an encryption key can be generated.
Activity 8.1
Usethefollowingseoderandreceivervalue1tocheckthatthesystemdesaibedinTable8.lwofks
a sender u11.'S the value x= 3 and receiver uses thevaluey = S
b senderusesthevaluex:7andreceiverusesthevaluey:6
Table 8.1 refers to an BNCRl'PTION ALGORITH M. As we will see in Section 8.7.3,
messages are put through an encryption algorithm to produce a message in
encrypted form. This algorithm uses an encryption key to produce a message
which appears meaningless unless the same key is applied to 'unlock' the
original message. The key is referred to as an encryption key or a decryption
key depending whether it is used to encrypt the message or to decrypt the
message.
The next section discusses the types ofencryption keys.
8.7.2 Asymmetric encryption
The risks surrounding symmetric encryption keys have already been discussed. A
more secure method is to use ASYMMETRIC or PUBLIC KEY encryption. A PRNATB
KEY and a public key are both needed:
• public key is made available to everybody
• private key is only known by the computer user.
Both types of key are needed to encrypt and decrypt messages. Imagine a user
on computer A wants to send a private message to a user on computer B; how is
asymmetric encryption used?
Encryption

Use,Aappliesasymmetrickeytoeouyptthemessage
The symmetric key is the~':'~Ate;irld""Bng lhe public key rooY.'f
UserAs.endslhemessage"""'theintemet
UsefBdecryptsthe')'fffTll'trkkeybyapplyingthei"own
private key
ThecJeroded,ymmetrickeyisnowusedtodeaypt lheffil""""9"
sentbyuse,A
Figure8. 12
111c encryption keys arc often generated by using a H ASHING ALGORITHM . This is
actually very different to an encryption algorithm. The hashing algorithm takes
a message or a key and translates it into a string of characters usually shown in
hex notation (the length of the string depends on the algorithm being used ).
1l1is essentially makes the message or key almost imJX>ssiblc to read ifit is
somehow intercepted by, for example, a hacker. The same hashing algorithm has
to be applied at both ends (sender and receiver) for the message or key to be
understood.
In summary, the encryption algorithm converts messages using an encryption
key into 'meaningless' text; the same key has to be used to decrypt the message.
1l1csc keys can, however, be intercepted which makes the encryption process less
secure. To overcome this problem, a hashing algorithm is applied to the message
or key, producing a string of characters which are virmally impossible to 'break'
if intercepted. This considerably increases the security of the whole process when
sending personal or sensitive data across, for example, the internet. The use of
hashing and encryption is further discussed in Scction 8.7.4.
An example ofa well-known hashing algorithm is ,1D4 which generates a
128-bit string whenever a value is nm through it. For example, the following
16-digit code:
1234 5678 9012 3456
would produce the following value when put through the MD4 hashing algorithm:
543FC7DDEAOCF5EAFS4279CBADCA180D
(Note: this contains 32 hexadecimal digits (i.e. 128 bits) - sec Section l.5. )
Strings which are 128 bits long gi'e 3 x 1038 possible combinations which
makes them ·cry secure. Some newer systems use 256-bit strings which ha·c
1 x 1077 possible combinations. Older systems employ strings which arc only
56 bits in length, which gives them only 7 x 1Ql6 possibilities - this has become
rclati•cly easy to break since modern computers arc so fast at number crunching!
But it is clear that the larger the key size, the more secure the encryption
will be.

8.7
Activity 8.2
Using the internet, carry out a 51!arch for M04 and MOS hashing algorithm generators
(e.g. httpJMWW.online-convert.mm/)
Then try various numbers, letters and messages to ,;ee how the 128-bit mde varies. Even
just changing a few letters in a message can have a dramatic effect oo the 128-bit value
For example
'Thi1isanex.ample': 1F312F8138628926E44AOC899161F4A8
'Thisisanotherexample': 2EAEB50E8870FD5418366CE235107F21
Tryout anumbi!rofex.amplesloryour,;ell.
8.7.3 Plain text and cypher text
PLAIN IBXT (sometimes written as a single word 'plaintcxt') is described as the text
or normal representation of data before it goes through an encryption algorithm.
CYPHER TEXT (sometimes written as 'cyphertext' or 'ciphcrtext') is the output
from an encryption algorithm:
Figur• S.13
8.7.4 Authentication
AurHENTICATION is used to verify that data comes from a trusted source. It works
with encryption to strengthen internet security.
Examples include:
FigureS.14
Usualy auser,d/nameandpasswo,dareusedtologontomilllysystem,;both
userodlnameillldp;rsswo,dare<hedrndaga;mtasenxeMetoronfirma
=•~'~Jheyclaim to be; ifeitherisiocO<Tectordon"tmat<hup. then
Thissystemisbasedonpublickeyeoc:,yptioo;itisamethodusedtoens.ureill
electmoicdocumeotisautheotic;thefoU
owiogdia<1amsumsupwhat
happeoswheouserAsendsam~touserB
The message is The"hash"
User A writes pot through a number is
---- hashing ---- encrypted
algorithm us,nga
private key
I
:"~a:"'ar~ot
over the internet
Encryption

Rgu,.8.14contiooed
Biometric:sreliesontheooiquecharaclPristicsolhumanbeings;
examplesindude
::.:'..~:,"""'
o faa,recognition(sees.ectiooS.2.1)
• YDkerecognition(seeSectionS.2.7)
Fingerprint scans
lmagesoffinger,.-intsarecompa,ed"9"'nstp,eviouslyl
scannedlingPrprintsstoredinadatabase;iftheymatch , • .
thenaccessisallowed;thesystemcomparespattemsof
'ridges' and'valleys'whimarefairlyunique
{amxacyis1in500)
Retina scans
Retinae<:ansuseinfra-<edtoscantheuniquepattemof
bloodvesselsintheretina(atthebad<oftheeye);itisa
rathPrunpleasanttec:hnique,equi,;ngape,sontosit
totallystillfot 10to 1Ssec:ondswh;lethescantakesplace;
itisver'jsecXe,;ncenobodyhasyetfoundawayto
duplicatethebloodv~lpattems
{aa:,xaqis1in10milion)
8.7.5 Denial of service attacks
A denial o f service attack (DoS ) is an attempt at preventing users from accessing
part of a network, notably an internet server. This is usually temporary but may
be a very damaging act or a big breach of security. It doesn't just affect networks;
an individual can also be a target for such an attack.
The attacker may be able to prevent a user from:
• accessing their emails
• accessing websites/web pages
• accessing online services (such as banking).
One method of attack is to flood the network with useless traffic. H ow does
this cause the problem?
'hen a user types in or clicks on a URL of a website (using their web browser),
a request is sent to the internet server which contains the website or web page.
Obviously, the server can only handle a finite number of requests. So if it becomes
o·crloadcd by an attacker sending out thousands of requests, it won't be able to
service the user's legitimate request. This is effectively a denial of service.
This can happen to a user's email account, for example, by an attacker sending
out many spam messages to their email account. Internet Service Providers ( ISPs)
only allow a specific data quota for each user. Consequently, if the attacker sends
out very large or many hundreds of emails to the user's account, it will quickly
get clogged up and the user won't be able to receive legitimate emails.
An individual user or a website can guard against these attacks to some degree by:
• using an up-to-date malware/virus checker
• setting up a firewall to restrict traffic to and from the internet server or user's
computer
• applying email filters to manage or filter out unwanted traffic or spam emails.
Signs that a user can look out for to see ifthey arc a victim ofone ofthese attacks
include:
• slow network performance (opening files or accessing certain websites)
• unavailability or inability to access particular websites
• large amounts of spam mail reaching the user's email account.

8.8
8.8 Applications
Online banking and shopping arc all at risk from many ofthe security issues
described earlier on.
We will now consider some of the ways banks protect their customers from
online fraud. The following notes are in addition to safeguards such as
encryption, SSL, virus sca1mers and many of the other ways described in the
earlier part of this chapter and refer to additional features you might see as
part ofa bank's security system.
Vhcn a customer logs on to a banking website and carries out a transaction,
encryption is used to protect the customer's personal details. H owever, banks
carry out a number of other procedures to give additional protection. Not all
of the methods described would be used by one bank. H owever, the notesgi·e
some idea of the type of safeguards that might be encountered when a customer
logs on to a bank's website.
1 Many banks use a 10- or 12-digit code uni'luc to the customer:
m HODDERBANK
Pleaseenteryou,unique12-digitrode
= = =
Figur•S.15
2 You may then be asked to input three random numbers from a four-digit PIN
and/or three characters from a 10-charactcr password (this will vary from bank
to bank,ofcoursc):
m HODDERBANK
Pleaseenterlhefolkw.ingdigitslrnmyo;xPIN
,•,,,, §
4111 digit
J'"digit
l'leaseenterlhelolk>wingcharacterslrnm)<}lrpassword
,.
,.
..
Figure S.16
3 Some systems use a hand-held device into which the customer inserts their
card. 111cy will be asked to enter their PIN. 111c device will then generate an
eight-digit code which the customer types into the web page of the bank.
lbis eight-digit code is generated from an internal clock and PIN. The bank's
scn·cr and the time arc both synchronised with the hand-held device; the server
also stores the PIN. The bank's server will therefore know if the eight-digit
code entered is correct. Each eight-digit code is only valid for a few minutes
before it has to be redone.
Appl/cations

This system defeats hackers and spyware since the code will change e·ery time
the customer logs on to the bank's website.
Figure8.17
4 Some banking systems ask the customer to key in parts of their password using
drop-down boxes. lllls is an attempt to defeat spywarejkey-logging software. Each
of the requested characters from the password are entered by selecting a character
from a drop-down me.nu using a mouse, thus eliminating the use ofa keyboard .
m HODDERBANIC
Pleaseenterthelollowingcharactersfrom)'Ol#pa,,;wo<d
Figure8.18
5 Once all these stages have been passed, some systems then ask for personal data,
such as:
• 'You last logged into the system on 15th September 2015. Is that correct?'
• 'Your mobile phone number is: 9777 111 2222. ls that correct?'
• '<'hat is your mother's maiden name?'
6 Assuming the customer successfully negotiates all of the security 'hurdles', they
will be sent to a home page on the website. Once you arc there, it is imixirtant
to only use the bank's navigation tools rather than the ones at the top of the
screen. Otherwise you will be logged out of the system, and you will need to
go through all the earlier steps again.
8.9 Computer ethics
C01,1PUTER ElHICS is a set of principles set out to regulate the use of computers.
1l1recfactorsarc considered:
• INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS - this covers, for example, copying of software
without the permission of the owner
• PRIVACY ISSUES - this covers, for example, hacking or any illegal access to
another person's personal data
• effect of computers on society - this cm·ers factors such as job losses, social
impacts and so on.
Use of the internet has led to an increase in plagiarism - this is when a person
takes another person's idea/work and claims it as their own. Vhilst it is perfectly
fine to quote anotl1er person's idea, it is essential that some acknowledgement is
made so that the originator of tl1c idea is known to otl1crs. This can be done by a

8.10 Free software, freeware and shareware
series of references at the end of a document or footnotes on each page where a
reference needs to be made. Software exists that can scan text and then look for
examples of plagiarism by searching web pages on the internet.
The ACM (Association for Computer Machinery) and IEEE (Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers) have published the following code of ethics:
I. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety,
health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly the factors
that might endanger the public or the envirorunent;
2. to avoid real or perceived conflicts ofinterest whene·er possible, and
to disclose them to affected parties when they do exist;
3. to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on
available data;
4. to reject bribery in all its forms;
5. to improve the understanding of technology; its appropriate
application, and fX)tential consequences;
6. to maintain and impro·e our technical competence and to undertake
technological tasks for others only ifciualified by training or
experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations;
7. to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work,
to acknowledge and correct errors, and to credit properly the
contributions ofothers;
8. to treat fairly all persons and to not engage in acts of discrimination
based on race, religion, gender, disability, age, national origin, sexual
orientation, gender identity, or gender expression;
9. to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by
false or malicious action;
10. to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional dL·velopment
and to support them in following this code of ethics.
Reproduced with kind permission ofthe IEEEE
8.10 Free software, freeware and shareware
Apart from the usual commercial software (such as spreadsheets and word
processors) which are all sold in shops for a profit, there is a group ofsoftware
whicl1 causes much confusion among many users. This group consists of:
• free software
• freeware
• shareware.
The final part of this chapter will explain the fundamental differences benveen
thesetypesofsoftware.

8.10.1 Free software
Users ha·e the freedom to run, copy, change or adapt free software. Examples
include: F-six>t (photograph manager), Scribus (DTP ) and Abiword (word
processor).
The originators of this type of software stress this is based on liberty and not
price. This means that a user is guaranteed the freedom to study and modify the
software source code in any way to suit their requirements.
Essentially a user is allowed to do the following:
• run the software for any legal purpose they wish
• study the source code and modify it as necessary to meet their needs
• pass the software (in either original or modified form) on to friends, family
or colleagues.
A user of the software doesn't need to seek permission to do any of the above
actions since it isn't protected by any copyright restrictions. Howe·er, it is
important to realise that there are certain rules that need to be obeyed. The user
• cannot add source code from another piece of software unless this is also
described as free software
• cannot produce software which copies existing software subject to copyright laws
• cannot adapt the software in such a way that it infringes copyright laws
protecting other software
• may not use the source code to produce software which is deemed offensive by
third parties.
8.10.2 Freeware
FREEWARE is software a user can download from the internet free of charge. Once
it has been downloaded, there are no fees associated with using the software
(examples include: Adobe, Skype or media plarers).
Unlike free software, freewarc is subject to copyright laws and users arc often
reciuested to tick a box to say they understand and agree to the terms and
conditions governing the software. This basically means that a user is not allowed
to study or modify the source code in any way.
8.10.3 Shareware
In this case, users are allowed to try out some software free of charge for a trial
period. At the end of the trial period, the author of the software will request
that you pay a fee ifyou like it. Once the fee is paid, a user is registered with the
originator of the software and free updates and help are then provided. Very
often, the trial version of the software is missing some ofthc features found in the
foll version, and these don't become alailable until the fee is paid.
Obviously, this type of software is folly protected by copyright laws and a user
must make sure they don't use the source code in any of their own software.
Permission needs to be obtained before this software is copied and given to
friends, family or colleagues.

