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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Kurinec, Santosh K., editor. | Walia, Sumeet, editor.
Title: Energy efficient computing & electronics : devices to systems / edited
by Santosh K. Kurinec and Sumeet Walia.
Other titles: Energy efficient computing and electronics
Description: Boca Raton : CRC/Taylor & Francis, [2019] | Series: Devices,
circuits, & systems | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018042978| ISBN 9781138710368 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315200705 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Electronic apparatus and appliances--Power supply. | Computer
systems--Energy conservation. | Low voltage systems. | Wireless
communication systems--Energy conservation.
Classification: LCC TK7868.P6 E54 2019 | DDC 621.381028/6--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018042978
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Title: The battles of the British Army
being a popular account of all the principal engagements
during the last hundred years
Author: Robert Melvin Blackwood
Release date: January 27, 2016 [eBook #51056]
Most recently updated: October 22, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Brian Coe, Wayne Hammond and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
(This
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by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
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Energy Efficient Computing Electronics Devices to Systems Devices Circuits and Systems 1st Edition Santosh K. Kurinec
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- 5. Energy Efficient Computing & Electronics
- 6. Devices, Circuits, and Systems Series Editor Krzysztof Iniewski Emerging Technologies CMOS Inc. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada PUBLISHED TITLES: 3D Integration in VLSI Circuits: Implementation Technologies and Applications Katsuyuki Sakuma Advances in Imaging and Sensing Shuo Tang and Daryoosh Saeedkia Analog Electronics for Radiation Detection Renato Turchetta Atomic Nanoscale Technology in the Nuclear Industry Taeho Woo Biological and Medical Sensor Technologies Krzysztof Iniewski Biomaterials and Immune Response: Complications, Mechanisms, and Immunomodulation Nihal Engin Vrana Building Sensor Networks: From Design to Applications Ioanis Nikolaidis and Krzysztof Iniewski Cell and Material Interface: Advances in Tissue Engineering, Biosensor, Implant, and Imaging Technologies Nihal Engin Vrana Circuits and Systems for Security and Privacy Farhana Sheikh and Leonel Sousa Circuits at the Nanoscale: Communications, Imaging, and Sensing Krzysztof Iniewski CMOS: Front-End Electronics for Radiation Sensors Angelo Rivetti CMOS Time-Mode Circuits and Systems: Fundamentals and Applications Fei Yuan Design of 3D Integrated Circuits and Systems Rohit Sharma
- 7. Diagnostic Devices with Microfluidics Francesco Piraino and Šeila Selimović Electrical Solitons: Theory, Design, and Applications David Ricketts and Donhee Ham Electronics for Radiation Detection Krzysztof Iniewski Electrostatic Discharge Protection: Advances and Applications Juin J. Liou Embedded and Networking Systems: Design, Software, and Implementation Gul N. Khan and Krzysztof Iniewski Energy Harvesting with Functional Materials and Microsystems Madhu Bhaskaran, Sharath Sriram, and Krzysztof Iniewski Gallium Nitride (GaN): Physics, Devices, and Technology Farid Medjdoub Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes, and Nanostuctures: Techniques and Applications James E. Morris and Krzysztof Iniewski High-Speed and Lower Power Technologies: Electronics and Photonics Jung Han Choi and Krzysztof Iniewski High-Speed Devices and Circuits with THz Applications Jung Han Choi High-Speed Photonics Interconnects Lukas Chrostowski and Krzysztof Iniewski High Frequency Communication and Sensing: Traveling-Wave Techniques Ahmet Tekin and Ahmed Emira High Performance CMOS Range Imaging: Device Technology and Systems Considerations Andreas Süss Integrated Microsystems: Electronics, Photonics, and Biotechnology Krzysztof Iniewski Integrated Power Devices and TCAD Simulation Yue Fu, Zhanming Li, Wai Tung Ng, and Johnny K.O. Sin Internet Networks: Wired, Wireless, and Optical Technologies Krzysztof Iniewski Introduction to Smart eHealth and eCare Technologies Sari Merilampi, Krzysztof Iniewski, and Andrew Sirkka PUBLISHED TITLES:
- 8. Ionizing Radiation Effects in Electronics: From Memories to Imagers Marta Bagatin and Simone Gerardin IoT and Low-Power Wireless: Circuits, Architectures, and Techniques Christopher Siu Labs on Chip: Principles, Design, and Technology Eugenio Iannone Laser-Based Optical Detection of Explosives Paul M. Pellegrino, Ellen L. Holthoff, and Mikella E. Farrell Low Power Circuits for Emerging Applications in Communications, Computing, and Sensing Fei Yuan Low Power Emerging Wireless Technologies Reza Mahmoudi and Krzysztof Iniewski Low Power Semiconductor Devices and Processes for Emerging Applications in Communications, Computing, and Sensing Sumeet Walia Magnetic Sensors and Devices: Technologies and Applications Kirill Poletkin and Laurent A. Francis Medical Imaging: Technology and Applications Troy Farncombe and Krzysztof Iniewski Metallic Spintronic Devices Xiaobin Wang MEMS: Fundamental Technology and Applications Vikas Choudhary and Krzysztof Iniewski Micro- and Nanoelectronics: Emerging Device Challenges and Solutions Tomasz Brozek Microfluidics and Nanotechnology: Biosensing to the Single Molecule Limit Eric Lagally MIMO Power Line Communications: Narrow and Broadband Standards, EMC, and Advanced Processing Lars Torsten Berger, Andreas Schwager, Pascal Pagani, and Daniel Schneider Mixed-Signal Circuits Thomas Noulis Mobile Point-of-Care Monitors and Diagnostic Device Design Walter Karlen Multisensor Attitude Estimation: Fundamental Concepts and Applications Hassen Fourati and Djamel Eddine Chouaib Belkhiat PUBLISHED TITLES:
- 9. Multisensor Data Fusion: From Algorithm and Architecture Design to Applications Hassen Fourati MRI: Physics, Image Reconstruction, and Analysis Angshul Majumdar and Rabab Ward Nano-Semiconductors: Devices and Technology Krzysztof Iniewski Nanoelectronic Device Applications Handbook James E. Morris and Krzysztof Iniewski Nanomaterials: A Guide to Fabrication and Applications Sivashankar Krishnamoorthy Nanopatterning and Nanoscale Devices for Biological Applications Šeila Selimovic´ Nanoplasmonics: Advanced Device Applications James W. M. Chon and Krzysztof Iniewski Nanoscale Semiconductor Memories: Technology and Applications Santosh K. Kurinec and Krzysztof Iniewski Noise Coupling in System-on-Chip Thomas Noulis Novel Advances in Microsystems Technologies and Their Applications Laurent A. Francis and Krzysztof Iniewski Optical, Acoustic, Magnetic, and Mechanical Sensor Technologies Krzysztof Iniewski Optical Fiber Sensors: Advanced Techniques and Applications Ginu Rajan Optical Imaging Devices: New Technologies and Applications Ajit Khosla and Dongsoo Kim Organic Solar Cells: Materials, Devices, Interfaces, and Modeling Qiquan Qiao Physical Design for 3D Integrated Circuits Aida Todri-Sanial and Chuan Seng Tan Power Management Integrated Circuits and Technologies Mona M. Hella and Patrick Mercier Radiation Detectors for Medical Imaging Jan S. Iwanczyk Radiation Effects in Semiconductors Krzysztof Iniewski PUBLISHED TITLES:
- 10. Reconfigurable Logic: Architecture, Tools, and Applications Pierre-Emmanuel Gaillardon Semiconductor Devices in Harsh Conditions Kirsten Weide-Zaage and Malgorzata Chrzanowska-Jeske Semiconductor Radiation Detection Systems Krzysztof Iniewski Semiconductor Radiation Detectors, Technology, and Applications Salim Reza Semiconductors: Integrated Circuit Design for Manufacturability Artur Balasinski Sensors for Diagnostics and Monitoring Kevin Yallup and Laura Basiricò Smart Grids: Clouds, Communications, Open Source, and Automation David Bakken Smart Sensors for Industrial Applications Krzysztof Iniewski Soft Errors: From Particles to Circuits Jean-Luc Autran and Daniela Munteanu Solid-State Radiation Detectors: Technology and Applications Salah Awadalla Structural Health Monitoring of Composite Structures Using Fiber Optic Methods Ginu Rajan and Gangadhara Prusty Technologies for Smart Sensors and Sensor Fusion Kevin Yallup and Krzysztof Iniewski Telecommunication Networks Eugenio Iannone Testing for Small-Delay Defects in Nanoscale CMOS Integrated Circuits Sandeep K. Goel and Krishnendu Chakrabarty Tunable RF Components and Circuits: Applications in Mobile Handsets Jeffrey L. Hilbert VLSI: Circuits for Emerging Applications Tomasz Wojcicki Wireless Medical Systems and Algorithms: Design and Applications Pietro Salvo and Miguel Hernandez-Silveira Wireless Technologies: Circuits, Systems, and Devices Krzysztof Iniewski PUBLISHED TITLES:
- 11. Wireless Transceiver Circuits: System Perspectives and Design Aspects Woogeun Rhee X-Ray Diffraction Imaging: Technology and Applications Joel Greenberg FORTHCOMING TITLES: Compressed Sensing for Engineers Angshul Majumdar Energy Efficient Computing: Devices, Circuits, and Systems Santosh K. Kurinec and Sumeet Walia Radio Frequency Integrated Circuit Design Sebastian Magierowski Spectral Computed Tomography: Technology and Applications Katsuyuki Taguchi, Ira Blevis, and Krzysztof Iniewski PUBLISHED TITLES:
- 12. Energy Efficient Computing & Electronics Devices to Systems Krzysztof Iniewski Managing Editor Edited by Santosh K. Kurinec Sumeet Walia
- 13. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-71036-8 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www. copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Kurinec, Santosh K., editor. | Walia, Sumeet, editor. Title: Energy efficient computing & electronics : devices to systems / edited by Santosh K. Kurinec and Sumeet Walia. Other titles: Energy efficient computing and electronics Description: Boca Raton : CRC/Taylor & Francis, [2019] | Series: Devices, circuits, & systems | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018042978| ISBN 9781138710368 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315200705 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Electronic apparatus and appliances--Power supply. | Computer systems--Energy conservation. | Low voltage systems. | Wireless communication systems--Energy conservation. Classification: LCC TK7868.P6 E54 2019 | DDC 621.381028/6--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018042978 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
- 14. xi Contents Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii Editors...........................................................................................................................................xvii Contributors.................................................................................................................................. xix Section I Emerging Low Power Devices 1. A FinFET-Based Framework for VLSI Design at the 7 nm Node..................................3 Vinay Vashishtha and Lawrence T. Clark 2. Molecular Phenomena in MOSFET Gate Dielectrics and Interfaces.........................51 S. Arash Sheikholeslam, Hegoi Manzano, Cristian Grecu, and Andre Ivanov 3. Tunneling Field Effect Transistors....................................................................................67 Amir N. Hanna and Muhammad Mustafa Hussain 4. The Exploitation of the Spin-Transfer Torque Effect for CMOS Compatible Beyond Von Neumann Computing...................................................................................93 Thomas Windbacher, Alexander Makarov, Siegfried Selberherr, Hiwa Mahmoudi, B. Gunnar Malm, Mattias Ekström, and Mikael Östling 5. Ferroelectric Tunnel Junctions as Ultra-Low-Power Computing Devices............... 157 Spencer Allen Pringle and Santosh K. Kurinec Section II Sensors, Interconnects, and Rectifiers 6. X-ray Sensors Based on Chromium Compensated Gallium Arsenide (HR GaAs:Cr)....................................................................................................................... 167 Anton Tyazhev and Oleg Tolbanov 7. Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers for Interconnects....................................... 195 Werner H. E. Hofmann 8. Low-Power Optoelectronic Interconnects on Two-Dimensional Semiconductors.................................................................................................................215 D. Keith Roper 9. GaN-Based Schottky Barriers for Low Turn-On Voltage Rectifiers.........................239 Nishant Darvekar and Santosh K. Kurinec
- 15. xii Contents 10. Compound Semiconductor Oscillation Device Fabricated by Stoichiometry Controlled-Epitaxial Growth and Its Application to Terahertz and Infrared Imaging and Spectroscopy................................................................................................ 267 Takeo Ohno, Arata Yasuda, Tadao Tanabe, and Yutaka Oyama Section III Systems Design and Applications 11. Low Power Biosensor Design Techniques Based on Information Theoretic Principles............................................................................................................287 Nicole McFarlane 12. Low-Power Processor Design Methodology: High-Level Estimation and Optimization via Processor Description Language.............................................301 Zheng Wang and Anupam Chattopadhyay 13. Spatio-Temporal Multi-Application Request Scheduling in Energy-Efficient Data Centers.........................................................................................................................343 Haitao Yuan, Jing Bi, and MengChu Zhou 14. Ultra-Low-Voltage Implementation of Neural Networks...........................................379 Farooq Ahmad Khanday, Nasir Ali Kant, and Mohammad Rafiq Dar 15. Multi-Pattern Matching Based Dynamic Malware Detection in Smart Phones......421 V. S. Devi, S. Roopak, Tony Thomas, and Md. Meraj Uddin Index..............................................................................................................................................443