8.10
Activity 8.3
A'iOftwarecompany offersasuiteolsharewareprograms {
containir,gaspl&ldshei!I,
wordprocessor,databaseanddrawingpackage)
W"hatarethebenelitsto·
e thecompany
• the customer
olollerir,gsoftwarepi!d.agesasshareware7
Free software, freeware and shareware
(Note: ethical issues arc raised as electronic communication continues to grow.
Earlier in this chapter, issues such as hacking, 'iruses and other malware were
considered. All of these put users at risk when using the internet or indeed any
electronic de'ice which transmits and receives data o·er a live link (e.g. mobile
phones, tablets and other devices).
Many users are aware that computers can undergo hacking or virus attack (and
any of the other security issues outlined earlier) but don't seem to be aware that
de'ices such as mobile phones are also llllnerablc to attack by hackers and other
people intent on causing harm to users of electronic devices. )

p
0
- "-
m Practical problem-solving
_!:_} and programming
Chapters
t 9 Problem-solving and design 11 5
10 Pseudocode and flowcharts 134
11 Programmingconcepts 146
12 Datastructures: arraysand using pre-release material 163
s 13 Databases 169

® Problem-solving and design
• computer systems and sub-systems
• top-downdes.ign
• structure diagrams
• flowcharts
•pseudorode
• libraryroutines
•sub-routines
e algolithms
e standardmethodsofsolution
e testdata
e validationandverification
e usingtracetables
e identifyingandcorrectingerrors
e producingalgorithms
e theeffectivenessofasolution
9.1 Introduction
In order to build a computer system that performs a specific task or sol'cs a given
problem, the task or problem has to be clearly defined, showing what is going to
be computed and how it is going to be computed. This chapter introduces the
tools and techniques that are used to design a software solution that together
with the associated computer hardware will form a computer system.
9.1.1 What is a computer system?
A COMPlITER SYSTEM is made up of software, data, hardware, communications and
people; each computer system can be divided up into a set of sub-systems. Each
sub-system can be further divided into sub·systems and so on until each sub-
system just performs a single action.
Computer systems can be very large or ·ery small or any size in between; most
people interact with many different computer systems during their daily life
without realising it. For example, when I wake up in the morning I use an app on
my smart phone for mr alarm, I then check the weather forecast on mr computer
before I drive to work. The alarm program is a very small computer system;
when I check the weather forecast I obtain information from one of the largest
computer systems in the world.
Activity 9.1
ldeotjfyatleast fivecomputersystemsyoufrequentlyu~inyourdailylile.Seeilyoucandedde
thesizeofeachsystem
9.1.2 Tools and techniques
In order to understand how a computer system is built up and how it works, it is
often divided up into sub-systems. This division can be shown using top-down
design to produce structure diagrams that demonstrate the modular construction
of the system. Each sub-system can be developed by a programmer as sub-routine
or an existing library routine may be already available for use. H ow each sub-routine
works can be shown by using flowcharts or pseudocode.

9 PROBLEM-SOLVING AND DESIGN
Top-down design
ToP- DOWN DESIGN is the breaking down of a computer system into a set of
sub-systems, then breaking each sub-system down into a set of smaller sub-systems,
until each sub-system just performs a single action. TI1is is an effective way of
designing a computer system to pro'ide a solution to a problem, since each part
of the problem is broken down into smaller more manageable problems. 111c
process of breaking down into smaller sub-systems is called 'stepwise refinement'.
This structured approach works for the development of both large and small
computer systems. Vhen large computer systems arc being de'clopcd this means
that several programmers can work independently to develop and test different
sub-systems for the same system at the same time. This reduces the development
and testing time.
Structure diag rams
In order to show top-down design in a diagrammatic form, structure diagrams
can be used. The STRUcruRE DIAGRAM shows the design ofa computer system in
a hierarchical way, with each level gi'ing a more detailed breakdown of the system
into sub-systems.
Alarm app for a smart phone
Consider the alarm app computer system for a smart phone. This could be
di'idcd into three sub-systems, setting the alarm, checking for the alarm time,
sounding the alarm. These sub-systems could then be further sub-divided;
the structure diagram makes the process clearer.
FiguN9.1 Stn,cture diagramlor alannapp
Activity 9.2
Breakdownthe'checktime'sub-S)"item
lromthesmartphooealarmappintofurther
rnb-S)"items.
Activity 9.3
Drawastructurediagramlorcleaningyour
teeth

9.1
Flowcharts
A FLOWCHART shows diagrammatically the steps required for a task (sub·system)
and the order that they are to be performed. These steps together with the
order are called an ALGORITHM. Flowcharts are an effective way to communicate
the algorithm that shows how a system or sub-system works. H ow to construct
flowcharts is cm·cred in Chapter 10.
H ave a look at a flowchart for the checking-for·thc-alarm-time sub-system.
Figure 9.2Flowchartlorched::fr,g-f0f-the...a!arm·timesub-system
Pseudocode
PsBUDOCODE is a simple method of showing an algoritlun, using English-like
words and mathematical operators that are set out to look like a program.
H ow to write algorithms in pseudocodc is covered in Chapter 10.
H ave a look at the pseudocode for the checking-for-the-alarm-time algorithm.
Figur• 9.31'seudocodefllfthedieck;ng-fof-the-ala,m-timealgofithm
Library routines
A LIBRARY ROUTINE is a set of programming instmcrions for a gi·cn task that is
already available for use. It is pre-tested and usually performs a task that is
frequently required. For example, the task 'get time' in the checking-for-the -
alarm-time algorithm would probably be readily a'lllilable as a library routine.
Introduction

Sub-routines
A SUB-RO urINB is a set of programming instructions for a given task that
forms a sub-system, not the whole system. Sub-routines written in high-level
programming languages are called 'procedures' or 'functions' depending on how
they are used . See Chapter 11 for further details.
9.2 Algorithms
An ALGORITHM sets out the steps to complete a given task. T his is usually shown
as a flowchart or pseudocode. Anyone who studies the flowchart or algorithm
should be able to work out the purpose of the task.
Activity 9.4
Have a look at the flo>Ndiart and pseudocode below. What is the purpose of the algorithm that
they both represent?
'Nhatwouldbeoutputilthenumber17and 18were input?
• i o largeot •
Figure 9.4 Flowcha,t
l'"'ITT"-'·""~ I
™
~"'~ "-'· .,. ,.,~...
RLS& PRINTNw.2, "h hrge&t"
Figure9.5Pseudocode
For more complicated tasks just inspecting the flowchart or pseudocode may
not be an accurate way of determining its purpose; a more structured thorough
approach is required . T his will reciuirc the use of test data and trace tables.

9.3
Some tasks arc required frequently and there are standard methods of
completing them, for example, taking the square root of a number or sorting a
list of names into alphabetical order. These standard solutions can be provided
by a high-level programming language as a standard function or procedure,
for example, mathematical fimctions such as max or min. Library routines are
also available for standard methods such as sorting or searching.
9.3 Test data
In order to determine whether a solution is working as it should, it needs
to be tested. Usually before a whole system is tested each sub-system
is tested separately.
Algorithms can be tested by a person working through them using any data
that is required and seeing what the result is; computer programs can be tested
by running them on a computer using any data that is required and seeing what
result is output. In order to test a solution thoroughly it may need to be worked
through several times with different sets of test data.
A SET OF 'IBST DATA is all the items of data required to work through a solution.
The set of test data used in the activity above was 7 and 18.
Testing needs to be done to prove that the solution works correctly. In order
to do this a set of test data should be used togetl1cr vith tl1c result(s) that are
expected from that data. The type of test data used to do this is called NORMAL
DATA, this should be used to work tl1rough tl1e solution to find the actual rcsult(s)
and sec if these are the same as the expected result(s).
For example, here is a set of normal test data for an algorithm to record tl1c
percentage marks from I Oend-of-term examinations for a student and find
their average mark:
Normal test data: 50, 50, 50, 50, 50, 50 50, 50, 50, 50
Expected result: 50
Activity 9.5
Provideanothersetoftestdataandits
expected remit.
Testing also needs to be done to prove that tl1c solution does not give incorrect
results. In order to do this, test data should be used that will be rejected as the
values arc not suitable. This type of test data is called ERRONEOUS or ABNORMAL
TEST DATA; it should be rejected by the solution.
For example erroneous/abnormal data for an algoritlm1 to record the
percentage marks from 10 end-of-term examinations for a student and find
their average mark could be:
Erroneous/abnormal data: - 12, elc·cn
Expected results: these values should be rejected
Activity 9.6
Provide some more erroneous/abnormal data
lorthisalgorithmanditsexpectedresults.
Test data

When testing algorithms with numerical values, sometimes only a given range of
values should be allowed. For example, percentage marks should only be in the
range Oto 100. The algorithm should be tested with EXTREME DATA, which, in
this case, are the largest and smallest marks that should be accepted. Extreme data
are the largest and smallest values that normal data can take.
Extreme data: 0, 100
Expected results: these values should be accepted
l11crc is another type of test data called BOUNDARY DATA; this is used to establish
where the largest and smallest values occur. For example, for percentage marks in
the range Oto 100, the algorithm should be tested with the following boundary
data; at each boundary two values arc required, one value is accepted and the
other value is rejected.
Boundary data for O is - 1, 0
Expected results: - 1 is rejected, 0 is accepted
Activity 9.7
Provideboundarydatafortheupperendoltherange;as.sumethatthepm:entagemarbare
alway:swholenumbers
Activity 9.8
The erid.ol-term examinations are now marked out of 20. Provide the following
il lwosetsofnormaldataandtheirexpectedresults
b someerroneous/abnormaldataandtheirexpectedresults
c twosetsofboundarydataandtheirexpectedresult1.
9.4 Validation and verification
ln order for computer systems to only accept data inputs that arc reasonable and
accurate, every item of data needs to be examined before it is accepted by the
system. Two different methods, with very similar sounding names, are used. For
data entry, VALlDATION is performed automatically by the computer system to
ensure that only data is that is reasonable is accepted and VERIFICATION is used to
check that the data docs not change as it is being entered.
9.4.1 Validation
Validation is the automated checking by a program that data is reasonable before
it is accepted into a computer system. Different types of check may be used on
the sa.n1c piece of data; for example an examination mark could be checked for
reasonableness by using a range check, a type check and a presence check. When
data is validated by a computer system, if the data is rejected a message should be
output explaining why the data was rejected and another opportunity given to
enter the data.

9.4
Cub
Figur•9.60ataentryemlf~
There are many different types of validation checks including:
• range checks
• length checks
• type checks
• character checks
• format checks
• presence checks
• check digits.
A RANGE CHECK checks that only numbers within a specified range are accepted.
For example percentage marks between O and 100 inclusive.
A LENGTH CHECK checks either:
• that data contains an exact number of characters, for example that a password
must be exactly eight characters in length so that passwords with se·en or fewer
characters or nine or more characters would be rejected
°'
• that the data entered is a reasonable number ofcharacters, for example a family
name could be between two and 30 characters inclusive so that names with one
character or 31 or more characters would be rejected.
A TYPE CHECK checks that the data entered is of a gi·cn data type, for example
number of brothers or sisters would be an integer (whole number).
A CHARAcrER CHECK checks that when a string of characters is entered it docs
not contain any invalid characters or symbols, for example a name would not
contain characters such as %, and a telephone number would only contain digits
m (, ), a ,d ,.
A FORMAT CHECK checks that the characters entered conform to a pre-defined
pattern, for exam ple in Figure 9.6 the cub number must be in the form
CUB9999.
A PRESENCE CHECKchecks to ensure that some data has been entered and the
value has not been left blank, for example an email address must be given for an
online transaction.
Validation and verification

Sc,eenbefore login attempt
S<reen atterloginattempt
Figu,.9.7Pfesenceded<:mo,me,,;age
A C H ECK DIGIT is the final digit included in a code; it is calculated from all the
other digits in the code. Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes,
International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN) and Vehicle Identification
Numbers (VIN).
Check digits are used to identify errors in data entry caused by mis-typing
or mis-scanning a barcode. They can usually detect the following types oferror:
• an incorrect digit entered, for example 5327 entered instead of5307
• transposition errors where rnro numbers have clianged order, for example 5037
insteadof5307
• omitted or extra digits, for example 537 instead of5307 or 53107 instead
of5307
• phonetic errors, for example 13, thirteen, instead of30, thirty.
IS8N97B-0-340-983B2-9
,ll~!llmllllJ
I
J
IJ
IUII
Figu,.9.8IS8N 13rndewithched<:digit
An example ofa check digit calculation is ISBN 13, where the 13th digit of the
ISBN code is calculated using the following algorithm.
1 Add all the odd numbered digits together, excluding the check digit.
2 Add all the even numbered digits together and multiply the result by 3.
3 Add the results from 1 and 2 together and divide by 10.
4 Take the remainder, ifit is zero use this value, otherwise subtract the remainder
from 10 to find the check digit.

9.4
A~
9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 @
~/y '"°''';,;,
Ev• ndigits
Figure9.91S!lN
Using the ISBN above 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 without its check digit:
1 9+8+3+0+8+8 - 36
2 3(7 + 0 +4+ 9 + 3 +2) - 75
3 (36 + 75)/10 - 11 remainder l
4 10 ~ l - 9 the check digit.
To check that an ISBN 13 digit code is correct a similar process is followed.
1 Add all the odd numbered digits together, including the check digit.
2 Add all the e·en number of digits together and multiply the result by 3.
3 Add the results from I and 2 together and divide by 10.
4 The number is correct ifthe remainder is zero.
Using the ISBN above 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 9 with its check digit:
1 9+8+3+0+8+8+9 - 45
2 3(7+0+4+9+3+2 ) - 75
3 (45 + 75)/ 10 - 12 remainder 0
4 Remainder is O therefore nwnber is correct.
Activity 9.9
a Find the (heck digit for the ISBN 978190612400.
b AretheselSBNscorrect?
i 9718780171500
11 9781234567897
Activity 9.10
• Find an ISBN, then show that its chfil digil is correct
• Working in pairs find two ISBNs each, copy one down with a transpmition error and the other
onecorrectly.Swapyour1S8Nsandseeilyoucanfindtheonewiththeerror.
e lookatacorrectlSBN,canyouthinkolanerrorthatthissystemwillnotidentilyandexplain
withanexamplewhythisisthecase?
Activity 9.11
Find out about the modulo 11 check digit cakulation and how it is used for VlNs
( Activity 9.12
~nd out how limit checks and consistency checks are used
Validation and verification
)

Activity 9.13
Which validation checks could you use for the following? You may decide that more than one
validation check is required
a Entering a telephone number.
b Entering a student's name
c Entering a part number in the form XXX999, where X must be a letter and 9 must be a digit.
9.4.2 Verification
Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied onto the computer
or transferred from one part of a computer system to another.
Verification methods include:
• double entry
• screen/visual check
• parity check
• checksum.
For DOUBLE ENTRY the data is entered twice, sometimes by different operators;
the computer system compares both entries and outputs an error message
requesting that the data is entered again if they are different.
Customer Information
Figure9.100oubleentry
A SCREEN/VISUAL CH ECK is a manual check completed by the user who is
entering the data. When the data entry is complete the data is displayed on
the screen and the user is asked to confirm that it is correct before continuing.
The user either checks the data on the screen against a paper document that is
being used as an input form or confirms from their own knowledge if the data
is about them.
Parity cl1ecks and checksums are discussed in Sections 2.3.l and 2.3.3.

9.5
9.5 Using trace tables
A thorough, strucmred approach is required to find out the purpose of an
algorithm, which involves recording and srudying the results from each step in the
algorithm. This will reguire the use of test data and trace tables.
Consider the algorithm represented by the following flowchart:
Figure 9.11Flowcharttotrace
A TRACE TABLE can be used to record the results from each step in an algorithm;
it is used to record the value of an item (variable ) each time that it changes. This
manual exercise is called a DRY RUN. A trace table is set up with a column for each
variable and a column for any output. For example:
tH±£J
Test data is then used to dry run the flowchart and record the results on the
trace table.
Test data: 9, 7, 3, 12, 6, 4, 15, 2, 8, 5
Using trace tables

Table92Completedtfacetablefo,!Jow<ha,t
Output
It can be seen from the output that the algorithm selects the largest and the
smallest numbers from a list of 10 positive numbers. The same trace table could
have been used ifthc algorithm had been shown using pseudocodc.
Figure9.12 Psrudocodefo, thesamealgo<ithmtotface

9.6
Activity 9.14
Usethetracetablebelowandthetestdata4,8, 19, 17, 3, 11,6, 1, 13,9torecordadryrun
ofthep1.eUdocode
Table9.3Tracetableto~tefofthepseudocode
A B C X Output
9.6 Identifying and correcting errors
Activity 9.15
Identifying and correcting errors
Use a trace table and the test data 400,800,190,170,300,110,600,150,130, 900torec:ord
anotherdryrunolthepseudoc:odeorllowc:hart.
Your completed trace table should look like this:
Table 94 Completedtra,cetable
There is an error as the smallest number has not been identified.
Activity 9.16
Useatracetableandsomenegativetestdatatorec:ordanotherdryrunofthepseudcx:odeor
flowchart. What error have you loondt

The algorithm only works for numbers between O and I00; a better algorithm
could look like this:
Figu..,9.13Abette,algor;thm
This algorithm is very similar and works for a much larger range of numbers but
it still does not work for every set of numbers. In order to do this the algorithm
needs to be rewritten to allow the largest and smallest numbers to be tested
against numbers that appear in the list. Figure 9.14 shows this.

9.7
Figur•9.14Arruch betteralgo<ithm
Activity 9.17
Change the pseudocode so it works for eV!'ry set of numbers like the flowchart above
9.7 Producing algorithms
9.7.1 Stages in producing an algorithm
1 Make sure that the problem is clearly specified.
2 Break the problem down into sub-problems; ifit is complex, you may want to
consider writing an algorithm for each sub-problem. Most problems, even the
simplest ones can be divided into:
• sctup
• input
• processing
• outputofresults.
Producing algorithms

3 Decide on how any data is to be obtained and stored, what is going to happen
to the data and how any results are going to be displayed.
4 Decide on how you arc going to construct your algorithm, using a flowchart
or pscudocodc.
5 Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be easily read and understood
by someone else. This involves setting it out clearly and using meaningful
names for any data stores. The algorithms that you have looked at so far in this
chapter were not designed with readability in mind because you needed to work
out what the problem being solved was.
6 Use several sets of test data (normal, abnormal and boundary) and trace tables
to find any errors.
7 If any errors arc found, repeat the process until you think that your algorithm
works perfectly.
Ha'c a look at a more readable flowchart showing the algorithm to select
the largest and smallest numbers from a list of 10 numbers.
Figu,.9.15Areada<Jealgorithm
More practice on producing algorithms is given in Chapter 10.
0

9.7
9.7.2 The effectiveness of a solution
There are many different solutions to the same problem. ln order to consider
the effectiveness of a gi·en solution ask the following questions.
1 Does the solution work for all sets ofdata?
2 Does the solution have any unnecessary processes that are never used?
3 Arc any actions repeated more often than necessary?
4 Can the solution be simplified and still work as well?
Activity 9.18
Considerthelollowingalgorithmwritteninpseudocodetochl'<X ilachildisoldenooghortall
enough to go on a theme park ride. Comment on its effectiveness
<Xrl'PITT'Pleaoeenterageofchildinyeara •
Oll'PUT'Pleaoeenterheightofchildin ..,,treo•
INPUT Height
011'P!1I' ' Pl<1aoeenterweightofchildinkilograru, •
INPIJ'Flleight
IFA<Je.>- 5T!l&NOUTPUT ' 0K'
IFHeight>- lTll&NOUTPUf'OK'
IFAge<5A!ID11eight<lTIIIUf0UFPUT ' Youcannotride•
Figur•9.16Pseudocode to<hecktheheighta,nda.geofach;ld
Producing algorithms

l Name and describe the comixinents of a computer
system.
2 A computer S)'Stem is to be de'eloped to provide
a modulo l l check digit for numbers from four to
20 digits in length. Provide a strucrnre diagram for
this computer system.
3 A phone app is being developed to split the cost of
a restaurant bill between a given number of people.
It is being designed to work for up to 12 diners
and for bills from $10 to $500.
a What 'alidation checks should be used for the
number ofdiners and the size ofthe bill?
b Provide two sets of normal data and their
expected results.
c Provide some abnormal/erroneous data.
d Identify the boundary data required and
the expected results.
4 Explain what is meant by 'alidation and ·erification.
5 The follmving data is to be entered o nto an online
form:
• dateofbirth
• password
• phone number.
For each item state , with reasons, the validation
and verification checks that should be used.
6 Using ISBN 13:
a Find the check digit for ISBN 978034098382
b Are these ISBNs correct?
9780521170653
9780596158086
7 1l1e following algorithm shown as a flowchart
checks the sizes of a consignment of 10 parcels.
The dimensions of each parcel are input in
centimetres.
FiguN9.17 Howch..-t

a Use this data and the trace table to dry run the
algorithm.
15, 10, 20, 17, 32, 10, 30, 35, 30, 15, 30, 28,
25, 25, 20, 15, 40, 20, 12, 10
Table95Tracetableto~te
Counter Length Breadth Ar.a Output
b Vhat are the rules required to accept a parcel?
c Comment on the effectiveness of the algoritlm1.
8 This algorithm written in pseudocode adds up
10 positive numbers. It contains several errors.
PRINT ' l!nterapo,, itivewholenwsber'
Figure9.1BPseudococleforakjorithm
a Identify all the errors in tl1e algorithm.
b Comment on the effectiveness of the algoritlm1.
c Rewrite tl1e algorithm so tl1at it is effective and
error free.
d Set up a trace table and some test data to dry
run your n.·written algorithm.
e Identify which items of your test data are
normal, erroneous and extreme.
9 State two different validation checks and give
an example of their use. Each example should
be different. [4]
Cambridge [GCSE Computer Studies 7010/0420
Paper 12 Q9(b) June 2012
10 NC'.11 software is often dL·veloped using top-down
(modular) design.
Give tl1ree benefits of using this method of
dC'.•elopment. [3]
Cambridge !GCSE Computer Studies 7010/0420
Paper 13 Q2 November 2012
11 A program requires the user to type in a user ID
which must be in the form:
XX999999
where X stands for any letter, and 9 stands for any
digit.
a Name two possible validation checks that
could be applied to this user ID. [2]
b Name a validation chec.k that could not be
used on this occasion. Give a reason for your
choice. [2]
Cambridge [GCSE Computer Studies 7010/0420
Paper 13 Q5 November 2012

@ Pseudocode and flowcharts
e thepseudocodelorassignment,using<-
• thepseudocodelOfconditionalstatements
IF ·- TIIEN - ELSE ·- ENDIF
CASE ·- OF - OTHERWISE ·- ENDCASE
e thepseudocodelorloopstructures
FOR._TQ_NEXT
WHILE ·- DO ·- ENDWHILE
e thepseudocodelOfinputandoutputstatement:5
INPUT and OU'JPUI
{e.g. READ and PRINT)
e thepseudocodelorstandardactions
totalling(e.g. Sum .. SUlll + Number)
counting(e.g.Count .. count+l}
• the standard llov,diart symbols for the above statements, commands and structures .)
10.1 Introduction
Using pscudocodc is a clear and concise way to represent an algorithm. Data
items to be processed by the algorithm arc given meaningful names in the same
way that variables and constants are in a high-level programming language.
Pseudocode is not bound by the strict syntax rules of a programming language.
It does what its name sa)'Si it pretends to be programming code!
To ensure that pseudocode is easily understandable by others it is useful to be
consistent in the way that it is written. The pseudocode in this book is written in
the following way to help you understand the algorithms more easily:
• Courier New font is used throughout
• all keywords (words used to describe a specific action (e .g. INPUT) are written
in capital letters
• all names given to data items and sub-routines start with a capital letter
• where conditional and loop statements arc used, repeated or selected statements
are indented by two spaces.
10.2 Assignment
Values arc assigned to an itcm/'ariable using the - operator. The 'lariable on the left
ofthe - is assigned the w.lue of the expression on the right. 111c expression on the
right can be a single 'alue or se'cral 'alucs combined with mathematical operators.
Table10 1 Mathematicajope,ators
Operator
rrultiply
raisetothepowe,
() ()'()Up

10.3
Examples of pseudocode assignments:
Cost has the value 10
Price <- Cost * 2 Price has the value 20
Tax <- Price * 0 .12 Tax has the value 2.4
SellingPrice <-Price+ Tax SellingPricehasthevalue22.4
Gender <- "M" Gender has the value M
Chosen <- False Chosen has the value False
Activity 10.1
W'hat values will the following variables have alter the aslignmeot:5 have been completed?
10.3 Conditional statements
Vhen different actions are performed by an algorithm according to the 'alues of
the variables, conditional statements can be used to decide which action should
be taken.
There are two types of conditional statement as shown below with an example
of each.
• A condition that can be true or false: IF ·- THEN -· ELSE ... ENDIF, for
example
• A choice between several different values: CASE ·- OF -· OTHERWISE .
ENDCASE, for example
_,. "'""" o,
"A" PRINT "Excellent"
: PRINT "Average"
OTHERWISE PRINT "Improvement is needed"
ENDCASE
10.3.1 IF ... THEN ... ELSE ... ENDIF
For an IF condition the THEN path is followed if the condition is true and the
ELSE path is followed if the condition is false. There may or may not be an ELSE
path. The end of the statement is shown by ENDIF.
Conditional statements

10 PSEUDOCODE AND FLOWCHARTS
A condition can be set up in different ways:
• Using a Boolean variable that can have the value TRUE or FALSE (see
Section 11.4 for details of Boolean variables). For example
THEN PRINT "Your search was successful"
ELSE PRINT "Your search was unsuccessful"
• Using comparison operators, as shown in Table 10.2. Comparisons arc made
from left to right, for example A > 8 means is A greater than B. Comparisons
can be simple or more complicated. For example
Table102Conva,isonq,e<al<ITT
Operator Comparison
lareate,lhan
1..-eate,thano,eaual
lesslhaoorequaj
notequaj
() ICJ"oup
1l1e algorithm below checks if a percentage mark is valid and a pass or a fail. 1l1is
makes use of two IF statements. The second IF statement is part of the ELSE
path of the first IF statement. This is called a nested IF.
IliPUTPercentageMa rk
IFP<,rcentagellark<OORPercentageMark>lOO
IFPe rce ntag eMa rk>4i
Figure10.1
Activity 10.2
;.1:h~==;;:;'."'tbe
greate,lhanahll>dred
Thisisanesll'dIFstatementshown
de,.-tybylhellSeofaserondlevei
ofiodentation.The percMtagemark
isontytestedifjtisintheror,ectraoge
Change the algorithm to check fora mark between Oand 20 and a pass markol 10. Decide
what normal. bolndary and erroneous data you will need to lllly test yom algorithm