- 16. xiii Preface Performance of electronic systems are limited by energy inefficiencies that result in over- heating and thermal management problems. Energy efficiency is vital to improving per- formance at all levels. This includes transistors to devices and to large Internet Technology and electronic systems, as well from small sensors for the Internet-of-Things (IoT) to large data centers in cloud and supercomputing systems. The electronic circuits in computer chips still operate far from any fundamental limits to energy efficiency. A report issued by the Semiconductor Industry Association and Semiconductor Research Corporation bases its conclusions on system-level energy per bit operation, which are a combination of many components such as logic circuits, memory arrays, interfaces, and I/Os. Each of these con- tributes to the total energy budget. For the benchmark energy per bit, as shown in Figure 1, computing will not be sustainable by 2040. This is when the energy required for comput- ing is estimated to exceed the world’s estimated energy production. The “benchmark” curve shows the growing energy demand for the system level energy per bit values of mainstream systems. The target system curve uses the practical lower limit system level energy per bit value, set by factors such as materials. The Landauer limit curve uses the minimal device energy per bit value provided by the Landauer’s Principle that relates to the Second Law of Thermodynamics to computation. As such, significant improvement in the energy efficiency of computing is needed. There is a consensus across the many technologies touched by our ubiquitous computing infrastructure that future performance improvements across the board are now severely limited by the amount of energy it takes to manipulate, store, and critically transport data. Revolutionary device concepts, sensors, and associated circuits and architectures that will greatly extend the practical engineering limits of energy-efficient computation are being investigated. Disruptive new device architectures, semiconductor processes, and emerging FIGURE 1 Estimated total energy expenditure for computing, directly related to the number of raw bit transitions. Source: SIA/SRC (Rebooting the IT Revolution: A Call to Action, Semiconductor Industry Association, September 2015).
- 17. xiv Preface new materials aimed at achieving the highest level of computational energy efficiency for general purpose computing systems need to be developed. This book will provide chap- ters dedicated to some of such efforts from devices to systems. The book is divided into three sections each consisting of five chapters. Section I is dedicated to device level research in developing energy efficient device structures. Non-planar finFETs dominate highly scaled processes, such as sub-20 nm, CMOS pro- cesses, due to their ability to provide lower leakage and enable continued power supply scaling (VDD). Chapter 1 gives a comprehensive overview of the finFET-based predic- tive process design kit (PDK) that supports investigation into both the circuit as well as physical design, encompassing all aspects of digital design. Prevention of various deg- radation mechanisms in transistors is the key to increase the reliability and efficiency of electronic systems. Chapter 2 discusses the understanding of molecular phenomena at the MOSFET channel/dielectric interface, focussing on ZrO2 system aimed at minimizing the degrading mechanisms in transistors. Chapter 3 provides an important insight into the nanotube Tunneling field effect transistors (TFETs) device, which promise to exhibit steep slope faster than the Boltzmann limit of 60 mV/dec. TFETs address two major challenges faced by aggressively scaled conventional CMOS technology; scaling the supply voltage (VDD) and minimizing the leakage currents. Chapter 4 gives an in-depth introduction and potential of spin based devices. It gives an overview of spintronic devices, circuits, and architecture levels that include thermally assisted (TA)-MRAM, STT-MRAM, domain wall (DW)-MRAM, spin-orbit torque (SOT)-MRAM, spin-transfer torque and spin Hall oscillators, logic-in-memory, all-spin logic, buffered magnetic logic gate grid, ternary con- tent addressable memory (TCAM), and random number generators. A large bottleneck for energy efficiency has long been the information storage units, which typically rely on charge-storage for programming and erasing. Chapter 5 describes the promise of fer- roelectric tunnel junctions (FTJs) as memristors. Memristor-based logic systems for XOR, XNOR, full-adder, DAC, and ADC outperform CMOS with as low as 50% the delay and 0.1% the power consumption. Section II deals with sensors, interconnects, and rectifiers aimed at consuming lower power. Chapter 6 provides insight into X-ray sensors based on chromium compensated GaAs for the development of modern X-ray imaging systems. Chapters 7 and 8 deal with opti- cal interconnects, which are actively being pursued to reduce power requirements and increase speed. Chapter 7 provides an overview of the challenges and developments of various types of Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VCSEL)-based interconnects. Optoelectronic interactions at interconnective hetero-interfaces between nanoparticles and two-dimensional semiconductors, motivated by their enhancement of electronic and photonic properties are described in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 investigates AlGaN/GaN het- erostructures based Schottky diodes with low turn-on voltage of Vf < 0.4V, and high break- down voltage of Vbr > 400V for applications in energy efficient 230V AC-DC rectifiers. In Chapter 10, the authors have discussed the stoichiometry-controlled crystal growth tech- nique and its application to compound semiconductor oscillation devices for extending to THz region The THz wave generators can be used in applications of non-destructive evaluation, safe for human tissues. Section III has five chapters aimed at low power system designs. The imminent concern of inherent physical noise with low power biosensing mixed sig- nal CMOS technology is addressed in Chapter 11. The information rate and bit energy have been incorporated into a design methodology for detecting weak signals in the presence
- 18. xv Preface of fixed system noise. Chapter 12 provides an overview of the high-level processor archi- tecture design methodologies using Architecture Description Languages (ADLs). Chapter 13 focuses on challenging problems related to energy-efficient Cloud Data Centers (CDC). It presents how to minimize the total cost of a CDC provider in a market, and how to migrate to green cloud data centers (GCDCs). The authors propose a Temporal Request Scheduling algorithm (TRS) that can achieve higher throughput and lower grid energy cost for a GCDC. Chapter 14 presents an innovative brain inspired approach of implement- ing neural network in hardware implementation for ultra-low-voltage implementation of the perceptron and the inertial neuron. The final chapter (Chapter 15) addresses a large system-level problem of malware attacks to mobile devices. It presents a multi-pattern matching based dynamic malware detection mechanism in smart phones as an alternative to machine learning based methods. The proposed mechanism is more efficient and uses fewer resources. Thus, this book brings together a wealth of information that will serve as a valuable resource for researchers, scientists, and engineers engaged in energy efficient designs of electronic devices, circuits, and systems. The editors express their sincere appreciation to the authors who have contributed their knowledge and expertise to this book. Special thanks to Nora Konopka and Erin Harris of Taylor & Francis Group/CRC Press for their publishing efforts and coordinating with the authors. The authors also express their sin- cere appreciation for Joanne Hakim, project manager of Lumina Datamatics, for coordi- nating the production of this book.