10.4
10.3.2 CASE ... OF .. . OTH ERWISE ... ENDCASE
For a CASE condition the value of the variable decides the path to be taken.
Several values arc usually specified. OTHERWISE is the path taken for all other
values. The end of the statement is shown by ENDCASE.
The algoritlun below specifics what happens if the value of Choice is l , 2, 3
or 4.
CASE Choice OF
1 : Answer .. Numl + Num2
2 : Answer .. Numl - Num2
3 : Answer .. Numl * Num2
4 : Answer .. Numl I Num2
OTHERWISE PRINT "Please enter a valid choice"
Activity 10.3
Use a CASE statement to di~laythe day of the week ii the variable DAY has the value 1 to 7
and an error otherwise
10.4 Loop structures
'hen some actions performed as part of an algoritlrn1 need repeating, this is
called 'iteration'. Loop structures arc used to perform the iteration.
There arc three different types ofloop structure:
Operator
A ,epetitioo. where the numbe, of repeats is
notknown.ttlatiscompletedatleastonce
Comparison
A ,epetitioo. where the numbe, of repeat, is WIIILE - · 00 ·- ENDWHILE
not known. ttlatmayneverbecompleted
All types ofloops can perform the same task, for example printing 10 stars.
FOR Counter .. 1 TO 10 · i
Counter .. Counter + 1
UNTIL Counter > 10
Counter .. o
WHILE Counter c: 10 DO
The FOR ... NEXT loop is the most efficient for this type of task.
!
I
!
I
!
:
Loop structures

10.4.1 FOR ... TO ... NEXT
A variable is set up with a start value and an end value and then incremented in
steps ofone until the end value is reached and the iteration finishes. The variable
can be used within the loop so long as its value is not changed. This type of loop
is very useful forreadingvaluesintolists.
Figure10.2
10.4.2 REPEAT ... UNTIL
l11is loop structure is used when the number of repetitions/iterations is not
known and the actions arc repeated UNTIL a gi·cn c.ondition becomes true.
111c actions in this loop are always completed at least once.
Totalo- 0 ~
M
ark..-0 ~
PRIN'T ' Rnter valuefor mark , - ltofiniah•
InputMa rk ~
UNTIL!lark - - 1 ~
Figure10.3
10.4.3 WHILE ... DO ... ENDWHILE
This loop structure is used when the number of repetitions/iterations is not
known and the actions arc only repeated WHILE a given condition is true. If
the WHILE condition is untrue when the loop is first entered then the actions
in the loop arc never performed.
Tot a l o - 0 ~
PRIIIT ' Rnte rval uefor ...,rk, - ltofinioh•
Input Mark
Figure10.4

10.5
Activity 10.4
a Writepseudocodetoinput10pos.itivenumbersandfindthetotalandtheaverage
b Writepseudorndetoinputpositivenumbers, - 1tolini~.andlindthetotalandtheaverage
c Explainwhyyouchos.etheloop1tructuresloreachta1k
10.5 Input and output statements
INPUT and OUTPUT are used for the entry of data and display of information.
Sometimes READ can be used instead of INPUT; this is usually used for reading
from files, which is not covered in this textbook. Frequently PRINT is used
instead ofOUTPUT.
Input and output statements
INPUT is used for data entry. It is usually followed by a variable where the data
input is stored, for example:
OUPUT/PRINT is used to display information either on a screen or printed on
paper. It is usually followed by a single value that is a string or a variable or a list
of values separated by commas, for example:
10.6 Standard actions
The ability to repeat actions is very important in the design of algorithms. When
an algorithm is mrned into a program the same set of actions may be repeated
many thousands of times, for example, keeping a running total of the value of
goods sold in a supermarket.
i_
R_
u_
n_
n_
i_
n_
~!.o,•l __: __Run_
n.1.n.~T_
o_
,.-_
1__ , ..Y•.l_
u_
e_·· ·· · · · ·· ·· ·· · · · ·· ·· · · · ·· ·· ·: .:..: : :: :..:J
Keeping a count of the number of times an action is performed is another
standard action, for example:
Counting is also used to count down until a certain value is reached, for example
the number of items in stock in a supermarket:
!Nl:l~e;:i_
nStock_.. Nu~errn.St_
o_
ck _- ..1 --····----·-·-·-- ·-·-·---· · ····--···-·__]
10.7 Examples of algorithms in pseudocode
Exa mple 1
Tickets are sold for a concert at $20 each. If 10 rickets are bought then the
discount is 10%; if20 rickets are bought the discount is 20%. No more than
25 rickets can be bought in a single transaction.

a Use pseudocode to write an algoritlun to calculate the cost of buying a given
number of tickets.
b Explain how you would test your algorithm.
b Would use test data with values of
0, 26 Expected result rejected
I , 25 Expected results 20,400
9, 10 Expected results 180, 180
19, 20 Expected results 342, 320
Activity 10.5
ForthetestdatagiveninEXilmple1,identifythetypeoltest
datausedandsuggesl'iOmemoretestdata
Example 2
A school with 600 srudents wants to produce some information from the results ofthe
four standard tests in Maths, Science, English and IT. Each test isoutof lOO marks.
The information output should be the highest, lowest and average mark for each
test and the highest, lowest and average mark o;erall. All the marks need to be input.
a Use pseudocode to write an algorithm to complete this task.
b Explain how you would test your algoritlun.

10.7
SubjectLowest .. 100
SubjectTotal .. o
CASE Test OF
1 : SubjectName .. "Maths"
: SubjectName .. "Science"
: SubjectName .. "English"
4 : SubjectName .. "IT"
OTHERWISE
FOR StudentNumber .. 1 TO 600
REPEAT
PRINT "Enter Student", StudentNumber,""s mark for",
UNTIL Mark c: 101 AND Mark > ~1
IF Mark c: OverallLowest THEN OverallLowest .. Mark
IF Mark c: SubjectLowest THEN SubjectLowest ... Mark
IF Mark > OverallHighest THEN OverallHighest .. Mark
IF Mark > SubjectHighest THEN SubjectHighest .. Mark
OverallTotal .. OverallTotal + Mark
SubjectTotal ... SubjectTotal + Mark
NEXT
SubjectAverage .. SubjectTotal/600
PRINT SubjectName
PRINT "Average is", SubjectAverage
PRINT "Highest Mark is", SubjectHighest
PRINT "Lowest Mark is ", SubjectLowest
; ov,,callAv,m,10 .. OverallTotal/2400
Average is", OverallAverage
•overall Highest Mark is", OverallHighest
Examples ofalgorithms in pseudocode
b For the algorithm to be tested by dry running, it would be a good idea to
reduce the number ofstudents to 5 and the number of subjects to 2.
Activity 10.6
11 Identify the changes you would need to make to the algorithm for Example 2 to reduce the
numberofstudentsto5andthenumberofsubjectsto2
b ldeotilythetestdataneededtotestEXilmple2withthereducednumberolstudeotsand
subjects.
c Withthe..etofdatayouhavechosen,setupandcompleteatracetablesothatyoucan
compare your expected results with the actual results when you dry run the algorithm

10.8 Standard flowchart symbols
Flowcharts are drawn using standard symOOls.
10.8.1 Begin/End
Terminator symbols are used at the beginning and end of each flowchart.
Figure10.5lermonatofsymbols
10.8.2 Process
Process symbols are used to show when values are assigned to an item/variable
like an assignment in pseudocode.
Figure 10.6 Proces,,)fflbol
10.8.3 Input/Output
Input/Output symbols are used show input ofdata and output ofinformarion.
Figure10.7 1nput!Outputsymbol
10.8.4 Decision
Decision symbols are used to decide which action is to be taken next. These can
be used for selection and repetition/iteration.
Figure10.8 0ecisionsymbol
10.8.5 Flow lines
Flow lines are used to show the direction of flow which is usually, but not always,
top to bottom and left to right.
Figure 10.9Rowline

10.8
Exa mple 1 (co ntinued)
Tickets arc sold for a concert at $20 each, iflO tickets are bought then the
discount is I 0%, if 20 rickets are bought the discount is 20%. No more than
25 tickets can be bought in a single transaction.
c Draw a flowchart for the algorithm to calculate the cost ofbuying a given
number of rickets.
Output •Yourticketo
cost •, coot
Figur• 10.10Flowd>artforExampje1
Activity 10.7
Draw a flowchart for the algorithm given in
Example 2.
Choosethemethodyouthinkistheclearest
way to show this algorithm and explain why
it is the dearest
Standard flowchart symbols

l Show two ways ofselecting diffen:nt actions using
pscudocode.
2 You have been asked to write the pscudocodc to
choose the correct routine from the menu shown
below.
a Decide which type ofconditional statement you
a.re going to use:.
b Explain your choice.
c Write the psc:udocode.
d Select your test dau and e.~plain why you chose
each value.
1 Set upnewAccOU'I
2Mahchangestoan&.istjr.gAccount
4V;ewMy Orclers
6Alter..nE!<islingOrde,
Figu.. t0.11
3 Show three w.:iys a loop to :M:ld up fa·e numbers and
print out the total can be sc:t up using pscudocode.
E."tplain which lo:i,p is the most efficient to use:.
4 A sweet shop sc:lls 500 different sorts ofsweets.
Each sort ofsweet is identified by a unique four-
digit code. All swt<'ts that start with a one ( I ) a.re
chocolates, all sweets that start with a two (2) an:
toffees, all sweets that surt with a three (3) an:
jellies and all other sweets an: miscellaneous and
can start with any other digit except zero.
a Write an algorithm, using a flowchart, which
inputs the four-digit cock for all 500 items and
outputs the number ofchocobtes, toffees and
jellies.
b Explain how you would test your flowchart.
c Decide the test data to use and complete a trace
table showing a dry run of your flowchart.
5 The temperature in an apartment must be kept
between 18°C and 20"C. l fthe temperature reaches
22°C then the fun i.s switched on; if the temperature
reaches 16°C then the he.:iter is switched on,
otherwise: the fun and the heaters arc switched off.
The following library routines an: available:
• GctTempcrature
• FanOn
• FanOff
• HcatcrOn
• HcaterOff
Write an algorithm, using pscudocodc or a
flowchart, to keep the temperature at the right level.
6 Daniel lives in Italy and travels to Me,dco, India
and New Zealand. The time differences arc:
Country
11ms, ifit is 10:15 in Italy it will be 14:45 in India.
a 'rite an algorithm, using pscudocode or
otherwise:, which:
• inputs the name of d1e country
• inputs the time in Iroly in hours (H ) and
mi.nutes (M)
• calculates the time in the country input using
the data from the t.1blc
• outputs the country and the time in hours
and minutes. [41
b Describe:, with examples, two sc:ts of test data
you would use: to test your algorithm. [21
Cambridge !GCSE Computer 5t,.die1 7010/0420
Paper JI Q/7June 2011
7 A school is doing a check on the heights and weights
ofall its students. The school has IOOO snidcnts.
Write an algorithm, using pscudocodc or a
flowchart,which
• inputs the height and weight ofall IOOO students
• outputs the a,·cragc (mean ) height and weight
• includes any necessary error traps for the input
ofhcight and weight. [51
Cnmbridge !GCSE Co,Hp11ter Studie1 7010/0420
Paper 11 Q l 7 November2010

8 A small cafC: sells five types of item:
• bun 0.50 dollars
• coffee
• cake
• sandwich
1.20 dollars
1.50 dollars
2.10 dollars
• dessert 4.00 dollars
Write an algorithm, using pseudocode or a
program flowchart only, which
• inputs every item sold during the day
• uses an item called 'end' to finish the day's input
• adds up the daily amount taken for each type of
item
• outputs the total takings (for all items added
together) at the end of the day
• outputs the type of item that had the highest
takings at the end of the day. [6]
C11mlnidge !GCSE Computer Studies 7010/0420
P11per 13 Ql6 November 2012
9 5000 numbers are being input which should ha·e
either one digit (e.g. 5), two digits (e.g. 36), three
digits (e.g. 149) or four digits (e.g. 8567).
Vrite an algorithm, using pseudocode or a
flowchart only, which
• inputs5000 numbers
• outputs how many numbers had one digit,
two digits, three digits and four digits
• outputs the percentage of numbers which were
outside the range. [6]
C111nbridge IGCSE Computer Studies 7010/0420
P11per 13 QlS November2013

® Programming concepts
e programming
e dedarationanduseol
• variables
•constants
• bask data types
• integer
• =I
• char
• string
• Boolean
e howtouse
• sequence
• selection
• repetition
• totalling
• counting
• useolpredelinedprocedurevfunctions
11.1 Introduction
Chapters 9 and 10 ha·e enabled you to de·elop your computational thinking
by writing algorithms to perform 'arious tasks. This chapter will show you how
to put your computational thinking to the ultimate test by writing computer
programs to perform tasks.
So far you ha·e tested your algoritluns by dry running. Once you have written a
program for your algorithm, and when there are no syntax errors (see Section 7.4. 1),
you should then use a computer to nm the progr:1.m to complete the task you have
specified. The computer will perform the task exactly as you ha'e written it; you
may need to make some changes before it works exactly as you intend it to.
11.2 Programming
In Chapter 7 you learnt that programs could be written in high- or low-level
languages then translated and run. This chapter will introduce you to the
programming concepts required for practical use of a high-level language.
There are many high-lc·el programming languages to choose from. For
Cambridge !GCSE Computer Science any high-le·el programming language may
be used, howe•er if you plan to continue your studies with A Level Computer
Science then one ofVisual Basic, Pascal/Delphi or Python is recommended.
,1any programming languages are free to download and use. This chapter
shows the use of programming and should be used in conjunction with learning
the S)~ltax of an appropriate programming language.
Programs developed in this chapter will be illustrated using the following freely
a'ailable languages:
• Scratch: a good basic introduction to programming for beginners that is freely
alfllilable from M IT. Scratch makes programming easy and fun to learn as it uses
visual building blocks. It is useful as an introduction.
• JavaScript: a scripting language that works in any browser, no download
needed. JavaScript works with the H TML (see Section 1.6.2 ).
• Python: a general purpose, open source programming language that promotes
rapid program de·elopment and readable code.

11.2
The traditional introduction to programming in any language is to display the
words ' H ello 'orld' on a computer screen. The programs look very different:
print {• HelloWorld • )
Python
Figure 11.1 Programs to display
Activity 11 .1
</TITLll>
<SCRIPT LA!!GOAGB - ' J " v"Script'>
docunent .write (' He lloWorld 'l
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
JavaScript
Have a look at all thre-e programs and dedde which program is the easiest to understand.
Scratch and Python work in their own Integrated Development Environments
(ID Es).
·~·~- 1.,.0 (•1 . 1.0 · l><lhrl,~O.O,fl, sop >O lOll, 10, .. ,., , [MSC • • uoo !J H< (lo ~
U ! )] ;~ W
UIJl
? ,..... ' GGP¥<i~h•' , 'ettdi<s' or " U«f>HU' !or ..,,e lofo<Nnloo.
»> - - - -- -- - USLUI.I - - -- - - -
>» I
Figur• 11.2Pythoo l0f
Hello World
Figur• 11 3Scratdpro~amrunn;ng
Programming

11 PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
Figu,. 11.4 ScratchlOE
JavaScript works in a browser.
O HelloWon:J
+ it RVIIOM..-.rtlod<top/H C! • • Gooq,t JJ EJ• + _!_,
"
Figu,. 11.5 .lavaScriptworkinginabmwser
Activity 11.2
lnthehigh-levelprogrammi11glanguagethatyourschoolha1dios.entouse,writeandrunyour
own program that displays the words 'Hello Computer Scientists'

A VARIABLE in a computer program is a named data store that contains a value
that may change during the execution of the program. In order to make programs
understandable to others, variables should be given meaningful names.
A CONSTANT in a computer program is a named data store that contains a value
that does not change during the execution of the program. In order to make
programs understandable to others, constants should be given meaningful names.
Not all programming languages explicitly differentiate between constants and
'ariables but programmers should be clear which data stores can be ch.,nged and
which cannot be changed. There are several ways of doing this, for example:
• use of capital letters:
• meaningful names tl1at begin with Const: ConstPi - 3 .142
It is considered good practice to declare at the start of a program the constants
and variables to be used in that program. Declarations arc expected in programs
written for the tasks specified in tl1e !GCSE Computer Science pre-release
material(sccScction 1.2.3).
Figure 11.6Variableandcoostantdeda<abons;nScratc:h
varFirstVar,SecondVar;
con•tCon•tFirot - 500,SecondCon•t - lOO;
constConstFirot - 50;
constConstSecond - 100;
assi(jledtl,e;rvalueswhen
lheyarededaredbec:ause
lheydonotc:haoge
Figure 11.7 Variableandcoostantdeda<alionsinJavaSaipt
SecondVar - JO ~ ariablesandronstants
ConotFirot - 500 a<ededaredinl'ythonby
:on• tSecond - 100 assi(jlingvakles.
FirotVar,SecondVar - i0,30
ConotFirot,Con•tSecond - 500,100
Figure11.8Howtodedate variablesandcoostantsinl'ylhon

Activity 11 .3
lnthehigh-levelprogramminglanguagethatyourschoolhaschosentouse,dedarethe
variables and constants you would use in an algorithm to find the volume of a cylinder.
11 .4 Basic data types
In order for a computer system to process and store data effectively, different
kinds of data arc formally given different types. This enables:
• data to be stored in an appropriate way, for example, as numbers or characters
• data to be manipulated effectively, for example numbers with mathematical
operators and characters with concatenation
• automatic validation in some cases.
Integer
An IN"IBGER is a ix,siti·c or negative whole number that can be used with
mathematical operators.
Real
A REAL NUMBER is a positive or negative number with a fractional part. Real
numbers can be used with mathematical operators.
Not all programming languages distinguish between real numbers and integers.
Ja'aScript makes no distinction; Python docs with the use of built-in functions.
Firstlnteger • int (25) sets up an integer 'ariablc with the value of
25 in Python
FirstReal - float ( 25) sets up a real lfariablc with the 'aluc of
25.0 in Python
Char
A lfariablc or constant oftypc CHAR is a single character.
var Gender - 'F' JavaScript
Gender - 'F' or Gender - "F" Python
Strin g
A 'l:lriablc or constant oftypc STRING is sc'cral characters in length. Strings 'ary
in length and may even have no characters: an empty string. The characters can be
letters and/or digits and/or any other printable symbol. For example:
Var TelephoneNumber - '44121654331' JavaScript
Var FirstName - 'Emma' JavaScript
Var UnRepeatable - ' @! &&@@## ! ' JavaScript
TelephoneNumber - '44121654331' Python
FirstName - 'Emma' Python
UnRepeatable - ' @!&&@@##!' Python
Activity 11 .4
lnthehigh-levelprogramminglanguagethatyourschoolhaschosentouse,writeandrun
your own program that dis.plays the words 'Hello <YourName>'. Use a string variable to store

Boolean
A BOOLEAN variable can ha·e only two values: TRUE or FAl..SE.
Var Age0ver21 - true JavaScript
Age0ver21 - true Python
Activity 11 .5
At the start of a program to store ,;ome personal informatioo you need to set up variables to
store thefollowingdat<1
• address
""'"""
e over/undef 18yearsofage
e rnlourofhair
e shoesize
e 'Neightinkilograms
You also need to set up coostants for male <1nd female
• Selectme.-minglulvariablenamesandtypesforyourrnnst<1ntsandvariable1
b lnthehigh-levelprogramminglanguagethatyourschoolhaschosrotouse,writeandrun
yourownprogramthatdisplaysthev<1luesyouhaveusedtoinitialiseyourvariablesand
rnmtants
c Make sure that you un input new values <1nd select suitable test data for your program.
Programs work by automatically following one instruction after another in
scguence. Look at the following examples.
Python file
1'1r,.tNumbcr • 1nt ( OJ
See ondNlllllher • 1nt ( 0 )
Sua • i.nt ( 0 1
l'"irscNUtber • int (input( "Enter 1'"1:1;.,,; Whole Nw,,ber: " ))
Second.Nl'IE.bcr - int (input ( ~tnter Second Whole NW!lber, " ) I
.5um "' 1'1rso;Numbe r -t- Second.NU!tber
pri nt (~Trie 9WR equal." ~, Sllll'I)
Figur• 11.9Pylhonprogram
rwe •copvr~qM", •creGi.:a• or •ucer.n (J" ror it.Ore •nrorr::.acion.
>>> rm-----·--- l!tslAAl - - -- - - - - -
~t.,r!l'frstllhahll.-...ce ~
~t,,,.~•c<mdllholc-•, ll
Tl>es-cQUAl.s n
>» I
Figure 11.1 0Pylhooprigamrunning

l;;;;;:.;,-·= 1
:::-;~. ~ ~--
0
:J,.....Scr,pt">
::::c:~~u •O,
lluurw.l,U • "'-"<10,.,prciq,t( 'Enar Uut "?a<>l• ,i-.,r• , '' I:
5• c<AU&tM1r-"1.nc1c,w .prcq,( 'EntuHaon<1""°hnmat>u•,•• i ,
Figu,. 11.11 JavaS.Criptproc:,am
Explorer User Prompt - J
1-- I _: :1
----
112
Explorer User Prompt
-
.,;---
1-- ~1
l!'IJ • Iii! • Gl oi • £age • ~fety - ,.,.,,. 8 · 0 0 0
The sum equals 25
Figu,. 11.12 JavaS.Criptpriqamroonk,g

Sometimes the next instruction to be obeyed will depend upon what has already
happened before and a selection has to take place. Look at the following examples.
S • ccndN •= • u,t iO)
~-,· Nir.t t IO) ·nti .fll' "-Ci "E.D<u hnt. -.a.b - ~ -
, eccnON=t>er • i n t. 1IlJl H i •un.u ~ 1111<>1- _ , , " ))
Figur• 11.13Pythoopriqamshowings.election
Python S .S.O (vS.S.0:b!l! d'bnet>fl, S..p a lOU, 10:55 :H) [M5t: v . UOO S2 bit ll n •
t.d)] on 111n32
ype: •copynQnt.•, •cre,nt.o• or •ucenoeo• ror aore 1nrorut.1on.
>» UHiUU
~u~ n ut ll?loU - "' ~
~t.,.,.,.,..... ....ole N.-,.< :3
Pint. Whole &u.t,,,,r h h~ot 7
Figure 11.14Pythooselectionprog,amrunning
fil<{di.:,C."h','~f,,,!!!dl.>"9<»<1•l.t!l-"'9>MoooR""T~FX. Pl"'l~ l'(n~ X
od f311il o o~l ~tafR l ~~ l • r l t ~LCBtii / "'., 1 a!}!D l 'il !ii:i: _ :'
~SCHPT u.nz=>: • "Jn•Ser·p~" ~
va.r Hroc11unr,,,, - o :
va.r SecandRmber - O ;
FirotN<mt>er - vind<Y~ .pra,:pt( '~nte c firot ><t.ale nu.,,t,e r' ,
S• condll"""'u _ ,,,_n<b,...prccpt ( '[r.tu ..c,on~"hah n=u• ,
Fir,tN<mt>er - p~r,ein t (firotN:mber)·
secoooJ<U!lll:er - c,,,roeincc aecon=n·
H 1nroc11unr,,,, ;,,econ<lN.-..r/
docu.=nc .w: 1te{ 'firotWhaleNam>er,olaag,,,t
docu=nc .w: ite( 'Seccnd'1!>.olellemberi,lar1Jeot
l' ~ / SCRIPT>-
20 </1'0DY>
</HTML>
Figur• 11.1 5laYaS.O-;ptselectioop<iqam

&plo,..., Usu Prompt
-
~f'roqt:
Erterl'ntwholerunber
po
&plon!':r Usl!r Prompt
-
I~
-~'. ~I ~ C:UsimH~en DHkll p • C I e SO!querm X I
X Goc.gle L •~
I SO!arch • I· More » Sign In ~ •
Gi . lii1. ea 'ffl' . f•g• • ~foty • T2ol, • G· lliJ lll 0
Second Whole Number is largest 56
Figu,. 11.1 6JavaScr;pts.electionpmc_,amrunllOn9
Sometimes instructions need to be repeated several times so a final result can
be obtained, this often im·olvcs the use of totalling and counting. Look at the
following examples.
fi!.lditfg,m,tftl,n ~ ' t ( - l:l<IP
=r--.:t1~~)
~- • u:c (0)
..t,,h Co~nt ~ 5 :
Figu,. 11.17 Pylhoorepeti!ioopro~am

Pythor. 3 . 3 . 0 lv3 . 3 . 0:bd3orh9Dtl>n, S e p 29 2012, 10:SS : •8 ) [ HSC T . 16JO 32bit i in _!
TYi>" • copyrl~"t", •credH• " o r "Hcen,el)• ror mo re 1nror=t1o n
»> ---- - - - - - - - ----- RLSTM<T ---------------- ----
! n t ernWho leNwr.ber:
! nt eraWho leNwr.ber :7
!nt eraWho l e NUlf.ber : !
! nt er aWho l e NUlf.be r: 9
! n t er aWho le NUlf.be r: lJ
! : r ! ! iTen:mt>er,i, to
Figure 11.1 8Pythoorepetitiooprog@mrunO.ng
f ;i,, {di: ~•"h '{~ f"'![!d J..,ngUO'j t 'i<!ling, Mmv R.., TcrtfX 11"'1i"' l'{ndow Z
., d im• . ;, ~ l -1'~ ~ 1;, cl • -r l t -c lllitei l e::;,(I!}"51 [!1 ~
'
H wlu ! e (Co=tc< 5 );
t' document. l'ri t e ( 'SU1" c! rive nm,l"-,c~
H </~CRI PT:>
H </lllAD>
</BODY>
n </KrML~
Figure 11.1 9laYaScr;ptrepetitiooprogram

bplorerUnrPn>mpt
-
J;==--
~
~
Explorer User Prompt
-
J;==--
~
~
Explorer User Prompt -
-
1-- ~
~
:;·---
EicplorerUserPrompt
-
1-- ~
~
:;·---
Ei<plorerUserPrompt
-
1-- ~
~
::·---
O T fill T ~ -ii T ea;t " Saftty T T.11.ols T . .. 0 0 O
Sum offiH: numberli 1s 20
Figure 11.20 Java5cript ,epetitiooprogram runnmg

11.5.1 Sequence
Statements are followed in sequence so the order of the statements in a program
is important. Assigrunent statements rely on the variables used in the expression
on the right-hand side of the statement all having been given values. Input
statements often provide values for assignment statements. Output statements
often use the results from assignment statements.
'II
11.5.2 Selection
Selection is a very useful technique, allowing data items to be picked out
according to given criteria, for example selecting the largest value or the smallest
value, selecting items over a certain price, selecting everyone who is male. This is
done with the use of if and case statements.
JavaScript uses curly
~~!'n~~";:'~:!~..i
ifthenumbe,islafge,than
lhehg)PSI
Figure 11.21 Selectioo
Activity 11.6
Bighe• t - Number
print('Ahrgernwaberhu beenfound• )
iflKuoiber>Highe• t)
Bighe•t - Numbe r
docu...,nt.write ( 'Alargernurbe rhasbeenfound')
Usingthehigh-levelprogrnmminglanguagethatyourschoolhaschosentouse,findoutabout
the structure of if.. the n..el se and case statements. Not all programming languages indude
theuseofaca se statement
11.5.3 Repetition
Most programming languages support three types ofloop:
• a fixed number of repetitions
• an unknown number of repetitions with at least one repetition, as the condition
is tested at the end of the loop
• an unknown number of repetitions which may not be completed at all, as the
condition is tested at the beginning of the loop.