- 20. Another Random Scribd Document with Unrelated Content
- 24. The Project Gutenberg eBook of The battles of the British Army
- 25. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: The battles of the British Army being a popular account of all the principal engagements during the last hundred years Author: Robert Melvin Blackwood Release date: January 27, 2016 [eBook #51056] Most recently updated: October 22, 2024 Language: English Credits: Produced by Brian Coe, Wayne Hammond and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BATTLES OF THE BRITISH ARMY ***
- 26. The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain. THE BATTLES OF THE BRITISH ARMY The Battles OF THE British Army BEING A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF ALL THE PRINCIPAL ENGAGEMENTS DURING THE LAST HUNDRED YEARS BY Robert Melvin Blackwood, m.a.
- 27. AUTHOR OF “The British Army at Home and Abroad,” “Some Great Commanders,” &c., &c. THIRD EDITION LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT AND CO. LTD.
- 28. PREFACE. All phases of life and incident relating to the building up and consolidation of our Empire, ought to be of supreme interest to those who regard themselves as Britain’s sons. Fortunately the arts of peace, and the respect for justice and individual right, have had much to do with the growth of the greatest empire in the world’s history. At the same time, unfortunate though the case may be, the ordinance of battle has had no small share in the extension of the country’s interests. In acknowledging this unfortunate fact, it is so far consoling to realise that many of these conflicts have been thrust upon us, and were not sought on our part, in the interests of self- aggrandisement. It likewise is a matter for congratulation, that this battle feature in the future history of our country, is likely to prove much less than in the past. All wise and good men will strive towards this end. Even those who look on the appeal to arms as unavoidable in international controversies, concur in thinking it a deplorable necessity, only to be resorted to when all peaceful modes of arrangement have been vainly tried. And also, when the law of self- defence or of the defence of national interest justifies a state, like an individual, in using force to protect itself from imminent and serious injury. The battles, however, form a large and integral part of our past national history. And, so far as they are in the cause of right, we may well be proud of them. Our soldiers and generals may compare favourably with those of any other nationality. For bravery, indomitable pluck, and perseverance they never have been surpassed in the whole annals of history. A fearful and wonderful
- 29. interest is attached to these scenes of bloodshed. The intense love of country and honour, and the undeniable greatness of disciplined courage, which make soldiers confront death and destruction, excite our profound admiration. The powers also of the human intellect are rarely more strongly displayed than they are in the capable commander who regulates, arrays, and wields at his will the armed masses under him, and who, cool in the midst of fearful peril, is ready with fresh resources as the varying vicissitudes of battle require. Seeing that these splendid feats of arms and acts of patriotism, are the performances of our own fathers and brothers, intense interest in, and knowledge of their details, ought to be universal throughout the land. In the present volume will be found separate and popularly written narratives of all the principal engagements that have been fought by our soldiers during the last hundred years. They are arranged in chronological order, so that, in a sense, the volume comprises a popular military history for that lengthened period. Giving the battles by themselves, apart from the intervening transactions of lesser interest, and also the omission of political affairs, will no doubt prove a convenience to many.
- 30. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE THE BATTLE OF ALEXANDRIA—1801 13 CHAPTER II. THE BATTLE OF ASSAYE—1803 24 CHAPTER III. CAPTURE OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE—1806 30 CHAPTER IV. THE BATTLE OF MAIDA—1806 35 CHAPTER V. THE BATTLE OF ROLICA—1808 39 CHAPTER VI. THE BATTLE OF VIMIERO—1808 43 CHAPTER VII. THE BATTLE OF CORUNNA—1809 47 CHAPTER VIII. THE BATTLE OF TALAVERA—1809 60 CHAPTER IX. THE BATTLE OF BUSACO—1810 73 CHAPTER X. THE BATTLE OF BAROSA—1811 81 CHAPTER XI.
- 31. THE BATTLE OF FUENTES D’ONORO—1811 88 CHAPTER XII. THE BATTLE OF ALBUERA—1811 92 CHAPTER XIII. THE SIEGE OF RODRIGO—1812 98 CHAPTER XIV. THE SIEGE OF BADAJOZ—1812 103 CHAPTER XV. THE BATTLE OF SALAMANCA—1812 112 CHAPTER XVI. THE SIEGE OF BURGOS—1812 123 CHAPTER XVII. THE BATTLE OF VITORIA—1813 128 CHAPTER XVIII. THE BATTLES OF THE PYRENEES (Part First)—1813 138 CHAPTER XIX. THE SIEGE OF SAN SEBASTIAN—1813 145 CHAPTER XX. THE BATTLES OF THE PYRENEES (Part Second)—1813 149 CHAPTER XXI. THE BATTLES OF THE PYRENEES (Part Third)—1813 153 CHAPTER XXII. THE BATTLES OF THE PYRENEES (Part Fourth)—1814 159 CHAPTER XXIII. THE BATTLE OF TOULOUSE—1814 163 CHAPTER XXIV.