forCountarinrange(l,10), ~ .
print(• • •,end - ''l ~
for(varCounte r - l;Counter<- lO;Counter - Counter + l)
{
Jav"5criptUSl'5c,.fybfad::ets
toioentilythestatementsto
beexeruted;anewvariable
-==--J withastartingvalue,coodibon
Figure 11.22 faednumberofrepetitioos
andincrementissetupfo,the
looprounter
HewValue - window.pr001pt('Pleaoeenterapooitivenumber',
HewValue - pa roe Plo.o.t(HewValue )
JavaSaiptusesrurfybradetsto
ioentifythestatementstobe
exeruted;thecooditiooistestedat
theendoltheloop
Figure11.23 Unknownro.Jmbef ol,epetiboos,atH'ast onerompleted
NewValue - float(input('Pleaoeenteranegativenumber•>>
NewValue - float( input('Pl<iao <i e nte raliEGATIVEnumber'))
========={Pythoousesindentabontoideoblythe ]
statemeotstobeexeruted;the.cooditioni,
testedatthe,tartoltheloop
NewVa ,><1 - wim10w.p~t('Peueenteranegativenumoer',
NewValu<i - pane Float(N.,...Value);
NewValue - window.p~t(•Ple u eente raNl!GA.TIV&nwsber•,
NewValue - paneFloat (NewValue )
- - -======::::::lJavaSaiptusesrurfybradets.toioentilylhe l
statementstobeexeruted;theconditioor,
testedatthestartoftheloop
Figure11.24 Unkl0Wflro.Jmbefol,epetiboos,statements inloopmayn..,e<beused

11.5.4 Totalling
Totalling is used with repetition with the total updated e·ery time the loop
is repeated. K.:eping a rmrning total is one ofthe most frequently used
programming techniques in many computer systems, for example, the total on a
receipt at a supermarket checkout.
·--······-·-·-··-······-······-······-···-
L
~.
'::.
'::.
'::.
~
.P
.~
.
'!.::~:~.--~
·-··-~.
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7
.~
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-
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----~?~.~
.?
.~
.
~
-~
-
~
.
:?.____
11.5.5 Counting
Counting is used with repetition with the counter increased by 1 every time the
loop is repeated. Counting items or events is another of the most frequently used
programming techniques, for example, counting the number of items sold in a
single transaction at a supermarket.
iNumberOfitems .. NumberOfitems + 1
As well as counting upwards, a counter can be used to count down with the
counter being dee.ceased by I every time the loop is repeated, for example,
removing an item from stock every time one is sold.
11.5.6 Writing programs
Exa mple 1
Tickets are sold for a concert at $20 each, if ! O tickets arc bought then the discount
is 10%, if20 tickets are bought the discount is 20%. No more than 25 tickets can
be bought in a single transaction.
a Write a program to calculate the cost of buying a given number of tickets.
b Show how you would test your program.
!~uo tr1ekou• l.at (01
D10co,,..~e • Ue ot IOJ
,;01,: • U 0"-< ( 0 )
wt,Uc l<".zl>crOtr1cr«,t:1< l >e !>wu><,rO!'T1ckoe~•25 :
11".-1.0f llalr,tu • U aa t (u,put '"*"' -"·"1' uenu -1e1 '""" Hlr<I u, DaV' '))
t ~-eOtTickcta < 10 :
:::":-e::.'.....~
1:~;
e!
J"e~=
~,!;~
!,e:o=
,,=
.=,.=
_
=
,.=
..=
_=.=
, =~~:~
!!~n~t1':bination of)
pnc.t l'Yuctn.ocon• , con 1
Figure 11.25Exampje1inl'ython

fk 1• s..... - -1.nj--...._,,,""',_, ......- l
a iJ lilQ·,D ~~ - ~ ;ll ~ j . ... t 1 l cDaJ r.a1~'iJ O O ~ l!j·j ..i :JI O ';>
-~ --
...,,.rtl>Chc ""t• • un•- -pr-,CI w- '-'.c <o0• ~ Uy<• L, k• ~ , , • ,
..,_, . ,,,,,.1., (..,_rtlfhe<C;o)
..,1J e <(l<'-.,<>n1o•ot• < l ) ll(,,_.,,,ruc.,to > 14 0,·
H , .....,, , «OC,:1'hU< 00) ~ , - - - - - . , ,
~-.c-, - ~.O ~
··-
Ccot • N-.Ortlfhckoe, • ,O •
•~•• -~«•( · =•<•n•co c~,,
F1gure 11.26 JavaSrnptprigamfo, E~ 1
fltfditSl,o(_l~Qption,~ tioif
Pythcn3.3.0 lv3.3.0:bdSo fl, 9o.1>f2 . 3~29201:l,
~el.)J er. ll>nl2
,.,...,., •co~·,r::.or.t•, •c,:e<IJ.:s• or •uct.~aeo• tor 110re 1nto,,..tic~.
»> R!S?AA?
Youre1crusooo.2 u. o
l> ------------------ R!Slr.RT - - - - - ~ - - - - -
lkw iu.ny cicb u ,u,ald you li b t o buy? 2
Your e,cttu cooc tO . O
- ...... ; i cUu """1.d YOU Uh <o b,iy? to
""" - ny eict~~• ,mul.d you li b ~o buy• - 1
lkw ...nyticbU,..,,,ld:fDaUtt.tobuy1 7
Y<lltt u ctt.uco• c UO , O
Figure11.27 Pmgram!P<lingfxamplel inl'ython

11.5
,..
~ c,1- 1D<>tt, P • C · ~ 1
"('.o<-gl,: · !l lo>«h • t ...,.. . s.,... , .
a . g . i:;:i ,.. . t •!I' · }of•,- '2'11> · e · "' Q o
Figur• 11.28 Program tPStingExample 1 inJavaSaipt
Activity 11 .7
How to make your program work
r2!lk ,Jlll -:.-w...o..-w,.... P• d 9 1,..,.,,~1 ><I
X GoooglrL____:J{l>H"h· f Uo,e» Sion .. " ·
a - liiil - ..i • - f,.., . ,.My· ,~
,.,-e - li?l Iii o
Usingthehigh-levelprogramminglanguagethatyourschoolhaschosentouse,writeaprogram
for Ex.ample 1. look at the test data used with the Python and Ja~aSuipt solutions; explain how
you would improve this test data to ensure that your program was fully tested

l Explain the difference between a variable and a
constant in a program.
2 State four different basic data types. 11lustrateyour
answer by declaring a variable for each one and
assigning it a value.
3 A school with 600 students wants to produce some
information from the results of the four standard
tests in Maths, Science, English and IT. Each test is
out of l00 marks. The information output should
be the highest, lowest and average mark for each
ttst and the highest, lowest and average mark
O'erall. All the marks need to be input.
a Write: a program to complete: thiis task.
b Explain how you would test your program.
4 Write three programs showing the different ways
that can be used to add up five numben and print
out the total. Explain which loop is the most
efficic:ntto usc.
5 A sweet shop sells 500 different sorts of sweets.
Each sort ofs-,vcct is identified by a unique four·
digit code. All sweets that start with a one ( 1) are
chocolates, all s-,veets that start "~th a two (2) are
j:1~:s~~l:;~::~~hs:~:::;~i~i~:~;:!3Js:~d
can start 1th any other digit except zero.
a Write a program, which inputs the four-digit
code for all 500 items and outputs the number
ofchocolates, toffeu and jellies.
b Explain how you would test your program.

@ Data structures: arrays
and using pre-release material
lnthischapteryouwillle.-imabout
e dedaratklnolone-dimensionalarrays
e theuseolooe-dimensionalarrays
e theuseolavariableasanindexinanarray
• reading and 'Miting values in an array using a FOR _ TO ·- NEXT loop
e usingpre-releasematerial
12.1 Introduction
One of the advantages of using computer systems is their ability to accurately
repeat the same tasks many times, for example, producing electricity bills or
calculating exam scores. In order to do this, programs are written with loops for
repetitions to work with lists of similar items.
These lists are identified by the use of a single name and each item in the list
can be found by an index number showing the place in the list. This type of list is
called a one-dimensional array. The items in the list are the elements of the array.
Figure12.1Ustorm>e-dimensiooala,,ay
12.2 Arrays
12.2.1 One-dimensional arrays
In order to use a one-dimensional array in a computer program, you need to
consider:
• what the array is going to be used for, so it can be gi'en a meaningful name
• how many items arc going to be stored, so the size of the array can be
determined
• what sort of data is to be stored, so that the array can be the appropriate
data type.

12 DATA STRUCTURES: ARRAYS AND USING PRE-RELEASE MATERIAL
For example, if a one-dimensional array for all the students' test marks in a class
was to beset up:
• array name StudentMarkTest
• number of items - number of students in the class, this could be a constant
NoStudents
• whole numbers need to be stored, data type Integer.
Arrays usually start at element Oor element 1. Often ifan array starts at clement 0,
the size of the array is given as one more than re'luired and clement Ois not used.
Figure 12.2Alfif'jdeclaratiooinJavaSc:ript
~:fo':::::::1
,:!~~-e
~l=r~t;;I
positioo,1 to30them.mberofelements
inthea,rayneedstobe31
Array declaration in Python
Listde<larationinPython
Figure 12.30eda@IDnofhstsaodarray;,nl'ylhoo
Activity 12.1
Usingthehigh-lewlprogramminglangJilgethatyourschoolhaschosen,lindootaboutarrays
ii ls the first element 1 or07
b Howdoyoudeclarethesizeofan.-may?
c Canyoudeclarethetypeol thearr~?
d Oeclareanarrayto'>lorethetestmarksloradassol3051udents

12.2
12.2.2 Using a variable as an index in an array
In order to repeat the same task many times for all the items in a list, each item
needs to be referred to in the same way using the index number for each element
of the one -din1ensional array. !fa variable is used for this index number, then the
same code can be re-used for each item.
StudentMarkTeot(Counter] - int(input( "Pl eaoe EnterMark")).
Python
StudentMarkTeot(Counter] - winOOW.pro,apt('PleueEnterMark','');
StudentMa rkTeot(Counter] - p,,.uelnt(StudentMarkTeot[Counter));
JavaScript
Figure 12.4Us;ngav,.-iableasanir>dexinana1ray
This allows se·eral arrays to be used together with the same index number to
show related information, for example, each student could sit more than one test
and the name and gender of the student could also be recorded.
StudentHa!Ml(Counter] - window.pr~t('EnterStudentHa...,•, JavaScript
StudentGender(Counter] - window.proq,t('EnterStudentGender', '');
StudentMarkTestl(Counter] - window.proq,t(•EnterStudentllarkforTestl',
StudentMarkTeotl(Counte r] - pa r oeint(StudentMarkTeotl[Counte r]);
StudentMarkTest2(Counter] - window.proq,t{'EnterStudent!larkforTeot2',
StudentMarkTeot2.7ter] - paroeint(StudentMarkTeot2(Counter]);
r;.:::.::a.:·.:"'
_
. ;;')
l ~ferent,.-,ays J
StudentHa-.append (input (• Plea0<1 EnterStudentHame"))
StudentGender.append(input("PleaoeEnterStudentGender•))
StudentMarkTeotl(Counter] - int (input( • PleaoelmterMarkforTeatl '))
StudentMarkTeot2(Cou~] - int (input( • Pleaoe lmterMarkforTest2'))
( Sameva,,ablellSl'd
. astheindexfor·"'
1
1wo,.-,ay,fathem.<nencalvi1h;es
~=:'e,~:,the,tnngand
Figure 12.5Useolmultiple,.-rayswilhthe"'""' index
12.2.3 Read or write values in an array using a
FOR ... TO ... NEXT loop
Python
A FOR •. TO ... NEXT loop uses a fixed number of repeats so it is ideal to use
with an array, when the number of elements is known, as the loop counter can
be used as the array index. For example a FOR ... TO ... NEXT loop could be
used to read values into two arrays to store two sets of test marks for a class of 30
students.
Affays

__jt~§~~
for Counter in range (1, ConotHoStudenta +U, -~-"--'.=-:=---' 1
StudentMarkTe•tl[CounterJ - int(input( •EnterMarkforTe•tl')l Python
StudentMark'reat2[CounterJ - int(input('EnterMarkforTe at2'))
JavaS<ript
StudentMark'rea tl[CounterJ - window.proq,t('l!nte rMarkforTe stl',
StudentMark're•tl[CounterJ - paraelnt(StudentMarkTe otl[Counte r)l;
StudentMark'rest2[CounterJ - window.p~t('llnterMarkforTeat2',
StudentMarkTe•t2[CounterJ - p araeint(StudentMarkTeot2[Counter)l
Figu,.12.6Reading valuesintoanan~
Another FOR ... NEXT loop could be used to show 'alues in the arrays
that store two sets oftest marks for a class of 30 students.
Cona tlloStudento - int(30)
forCounte rinra nge(l,ConstHoStudents+l),
print(Studentl!arkTe• tl(Counter])
print(Studentl!arkTe• t2 (Counter])
Figu,.12.7 UutputbngvaUesa~eadyslored,nana,;r~
Python
JavaScript
I
Activity 12.2
Us.ingthehigh-lewlprogramminglanguagethat"jO.Urschoolhaschosen,dedarearraystostore
e thename1oladassof30students
e thegenderofe;ichstudentasMorF
e themarbfortwotestsloraclassof301tudents
When storing 'alues that arc input in any 'ariablc or array, 'll.lidarion checks
should be used (sec Section 9.4.1 ). For example when inputting the gender for
the acti'ity abo'e only M or F should be allowed.