- 32. THE BATTLE OF QUATRE BRAS—1815 167 CHAPTER XXV. THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO—1815 177 CHAPTER XXVI. THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO (Continued)—1815 180 CHAPTER XXVII. THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO (Continued)—1815 187 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE BATTLE OF KEMMENDINE—1824 193 CHAPTER XXIX. THE BATTLE OF MELLOONE—1825 201 CHAPTER XXX. THE BATTLE OF PAGAHM-MEW—1825 206 CHAPTER XXXI. THE AFGHANISTAN DISASTERS—1838-39 208 CHAPTER XXXII. THE DEFEAT OF THE BILUCHIS—1842 211 CHAPTER XXXIII. THE BATTLE OF MOODKEE—1845 215 CHAPTER XXXIV. THE BATTLE OF FEROZEPORE—1845 223 CHAPTER XXXV. THE BATTLES OF ALIWAL AND SOBRAON—1846 226 CHAPTER XXXVI. THE BATTLE OF MARTABAN—1852 231 CHAPTER XXXVII.
- 33. THE BATTLE OF PEGU—1852 236 CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE BATTLE OF THE ALMA—1854 241 CHAPTER XXXIX. THE BATTLE OF BALACLAVA—1854 252 CHAPTER XL. THE BATTLE OF INKERMAN—1854 261 CHAPTER XLI. THE SIEGE OF SEBASTOPOL—1854-55 269 CHAPTER XLII. THE BATTLES OF BUSHIRE, KOOSHAB, AND MOHAMMERAH—1856-57 280 CHAPTER XLIII. THE BATTLES AT DELHI—1857 291 CHAPTER XLIV. THE BATTLES AT DELHI (Continued)—1857 299 CHAPTER XLV. THE BATTLES AT DELHI (Continued)—1857 308 CHAPTER XLVI. THE BATTLES AT CAWNPORE—1857 316 CHAPTER XLVII. THE RELIEF OF LUCKNOW—1857 326 CHAPTER XLVIII. THE RELIEF OF LUCKNOW (Continued)—1857 335 CHAPTER XLIX. THE FIGHTING AT ALLAHABAD—1857 344
- 34. CHAPTER L. THE FIGHTING AT FUTTEHGHUR—1857 349 CHAPTER LI. THE SIEGE OF KOTAH—1858 352 CHAPTER LII. THE FIGHTING AT JHANSI, ROOHEA, AND BAREILLY— 1857-58 356 CHAPTER LIII. THE CAPTURE OF CANTON—1857 364 CHAPTER LIV. THE BATTLES AT THE TAKU FORTS—1860 373 CHAPTER LV. THE BATTLE OF AROGEE—1863 382 CHAPTER LVI. THE STORMING OF MAGDALA—1868 388 CHAPTER LVII. THE BATTLES OF AMOAFUL AND ORDASHU—1874 393 CHAPTER LVIII. THE BATTLES WITH THE ZULUS—1879 401 CHAPTER LIX. THE BATTLE OF MAZRA—1880 413 CHAPTER LX. THE BATTLE OF TEL-EL-KEBIR—1882 420 CHAPTER LXI. THE BATTLE OF MINHLA—1885 430 CHAPTER LXII.
- 35. THE BATTLE OF THE ATBARA—1898 435 CHAPTER LXIII. THE BATTLE OF OMDURMAN—1898 444 CHAPTER LXIV. THE ADVANCE OF ROBERTS—1900 454 CHAPTER LXV. THE BATTLE OF JIDBALLI—1904 465 CHAPTER LXVI. THE BATTLE AT HOT SPRINGS—1904 469 THE BATTLES OF THE BRITISH ARMY
- 36. CHAPTER I. THE BATTLE OF ALEXANDRIA. 1801. In 1800, an attempt on Cadiz was planned and abandoned; and an army, the corps élite of Britain, was kept idly afloat in transports at an enormous expense, suffering from tempestuous weather, and losing their energies and discipline, while one scheme was proposed after another, only to be considered and rejected. By turns Italy and South America were named as countries where they might be successfully employed—but to both designs, on mature deliberation, strong objections were found; and on the 25th of October final orders were received from England, directing the fleet and army forthwith to rendezvous at Malta, and thence proceed to Egypt. The troops on reaching the island were partially disembarked while the ships were refitting; and the fresh provisions and salubrious air of Valetta soon restored many who had suffered from long confinement and salt rations. Five hundred Maltese were enlisted to serve as pioneers. Water-casks were replenished, stores laid in, the troops re-embarked; and on the 20th of December, the first division got under weigh, followed by the second on the succeeding day. Instead of sailing direct for their destination, the fleet proceeded to the Bay of Macri. Finding that roadstead too open, the admiral shaped his course for the coast of Caramania. There he was overtaken by a gale of wind—and though close to the magnificent harbour of Marmorrice, its existence appears to have been known, out of a fleet of two hundred vessels, only to the captain of a brig of
- 37. war. As the fleet were caught in a heavy gale on a lee shore, the result might have been most disastrous to the transports, who could not carry sufficient canvas to work off the land. Fortunately, Marmorrice proved a haven of refuge; and the surprise and pleasure of the soldiers can scarcely be described, when they found themselves in smooth water, and surrounded by the grandest scenery imaginable, “though, the instant before, the fleet was labouring in a heavy gale, and rolling in a tremendous sea.” Another landing of the troops took place, and no advantages resulted from it to compensate the loss of time which allowed the French to obtain strong reinforcements. Goat’s flesh was abundant, and poultry plentiful; but the Turks had probably been apprised beforehand of the munificence of the British, as every article was advanced on the arrival of the fleet four hundred per cent. in price. The remount of the cavalry formed an ostensible, almost an only reason, for the expedition visiting Asia Minor, and consuming time that might have been so successfully employed. The horses arrived, but from their wretched quality and condition they proved a sorry equivalent for the expense and trouble their acquisition cost. While the expedition was in the harbour of Marmorrice, an awful tempest came suddenly on, and raged with unintermitting fury for two days. It thundered violently—hailstones fell as large as walnuts —deluges of water rushed from the mountains, sweeping everything away. The horses broke loose—the ships drove from their anchors— the Swiftsure, a seventy-four, was struck with lightning—and many others lost masts, spars, and were otherwise disabled. Amid this elemental war, signal-guns fired from vessels in distress, and the howling of wolves and other wild animals in the woods, added to the uproar. After a protracted delay in waiting for the Turkish armament, which was expected to have been in perfect readiness, the expedition left the harbour without it on the 23rd of February. The sight, when the
- 38. fleet got under weigh, was most imposing; the men-of-war, transports, and store-ships amounting to one hundred and seventy- five sail. The British army was composed of the whole or portions of twenty- seven regiments, exclusive of artillery and pioneers.1 Its total strength in rank and file, including one thousand sick and five hundred Maltese, was fifteen thousand three hundred and thirty men. In this number all the attachés of the army were reckoned— and consequently the entire force that could have been combatant in the field would not exceed twelve thousand bayonets and sabres. This was certainly a small army with which to attack an enemy in possession of the country, holding fortified posts, with a powerful artillery, a numerous cavalry, and having a perfect acquaintance with the only places on the coast where it was practicable to disembark in safety. 1 EFFECTIVE STRENGTH OF THE EGYPTIAN ARMY. Guards—Major-General Ludlow. 1st, or Royals, 2nd battalions 54th and 92nd—Major- General Coote. 8th, 13th, 90th—Major-General Craddock. 2nd, or Queen’s, 50th, 79th—Major-General Lord Craven. 18th, 30th, 44th, 89th—Brigadier-General Doyle. Minorca, De Rolde’s, Dillon’s—Major-General Stuart. RESERVE.