12.2
Activity 12.3
Theexamplesbelowte1tforM
StudentGender.append (input("PleaseEnte rStude ntGende r " )) Python
StudentGender(CounterJ - (input (•Plea oellnte rStude ntGende rMorF" ))
StudentGeniler[CounterJ - winilow.proq,t('llnterStuilentGende r', ''); JavaScript
"hile(StudentGender(Counte r] 1- 'M'l
StudentGender(CounterJ • .,inilo... pro,apt('llnte rStude ntGende rMorF',
Figur• 12.8 Chec:kinglorgender"M"
Extendyourprogramtotestfor:
e bothMandFinyourstudentgeoderarray
e marksbetweenOandSOlorthelir,;ttest
e marksbetweenOand 100forthe1econdtest.
The two previous activities ha·e enabled you to store validated data in four arrays;
once this data is stored you can use it to extract useful information. For example
you may want to find the students ,vith the highest and lowest mark for each test,
the average mark for each test, the average mark overall and the number of male
and female students in each class.
You can find a student with the highest mark for test I like this:
llighe• tMarkTe• tl - int(O)
llighe• tlndexTe• tl - int(O)
for Counter in range (l, Con•tNoStudentul),
if StudentMarkTestl(Counter] ~ llighe•tMarkTestl,
HighestMarkTestl - StudentMarkTestl(Counter)
Highe8tlndexTestl - Counter
varHighe• tMarkTestl - 0;
varHighe• tlndexTestl - 0;
if{StudentMarkTeotl[Counter)>HighestMarkTestl)
HighestMarkTestl - StudentMarkTe&tl(Counter);
HighestlndexTestl - Counter;
Figur• 12.9fmdingthestudenw,thlhe t.,;,est,,..,.-kfortest1
Python
Affays

Activity 12.4
Nowextendyourprogramaslollo=
ii Findthestudentswiththehighestmarksfortestsl and2
b Findthestudentswiththelov,,,estmarksfortestsl and 2. Hint:setyourlowestmarkvariables
to SO and 100.
c Findtheaveragemarkloreachtest.Hint:usearunningtotalanddividebythenumberol
students at the end
d Find the number of male and female students. Hint: count either males or females and
cakulatetheotherbytakingawayfrom30.
12.3 Using pre-release material
In order to answer practical questions based on pre -release material, you will need
to practise the skills you ha·c learnt so far. The pre -release material will arri·c a
few months before your examination; you can discuss it with your teacher and
your fellow students.
You need to practise applying your skills to the tasks mentioned in the scenario,
which is different for each examination series.
H ere is a check.list of useful things to do.
1 Read through the pre-release material several times. Check ~th your teacher if
there is anything at all that you do not understand.
2 For each task, write an algorithm using both pseudocode and a flowchart to
show what is required.
3 Choose sets of test data that you will need to use, and work out the expected
results. Remember to use normal, boundary and erroneous data. Be able to
gi'c reasons for your choice of test data.
4 Complete trace tables to test your pseudocodc and flowcharts. 1his will enable
you to ensure that both the pscudocodc and the flowcharts work properly. It is
a good idea to get another srndcnt to trace your algorithms as well.
5 Decide which works best for each task, pseudocodc or a flowchart, and why.
6 Before starting to write your program for each task:
• decide the variables, including any arrays, and constants you will need
• decide the data types required for these
• decide the meaningful names you will use
• be able to explain your decisions.
7 If you arc asked to repeat the same thing many times, for example adding
up totals, complete the task for one and check it works before repeating it
many times.
8 Vritc and test each task. You can use the same test data as you used for your
pscudocodc and flowcharts.
( Activity 12.5
Work through the diecklist with the pre-release material for your examination )

@ Databases
lnthischapteryouwillle.-imabout:
e whatdatabasesareusedlor
• database ~tructure
e practicalusesoladatabase.
13.1 Introduction
A DATABASE is a structured collection of data that allows people to extract
information in a way that meets their needs. 111c data can include text, numbers,
pictures: anything that can be stored in a computer.
Databases are very usefol in preventing data problems occurring because:
• data is only stored once - no data duplication
• ifany changes or additions are made it only has to be done once - the data is
consistent
• the same data is used by everyone.
13.2 What are databases used for?
To store information about people, for example:
• patients in a hospital
• students at a school.
To store information about things, for example:
• cars to be sold
• books in a library.
To store information about events, for example:
• hotel bookings
• resultsofraces.
Activity 13.1
Find fivemoreuse1fordatabases,andforeachonedecidewhat1ort ofinlormationi1being
Coed
13.3 The structure of a database
Inside a database, data is stored in TABLES, which consists of many RECORDS and
each record consists of several FIBLDS.
Recotd1 Field l
Recotd2 Field l
Field l
Field l
Recotd5 Field l
Recotd6 Field l
Figur• 13.1 Struct..e ofadatabasetabie

13 DATABASES
Tables contain data about one type of item, person or event, for example:
• a table of patients
• a table of books
• a table of doctor's appointments.
Each record within a table contains data about a single item, person or event, for
example:
• Winnie Sing (a hospital patient)
• !GCSE Computer Science (a book)
• the 15:45 apixiintment on 27 January 2014.
Each field contains one specific piece of information about a single item, person
or event, forexainple:
• For a hospital patient the fields could include:
• first name
• family name
• date of admission
• consultant
• ward number
• bed number.
• For a book the fields could include:
• title
• author
• ISBN.
( Activity 13.2
Whatlieldswouldyouexpecttolindineachrecordloradoctor'sappointments7 )
In order to be sure that each record can be found easily and to prevent more than
one copy ofthe same record being kept, each record includes a PRIMARY KEY field.
Each primary key field in the table is uni'lue.
l'rimarvke Fieldl
l'rimarvke F"'ldl
Primary key
Primary key
l'rimaryke
l'rimaryke
Figu,. 13.25tructureofadatabasetab!eindtrlngaprimarykey
1l1e primary key can be a field that is already used, provided it is uni'lue, for
example the ISBN in the book table, or a new field added to each record, for
example, a uni'lue hospital number could be added to each hospital patient's
record.
Sometimes, a primary h.-y can be formed by using nvo or more existing fields, for
example, the doctor's appointments could have a primary key made from tl1e date
and the tin1e of each appoinanent.

13.4
13.4 Practical use of a database
As a Cambridge !GCSE Computer Science student you need to be able to do the
following:
• define a single -table database from given data storage requirements
• choose a suitable primary key for a database table
• perform a query-by-example from given search criteria.
In order to do this you will need to use a relational database management system.
The following case study shows how to set up a database with Microsoft Access
and complete the tasks described above.
Cfbii@O
Boy,;.-mdgirlsbetweentheagesolsevenandelevencanjoinacubscoutgroup. ~
eowikipediaorgfwil::i/CubScout)
Each cub scout group needs to keep records about its members. Most groups will keep the
followinginformationabout&Khcubintheirgroup:
Toensu,eot.-rec:o,dsa,euptodate.pleaselilootalloflheinfom>abon
beiow. W,thoutacompletedfomi.yoorchild1<illnotbeabletopartidpate
inmeetimpacti,,;ties
Figur•13.3Datacollectionform
13.4.1 Defining a database
This section shows you how to define a single-table database from given data
storage requirements and choose a suitable primary key.
Tocreatetherubscoutdatabase,openAccess,selecttheBlankdatabasetemplate
J:) 'iWl
-
o,uo«<
.._'""""'"' ltmOiot<>
Figur•13.4!llankdatabase
andtypethelileoameCubScoutanddicktheCreatebutton
Practical use of a da tabase

13 DATABASES
Ja,
lJ
FiguN13.5Creatir,gtherubscootdatab.ase
FiguN13.60esignView
andnamethetableCub.
FiguN13.7Namir,glhetable
Setupthelieldstomatc:hthedatacollectionlormandindudetheprimarykey.Eachfield
will require a me<mingful name and a data type must be selected. The bas.ic: data types were
introduced in Section 11.4. TheyareavailableinAccessbutthe names are different
Acces1alsohasotherdatatype1thatwillbeuseful:Date/TimeandCurrenc:y.

13.4
'i CubNumber Te•!
lexl
Oat.1"lype
Date{Trme
TelephoneNuriber Te•t
Date/Time
Figur• 13.8Cubtab!efields
Ac:cessallowsvalidationdieckstobebuiltinforeachlield,lorexamplethegenderlield
::::-=
~
Figur• 13.9Gend<.>rheldvalklatioo
=c.~· ~
....,,En<oMfo,"'""'"'"''"'
'".
Activity 13.3
O!!eidewhidiotherlieldsshouldbe validated.
13.4.2 Getting information from a database
This section shows you how to perform a query-by-example (QBE) from given
search criteria.
The cub scout leader wants to be reminded before the first me{'ting in the month of any cub
scoutswhowillhaveabirthdaythatmonth
Tosetupaquery-by-exampletoperformthistask.openthedatabase CubScout, selectthe
Create tab followed by Query Design
Figur• 13.10
Practical use of a database

13 DATABASES
Theo add table Cub
Figure 13.11
The cub 'iCOul ledder wants to see the Name of any cub wilh a Date of Birth this month.
Select the fi~ds Name and Date of Birth, check the box to display the Name and check that the
montholtheDilteofBirthisthesamea1thecurrentmonth.
'.
Run
Figure 13.12 Figure 13.13
Theorunthequerytotestit
Activity 13.4
Setupacub'iCOutdatabasewith 10recordsinit.lncludeappmpriate validation.Usingqllel)'-
by-example,writeaquerytopick outanycub1bomthismonth
ThecubSCOlltle.lderwantstopute<Khcubintoagroupcalleda's.ix'.Each'lix'canhaveuptosix
rub'i in it and isgiwn a name, for example red, yellow, blue or green. Add a newtextlieldcalled5i)(.
put&Khrubintoasix.Usingquery-b)'-example,writeaquerytopkkoutanyrub'i intheredsix.

1 A database ofstudents is to be set up with the following fields:
• Family name
• Other names
• Student ID
• Date ofbirth
• Date ofentry to school
• Currentclass
• Current school year/grade
• Email address.
a Select a data type for each field.
b Which fields should be validated and which fields should be verified?
c Decide the validation rules for those fields which should be 'alidated.
d Which field would you choose for the primary key?
e Choose a suitable format for the student ID.
f Build a database with at least 10 records. Include all your validation checks.
Ensure there are at least three different classes and two different years/grades.
g Set up and test QBEs to:
i Print Other names, Family name and Email address in alphabetical order of
family name
ii Select all the students from a given class
iiiSelect all the students for a year/grade and print Other names, Family name
and Data of birth, grouping the students by class.

13 DATABASES
2 A motor car manufacturer offers various combinations of
• scat colours
• scat materials
• car paint colours.
A database was set up to help customers choose which scat and paint
combinations were possible.
car paint colours
Notes: N - no, not t1 p01s1ble combmntwn, Y • yes, combinntwn is pomble.
Figure13.14
a How many records arc shown in the database?
b The following search condition was entered using a query-by-example grid:
carpaintrolours rode
D D ./ D
FigureB.15
What will be displayed?
c A customer wants to know the possible combinations for a car with leather
seats and cithcrsikcrorgrcypaint.
What search condition needs to be input? Copy and complete the table.
FigureB.16

3 A database was set up to compare oil companies. A section of the database is
shown below:
employe•
Gazjeti
Wa5fJPetrol
Figure 13.17
Europe
Europe
Profits
(billion$)
Share
price($)
a H owmanyfieldsarethereineachrecord? (1)
b The following search condition was entered:
(No o f countries< 30) AND (H ead office - "Americas")
Using Code only, which records would be output? (2)
c What search condition is needed to find out which oil companies ha'e a
share price less than $50 or whose profits were greater than 8 billion
dollars? (2)
Cambridge [GCSE Computer Studies 7010/0420 Paper 13 Ql2 June 2013
4 A database was set up to keep track of goods in a shop. A section ofthe
database is shown below:
Figure 13.18
Number in
·-·
Pric• of
item($)
Value of
stock($)
a H ow many records are shown in this section of database? (1)
bi Using Item code only, what would be output if the following search was
carried out?
(Number in stock < Re-order level ) AND (Items ordered - "No") (2)
ii What usefol information does this search produce? [1]
c Write a search condition to locate items costing more than $2.00 or which
ha·e a stock value exceeding $300.00. (2)
Cambridge [GCSE Computer Studies 7010/0420 Paper 13 Q9 November 2013