- 39. 40th, Flank Company, 23rd, 28th, 42nd, 58th, Corsican Rangers—Major-General Moore. Detachment 11th Dragoons, 12th Dragoons, 26th Dragoons—Brigadier-General Finch. Artillery and Prince’s—Brigadier-General Lawson. On the 1st of March the Arab’s tower was in sight, and next morning the whole fleet entered Aboukir Bay.2 On the following morning a French frigate was seen running into Alexandria, having entered the bay in company with the British fleet. 2 The men-of-war brought up exactly in the place where the Battle of the Nile was fought, the Foudroyant chafing her cables on the wreck of the French Admiral’s ship. The anchor of the L’Orient was crept for and recovered. The weather was unfavourable for attempting a landing of the troops. This was a serious disappointment, and an accidental occurrence added to the inconvenience it would have otherwise caused. Two engineer officers, engaged in reconnoitring the coast, advanced too far into the bay through an over-zealous anxiety to mark out a landing-place. They were seen and overtaken by a French gunboat, who fired into the cutter, killing one of the engineers and making the other prisoner. The survivor was brought ashore, and forwarded to Cairo to General Menou; and thus, had the British descent been before doubtful, this unfortunate discovery would have confirmed the certainty of an intended landing, and allowed ample time for preparations being made to oppose it. The weather moderated in the morning of the 7th, and the signal was made by the flag-ship “to prepare for landing.” But the sea was still so much up that the attempt was postponed, and with the exception of an affair between the boats of the Foudroyant and a
- 40. party of the enemy, whom they drove from a block-house, that day passed quietly over. The 8th was more moderate—the swell had abated—and preparations for the landing commenced. At two o’clock the first division were in the boats, amounting to five thousand five hundred men, under General Coote; while the ships, on board of which the remainder of the army still remained, were anchored as near the shore as possible, to allow the landing brigades their immediate support. The right and left flanks of the boats were protected by launches and gun-brigs; three sloops of war, with springs from their cables, had laid their broadsides towards the beach; and the Fury and Tartarus had taken a position to cover the troops with the fire of their mortars. The French were drawn up on a ridge of sandhills, with an elevated hillock in their centre, and twelve pieces of artillery in position along their line. The moment was one of absorbing interest—and many a heart beat fast as, in half-companies, the soldiers stood under arms in the launches, impatiently waiting for the signal to advance. A gun was fired; off sprang the boats, while the men-of-war opened their batteries, and the bomb-vessels commenced throwing shells. The cannonade from the shipping was promptly returned by the French lines and Castle of Aboukir; while on swept the regiments towards the beach, under a furious discharge of shot and shells, and a torrent of grape and musketry, that ploughed the surface of the water, or carried death into the dense masses of men crowded in the launches. But nothing could exceed the glorious rivalry displayed by both services in advancing; while shot was hailing on the water, the sailors as the spray flashed from their oar-blades, nobly emulated each other in trying who should first beach his boat. Each cheered the other forward, while the soldiers caught the enthusiastic spirit and answered them with loud huzzas. The beach was gained, the 23rd and 40th jumped into the surf, reached the shore, formed as they cleared the water, and rushed boldly up the sandhills, never
- 41. attempting to draw a trigger, but leaving all to be decided by the bayonet. The French regiments that confronted them were driven from the heights; while pressing on, the Nole hills in the rear, with three pieces of artillery, were captured. The 42nd were equally successful; they formed with beautiful regularity in the face of a French battalion protected by two guns, and after defeating a charge of two hundred cavalry, stormed and occupied the heights. While these brilliant attacks had been in progress, the Guards were charged by the French dragoons in the very act of landing, and a temporary disorder ensued. The 58th had formed on the right, and, by a well-directed fire, repulsed the cavalry with loss. The Guards corrected their line, and instantly showed front, while the French, unable to shake the formation of the British, retired behind the sandhills. The transport boats had been outstripped by those of the men-of- war—and consequently, the Royals and 54th only touched the shore as the dragoons rode off. Their landing was, however, admirably timed; for a French column, under cover of the sandhills, was advancing with fixed bayonets on the left flank of the Guards. On perceiving these newly-landed regiments, its courage failed; it halted, delivered a volley, and then hastily retreated. The British had now possession of the heights; the brigade of Guards was formed and advancing, and the boats returning to the ships for the remainder of the army. Observing this, the enemy abandoned their position on the ridge, and, retiring behind the sandhills in the rear, for some time kept up a scattered fire. But on the British moving forward they deserted the ground entirely, leaving three hundred killed and wounded, eight pieces of cannon, and a number of horses to the victors. The remainder of the brigades were safely disembarked, Sir Ralph Abercrombie landed, and a position taken up, the right upon the sea, and the left on Lake Maadie.