Index
A
Abiword(wordprocessor),free
software112
acknowledgement 21
ACM(AssociationforComputer
Machinery),codeofethics
110-111
acoustidsoundsensor 62
actuators51,62,71
ADC(analoguetodigitalconverter) 62
additivemanufacturing 69
addressbus45
addresses,incomputermemory 45,47
AdobeReader(freeware) 112
airports,useofscanners 53
alarmapp,forasmartphone 116
algorithms
findingthepurpose118,125
flowcharts 117,118
identifying and correcting errors
127-129
producing 129--131
pseudocodellS,139-141
standardactions 139
ALUarithmeticandlogicunit 47,48
AND gate 26,27
made up of of NAND gates 39
Android 42
anonymoususerprofile 101
anti-lock braking systems 65-66
ARQ(automaticrepeatrequest) 21
arrays
name,sizeanddatatype 163-164
one-dimensional 163-164
readingorwritingvalues 165-167
ASCII code 12,53,58,88
assemblers 93-94
assemblycode,hexadecimal 13
assembly languages 91-92
assignment
inpseudocode134
statements 156
asymmetricencryption 105-107
asynchronousdatatransmission 15-16
audiocompression 77
authentication107
B
back-lighting72
back-ups,regular101
barcode
checkdigit122
readers/scanners51,54-56
binary numbers
convertingtodenary2-3
converting to hexadecimal 6-7
binder3Dprinting 69
biometrics 108
BIOS(basicinput-outputsystem) 43,82
birefringence86
bit(binarydigit)4
B1u·raydiscs85-86
BMP,rawbitmapimage 78
B0oleanal9ebra 26-29
Boolean variable 136,151
boundary data 119,169
browser
features24
security99,103-104
useofcookies25,100
useofHTML 24
useofJavaScript146,148
buffers43-44,82
burglaralarm,monitoringsystem 64
buses,function45
byte,smallestunitofcomputer
memory 4
C
CAD(computeraideddesign)
52,69,70
CASE ... OF ... OTHERWISE ...
ENDCASE 137
cathode-ray monitors 72
CCD(chargecoupledevice) 52
CCFL(cold cathode fluorescent
lamp) 72
CD/DVD storage media 71-72,85,87
CHAR,datatype 150
characterchecks121
checkdigits121,122
checksum 17,21-22,124
OR current instruction register
47,48,49
clothing,'smart' 73
CNCmachining 69
comparison operators 136
compilers 93
computer architecture 45-48
computerethics 110-111
computermemory,sizeandunits 4
computer operation, incorrect 101
computer programs see programs
computer systems
components 114
top-down design 114, 115-116
computers,effectonsociety 110
conditionalstatements 135-138
constants149,150
control,useofsensors63,65-66
controlbits15-16
controlbus45
controlunit48
cookies25,100-101
counting139,154-155,158
cracking98
CSS(cascadingstylesheet)file23-24
CT(computedtomography)scanners
S>-54
customerloyaltycards 56
cutters,2Dand3D 51, 71
cyphertext107
D
DAC(digitaltoanalogueconverter)
62,71
data
analogueinnature61
location in computer memory 47
lossorcorruption101
safetyandsecurity97
storing 149, 165-167
types150-151,169,172
databits15-16
databus45
datacollectionform 171
dataentry,validationand
verification 120
data transmission
asynchronous 15-16
intemettechnologies 22-25
parallel15
rate4
serial14-15
simplex,half-duplexand
full-duplex14
synchronous16
viaUSB15,16,57,58,59,88
databases
creating171-173
defining169,171
searching173-174
structure169-170
decisionsymbols 142
declaration,ofvariablesand
denary(base10)numbers 2
conversion to hexadecimal 8--9
converting to binary 3
denialofserviceattacks108
digital cameras 51,57-58
XDorSD(SecureDigital)
cards87
digitallightprojectors(DLP) 74
digitalsignatures107
dongle87
DOS 42
doubleentry124
DRAM (dynamic RAM) 82
dryrun125,127,141,146
DVD-RAM 85
E
echocheck22
EEPROM(electronicallyerasable
programmable read-only
memory) 84
electroniccircuits26

encryption 104- 108
algorithm 105,106
secure86
erroneous/abnormal data 119, 169
checking 17-22
identifyingal'ldcorrectlng 127- 129
,,,,.,..
extremedata 120
F
F--spot (photograph manager), free
software112
face recognition53,108
fetch-executecycle 49-50
fields,inadatabase169- 170,172
file compression
algorithms 77,80
losslessandlossy77,78,80-81
file formats 76-80
filesize,estimatlng 88--89
fingerprintscans108
firewalls 102
flash memory 87
NANO technology 84
floppydisks87
flow lines 142
flowcharts 114,117, 142- 143, 169
FOR ... TO ... NEXT loop 137- 138,
16S-167
formatchecks 121
ffeeware 112
fulkluplex data transmission 14
G
games, on DVO and Blu-<ay 86
gassenSOf"62
gateway 102
gibibyte{GiB) 4
gigabyte(GB) 4
H
hacking98
half--duplexdata transmlssion 14
hand•helddevices, LCD/LEO screens 74
hardwarefault,causlngdatalossor
corruption 101
hashingalgorithms 106,107
HDD(harddlskdrlves) 83
removable 88
size 4
headphones 71
hexadecimal numbers
conversion to binary &-7
conversion todenary 8-9
hexadecimal system
notation S-6
uses~13
high·level programming languages
91,93,14&-148
hospital patients
databaserecordsl70
monitoring system 63, 64
HTML (hypertext mark-up language)
hexadecimalcodes 10-11
and JavaScript 146
structureanclpl"esentation23-24
useforwebi:>a9es 23-25
http (hypertext transfer protocol) 24
https(httpoversecure)24, 103
paclloc.ksymbol 24, 99,103
I
IDE(integrated/interactive
development environment) 95,
147,148
IEC(lnternationalElectrotechnical
Commission)convention 4
IEEE(lnstituteofElectricaland
Electronics Engineers),codeof
ethics110-111
IF ... THEN ... ELSE ... ENDIF 135---136
ifstatements 156
Index number 163,165
infra-redsensor62
lnkjetprinters67,68
lnputdevices48,51
inputstatements 13g,156
inputloutputdevices,supermarket
checkouts55---56
input/output statements 139
inputloutputsymbols 142
integers 150,151, 152
intellectualpropertyrights110
interactive whiteboards 51, 66-67
internet technologies, data
transmission 22-25
interpreters93
interrupthandler43
interrupts43-44
IP(intemetprotocol)address
22- 23,25
ISBN (International Standard Book
Numbers),checkdigits 122-123
ISP(internetservice provider)22
denialofserviceattacks108
JavaScript
arrays164,165,166,167
datatypes150-151
declarationofvariablesand
constants 149
display147,152
ex.ample program 159,160
loops158
repetition program 155,156, 158
selection program 153, 154, 156
works in a browser 146,148
JpegOolntPhotographk Experts
Group)files 52, 53, 78-79
K
keydistributlonproblem 104
key-logging software 100, 110
keyboard
ASCllchMacteu 12,58,88
as input device 48, 58
MIDI files 7&-77
virtual58
kibibyte {KIB) 4
kllobyte(KB)4
LAA (locally administered MAC
address)11
laserprlnters68
Index
latency83,84
LCO(llquld crystaldisplay)technology
72,74,75
LCD/LEO monitors 51, 72- 74
LEO(llghtemlttlngdlode)
technology72
lengthchecks 121
libraries, barcodesystem 56
libraryroutlnes114,117- 118
lightprojectors(LCOandDLP)
66,74,75
light sensor 62
Linux 42
lists, Importance In programming 163
logic circuits
designing 33-35, 38
Inputs and outputs 2&-29
off-the-shelf components 29, 39--40
lntherealworld 38-42
wfetyfunctlon35---3S
simplifying 39,40-41
truthtables29-38
logicerror94
logic gates 26, 27-29
loo,,
structures137
types 157
loudspeakers51,71
low-level languages 91-92
M
MAC(medlaaccesscontrol)addresses
11- 12,23
machlne code 13,92
magnetlcfleldsensor 62,65
magnetlcstoragesystems 83,84
manufacturing.subtractive 69
MAR memory address register 47-48
mathematkalfunctlons.stanclard
solutlom 119
M04 hashing algorithm 106, 107
MOR memory data register 47-48

INDEX
mebibyte(MiB) 4
megabyte(MB) 4
memory
devicesandmedia 81-88
primary 81-83
refreshing82
memory cache 82
memory cards 87
memory dumps 9-10
memory unit 47--48
microphones 51,59
microprocessors,embedded 43
MicrosoftAccess 171
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital
lnterface)files76-77
mobile devices
cameras 58
flexible73
securityrisks113
touchscreentechnologies61
moisture/humidity sensor 62
monitorin9,useofsensors 63-64
motion sensor 62
mouse 51,58
movies
onDVDandBlu-ray 86
streaming 86
MPEG-3 (MP3) and MPEG-4 (MP4) files
77-78
MRl(magneticresonance
imaging) 54
multimedia files, MPEG-4 (MP4)
format 77
N
devicesandstoragesystems 86
MP3fileformat 77
streaming 86
NANDtechnology 26,28
as'buildingblock'39-40
insolid-statedevices84,87
nestedlF136
NIC(networkinterfacecard) 11
NOR chips 84
NOR gate 26,28
normal data 119,169
NOT gate 26,27
made up of NAND gates 39
number formats 80
0
off-linestorage84-88
OLED(organiclightemittingdiode)
72-73
onlinebanking,security109-110
opticalcharacterrecognition(OCR)
52,53
optical storage systems 85-86
OR gate 26,28
madeupofNANDgates 39
OS(operatingsystem) 42-43
output.statements 139,156
output devices 48,51,67-75
p
padlocksymbol(https) 24,99, 103
parallel data transmission 15
parity,even and odd 17- 18
paritybit17
parity blocks 19
paritybyte19
paritycheck17-21,124
partitions,addressandcontents 47
Pascal/Delphi146
passwords
foranalarmsystem 64
authentication107
control102
forl5Paccount22
lengthcheck121
forpersonalbanking109-110
strong98
theft98,100
anduserid101
PCprogramcounter 47,48,49
pendrives87
perceptualmusicshaping 77
petabyte(PB)4
pH sensor 62
pharming 99
phishing99
photographic files
compression 78
wirelesstransfer 57
PIN,four<ligit109
piracy and copyright infringement,
preventing86,87
pitchbyte,in MIDI files 76
pixels78,88-89
plagiarism 110
plaintext,unencrypted107
pointing devices 51, 58--59
P05(pointofsale)terminal 56
pre-releasematerial,writingand
testing algorithms 169
presencechecks121
pressuresensor62
primarykeyfield 170,171
PRINT,output statement 139
printers51,67,68
3D 69-70
privacyissues110
see a/so security
processsymbols 142
processor48
productcodes,checkdigits122
programming languages
90-92,146
programs
definition and uses 90-91
examples 90,159
testing160-161
projectors see light projectors
protocols18
proxyservers102-103
pseudocode114,117,126,
139-141,169
assignment 134-135
consistentpresentation134
operators134
publickeyencryption105-107
Python programming language 91,
146-147
Q
declaration of variables and
constants149-151
display147
example program 1S9, 160
IDE 95,147
listsandarrays164,165,166,167
loops158
program testing 160-161
repetition154-155,157,158
selection153
QBE(query-by-example) 173
QR(quickresponse)
R
code57
codereader51
RAM (random access memory)
81-82,83
rangechecks121
rawbitmapimage,TIFForBMP 78
READoperation 47
real numbers 150
records,inadatabase169-170
registers4-5,45,47
relational database management
system 171
REPEAT ... UNTIL loop structure
137,138
repetition157-158
program 154-156
repetitivestraininjury(RS1)58
resolution78
ROM (read only memory) 82, 83
running total 139,159
s
safetysystem,logiccircuit 35-38
sampling rate 71
scanners51
2D 51-52,53
3D 52

Scratch programming language
146-147
declarationofvariables90,149
IDE 90,148
screenlvisualcheck124
Scribus(DTP),freesoftware 111
searching,libraryroutines118
security
anddataintegrity97-98
denialofserviceattacks 108
protocols103-104
risks98--100
useofpersonalquestions110
selection 153,157
sensors51,61--63
sequence,importance 157
sequencersoftware77
serialdatatransmission 14--15
sessioncaching104
shareware 112- 113
simplexdatatransmission 14
Skype(freeware) 112
software
onCDsandDVDs 86
development 9--10,13
fault101
free111- 112
solenoid62
solid-state storage
offline84
requirescarefulhandling87
solution.effectiveness 131
sorting,libraryroutines 118
source code
editing98
infreewareandshareware 112
SPECT(singlephotonemission
computed tomography) 54
speechrecognitionsystem5~0
spreadsheetfile,losslesscompression 80
spyware 100,110
SRAM (static RAM) 82
SSD(solid-statedrives) 84
SSL(securesocketslayer)103
standardactions,inalgorithm
design139
statements.order 157
statusbyte,inMIDlfiles 76
stepwiserefinement 116
stockcontrol,automatic 56
storage
media 81-88
secondary83-84
storagemedia,obsolescence 86-87
streetlighting,control65
STRINGtypevariableorconstant 150
structurediagrams 114,116
sub-routines 114,117,118
sub-systems 114,115,116,119
supermarkets,computerapplications
55---56,139,159
symmetricencryption 104--105
synchronousdatatransmission 16
syntaxerrors94,146
T
tables,inadatabase169-170
tags, in HTML 10,23
tebibyte(TiB)4
temperature sensor 62
terabyte(TB)4
terminatorsymbols 142
testdata119--120,140,169
text,ASCllformat 80
text files
filecompression 80
formats 52,80
TIFF,rawbitmapimage 78
timeout 21
tomography 53-54
top-down design 114, 115--116
totalling 154-155, 159
touchpad,on laptop computers 58
touchscreentechnology 51, 58,61
tracetables12S-127
trackerball58--59
translator programs 92-94
transportlayersecurity(TLS)103- 104
truthtables26-29
forlogiccircuits29--38
TVs,'smart' 86
typechecks121
u
UAA (universally administered MAC
address)11
Index
uniformresourcelocatorseeURL
universalserialbusseeUSB
UNIX 42
URL(uniformresourcelocator)
hexadecimal 13
1Paddress23
parts25
stored in QR code 57
USB(universalserialbus)
data transmission method 15, 16,
57,58,S9,88
flash memories 81,84,87
user id/name 22,98,101,107
V
validation
ofinput166
methods 120--124
inMicrosoftAccess 173
typesofchecks121
variable
asanindexinanarray165
inacomputerprogram 149
velocitybyte,in MIDI files 76
verification124
VIN(vehicleidentificationnumber),
checkdigit122
viruses98
Visual Basic 146
voicerecognition5~0,108
vonNeumannarchitecture 45-46
w
wardriving 100
web address see URL
web browser see browser
WEP(wiredequivalentprivacy)
encryption 100
WHILE ... DO ... ENDWHILE loop
structure137,138
Windows 42-43
wireless,passwordprotection 100
WRITE operation 47
X
XOR gate 26,29

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