- 42. A landing in the face of an enemy, prepared and in position like the French, under a heavy cannonade, and effected on a dangerous beach, would naturally occasion a severe loss of life; and several promising officers, and nearly five hundred men, were killed, wounded, and missing. The only surprise is, that the casualties were not greater. The mode in which an army is debarked exposes it unavoidably to fire, and troops, packed by fifties in a launch, afford a striking mark for an artillerist. Guns, already in position on the shore, enable those who work them to obtain the range of an approaching object with great precision; and the effect of a well-directed shot upon a boat crowded with troops is necessarily most destructive. After the army had been united, it advanced by slow marches, some trifling skirmishing daily occurring between the advanced posts. The British bivouac was at the town of Mandora, and Sir Ralph moved forward to attack the enemy, who were posted on a ridge of heights. The French, reinforced by two half brigades of infantry, a regiment of cavalry from Cairo, and a corps from Rosetta, mustered about five thousand five hundred of that arm, with five hundred horse, and five-and-twenty pieces of artillery. Their position was well chosen, as it stood on a bold eminence having an extensive glacis in its front, which would allow full sweep for the fire of its numerous and well- appointed artillery. The British attack was directed against the right wing, and in two lines the brigades advanced in columns of regiments, the reserve covering the movements, and marching parallel with the first. Immediately on debouching from a date-wood, the enemy descended from the heights, and the 92nd—the leading regiment on the left—was attacked by a furious discharge of grape and musketry; while the French cavalry charged down the hill, and threw themselves upon the 90th, which led the right column. Though the charge was most gallantly made, Latour Maubourg leading the dragoons at a gallop, a close and shattering volley from the 90th obliged them to turn along the front of the regiment, and retreat
- 43. with a heavy loss. A few of the leading files, however, had actually reached the line, and were bayoneted in a desperate effort to break it. The attempt failed, and in executing his duty gloriously, their gallant leader was desperately wounded. The British pushed the reserve into action on the right; the Guards, in the rear, to support the centre, and Doyle’s brigade, in column, behind the left. The French were on every point forced from their position—but, covered by the fire of their numerous guns and the fusilade of their voltigeurs, they retreated across the plain, and occupied their own lines on the heights of Alexandria. Dillon’s regiment during this movement made a brilliant bayonet charge, captured two guns, and turned them instantly on the enemy. Wishing to follow up this success, Sir Ralph attempted to carry the position by a coup de main; and advancing across the plain, he directed the brigades of Moore and Hutchinson to assault the flanks of the French position simultaneously. To attempt dislodging a force posted as the enemy were, could only end in certain discomfiture. The troops could make no way—a murderous fire of artillery mowed them down; “the French, no longer in danger, had only to load and fire: aim was unnecessary, the bullets could not but do their office and plunge into the lines.” For several hours the British remained, suffering this exterminating fire patiently; and at sunset, the order being given to fall back, the army retired and took up a position for the night. The British loss, its strength considered, was immense. Eleven hundred men were killed and wounded; while that of the enemy amounted barely to a third, with four field-pieces, which they were obliged to abandon. A strong position was now taken by Sir Ralph; the right reached the sea, resting on the ruins of a Roman palace, and projecting a quarter of a mile over heights in front. This promontory of sandhills and ruins was some three hundred yards across, sloping gradually to a valley, which divided it from the hills which formed the rest of the
- 44. lines. The extreme left appuied on two batteries, and Lake Maadie protected the rear—and the whole, from sea to lake, extended about a mile. In front of the right, the ground was uneven; but that before the centre would admit cavalry to act. The whole space had once been a Roman colony—and, on its ruined site, a hard-fought day was now about to be decided. The French position was still stronger than the British lines, as it stretched along a ridge of lofty hills, extending from the sea on one side to the canal of Alexandria on the other. A tongue of land in the advance of their right, ran nearly for a mile parallel with the canal, and had obliged the British posts to be thrown considerably back, and thus obliqued their line. In a classic and military view, nothing could be more imposing than the ground on which Menou’s army were encamped. In the centre stood Fort Cretin; on the left, Fort Caffarelli; Pompey’s Pillar showed boldly on the right; Cleopatra’s Needle on the left; while Alexandria appeared in the background, with its walls extending to the sea; and at the extremity of a long low neck of land, the ancient Pharos was visible. Wherever the eye ranged, objects of no common interest met it; some of the “wonders of the world” were contiguous; and “the very ruins under foot were sacred from their antiquity.” The British army had little leisure, and probably as little inclination, to indulge in classic recollections. The men were busily engaged in fortifying the position, bringing up guns for the batteries, and collecting ammunition and stores. The magazines were inconveniently situated; and to roll weighty spirit-casks through the deep sands was a most laborious task, and it principally devolved upon the seamen. The fuel was particularly bad, the billets being obtained from the date-tree, which it is almost impossible to ignite, and whose smoke, when kindling, pains, by its pungency, the eyes of all within its influence. Water was abundant, but of indifferent quality; and as Menou, with a most unjustifiable severity, inflicted death upon the Arabs who should be found bringing sheep to the
- 45. camp, the price of fresh provisions was high, and the supply precarious. On the 10th, an affair took place between an enemy’s patrol and a detachment of British cavalry, under Colonel Archdale. It was a very gallant, but very imprudent, encounter—a third of the men, and half the officers, being killed or taken. Another casualty occurred also, to the great regret of all. Colonel Brice, of the Guards, in going his rounds, was deceived by a mirage; and coming unexpectedly on an enemy’s post, received a wound of which he died the third day, a prisoner. Menou was reported to be advancing; and an Arab chief apprised Sir Sydney Smith, that the French intended an attack upon the British camp next morning. The information was discredited; but the result proved that it was authentic. On the 21st of March, the army, at three o’clock, as usual, stood to their arms, and for half an hour all was undisturbed. Suddenly, a solitary musket was fired, a cannon-shot succeeded it, and a spattering fusilade, broken momentarily with the heavier booming of a gun, announced that an attack was being made. The feebleness of the fire rendered it doubtful against what point the real effort of the French would be directed. All looked impatiently for daybreak, which, though faintly visible in the east, seemed to break more tardily the more its assistance was desired. On the right, a noise was heard; all listened in breathless expectation; shouts and a discharge of musketry succeeded; the roar increased; momentarily it became louder—there indeed the enemy were in force—and there the British line was seriously assailed. Favoured by broken ground, and covered by the haze of morning, the French had partially surprised the videts, attacked the pickets, and following them quickly, drove them back upon the line. One
- 46. column advanced upon the ruin held by the 58th, their drums beating the pas de charge, and the officers cheering the men forward. Colonel Houston, who commanded the regiment, fearing lest his own pickets might have been retiring in front of the enemy’s column, reserved his fire until the glazed hats of the French were distinguishable in the doubtful light. The 58th lined a wall partly dilapidated, but which in some places afforded them an excellent breastwork; and the twilight allowed the French column to be only distinctly seen when within thirty yards of the post. As the regiment occupied detached portions of the wall, where its greater ruin exposed it to attack, an irregular but well-sustained fusilade was kept up, until the enemy’s column, unable to bear the quick and well-directed musketry of the British, retired into a hollow for shelter. There they reformed, and wheeling to the right endeavoured to turn the left of the redoubt, while another column marched against the battery occupied by the 28th. On the front attack the regiment opened a heavy fire, but part of the enemy had gained the rear, and another body penetrated through the ruined wall. Thus assailed on every side, the 58th wheeled back two companies, who, after delivering three effective volleys, rushed forward with the bayonet. The 23rd now came to support the 58th, while the 42nd moved round the exterior of the ruins, cutting off the French retreat; and of the enemy, all who entered the redoubt were killed or taken. The situation of the 28th and 58th was, for a time, as extraordinary as it was dangerous, for at the same moment they were actually repelling three separate attacks, and were assailed simultaneously on their front, flanks, and rear. The 42nd, in relieving the 28th, was exposed to a serious charge of French cavalry. Nearly unperceived, the dragoons wheeled suddenly round the left of the redoubt, and though the ground was full of holes, rode furiously over tents and baggage, and, charging en masse, completely overthrew the Highlanders. In this desperate emergency, the 42nd, with broken ranks, and in that unavoidable confusion which, when it occurs, renders cavalry so irresistible,
- 47. fought furiously hand to hand, and opposed their bayonets fearlessly to the sabres of the French. The flank companies of the 40th, immediately beside them, dared not, for a time, deliver their fire, the combatants were so intermingled in the mêlée. At this moment General Stuart brought up the foreign brigade in beautiful order, and their heavy and well-sustained fusilade decided the fate of the day. “Nothing could withstand it, and the enemy fled or perished.” During this charge of cavalry, Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who had ridden to the right on finding it seriously engaged, advanced to the ruins where the contest was raging, after having despatched his aide-de- camp3 with orders to the more distant brigades. He was quite alone, and some French dragoons having penetrated to the spot, one, remarking that he was a superior officer, charged and overthrew the veteran commander. In an attempt to cut him down, the old man, nerved with a momentary strength, seized the uplifted sword, and wrested it from his assailant, while a Highland soldier transfixed the Frenchman with his bayonet. Unconscious that he was wounded in the thigh, Sir Ralph complained only of a pain in his breast, occasioned, as he supposed, by a blow from the pommel of the sword during his recent struggle with the dragoon. The first officer that came up was Sir Sydney Smith, who, having broken the blade of his sabre, received from Sir Ralph the weapon of which he had despoiled the French hussar. 3 A curious incident occurred immediately afterwards. An aide-de-camp of General Craddock, in carrying orders, had his horse killed, and begged permission of Sir Sydney Smith to mount a horse belonging to his orderly dragoon. As Sir Sydney was turning round to give the order to dismount, a cannon-shot took off the poor fellow’s head. “This,” said the Admiral, “settles the question; Major, the horse is at your service.” The cavalry being completely repulsed, Sir Ralph walked firmly to the redoubt on the right of the Guards, from which a commanding view
- 48. of the entire battlefield could be obtained. The French, though driven from the camp, still maintained the battle on the right, and charging with their reserve cavalry, attacked the foreign brigade. Here, too, they were resolutely repulsed; and their infantry finding their efforts everywhere unsuccessful, changed their formation and acted en tirailleur with the exception of one battalion, which still held a flèche in front of the redoubt, on either flank of which the Republican colours were planted. At this time the ammunition of the British was totally exhausted; some regiments, particularly the reserve, had not a single cartridge; and in the battery the supply for the guns was reduced to a single round. In consequence, the British fire on the right had nearly ceased, but in the centre the engagement still continued. There the attack had commenced at daybreak; a column of grenadiers, supported by a heavy line of infantry, furiously assailing the Guards, and driving in the flankers which had been thrown out to check their advance. Observing the echelon formation of the British, the French general instantly attempted to turn their left; but the officer commanding on that flank as promptly prevented it, by throwing some companies sharply back, while Coote’s brigade having come up, and opening its musketry, obliged the enemy to give way and retire. Finding the attack in column fail, the French broke into extended order and opened a scattered fusilade, while every gun that could be brought to bear by their artillery was turned on the British position. But all was vain; though suffering heavily from this murderous fire, the formation of the Guards was coolly corrected when disturbed by the cannonade, while the fine and imposing attitude of these regiments removed all hope that they could be shaken, and prevented any renewal of attack. The British left had never been seriously attempted, consequently its casualties were very few, and occasioned by a distant fire from the French guns, and a trifling interchange of musketry.
- 49. While the British right was, from want of ammunition, nearly hors de combat, the French approached the redoubt once more. They, too, had expended their cartridges, and both the assailants and assailed actually pelted the other with stones, of which missiles there was a very abundant supply upon the ground. A sergeant of the 28th had his skull beaten in by a blow, and died upon the spot. The grenadiers of the 40th, however, not relishing this novel mode of attack and defence, moved out to end the business with the bayonet. Instantly the assailants ran, the sharpshooters abandoned the hollows, and the battalion, following their example, evacuated the flèche, leaving the battle ground in front unoccupied by any save the dead and dying. Menou’s attempts had all been signally defeated. He perceived that the British lines had sustained no impression that would justify a continuation of the attack, and he determined to retreat. His brigades accordingly moved off under the heights of their position in excellent order; and though, for a considerable distance, they were forced to retire within an easy range of cannon shot, the total want of ammunition obliged the British batteries to remain silent, and permit the French march to be effected with trifling molestation. The cannon on the British left, and the guns of some men-of-war cutters, which had anchored close in with the land upon the right, kept up a galling fire, their shots plunging frequently into the French ranks, and particularly into those of a corps of cavalry posted on a bridge over the canal of Alexandria to observe any movement the British left might threaten. At ten o’clock the action had ended. Sir Ralph Abercrombie previously refused to quit the field, and remained exposed to the heavy cannonade directed on the battery where he stood, until perfectly assured that the French defeat had been decisive. From what proved a fatal wound he appeared at first to feel but little inconvenience, complaining only of the contusion on his breast. When, however, the day was won, and exertion no longer necessary, nature yielded, and in an exhausted state he was carried in a
- 50. hammock off the field, accompanied by the tears and blessings of the soldiery. In the evening he was removed, for better care, on board the flag-ship, where he continued until his death. Immediate attention was bestowed upon the wounded, who, from the confined nature of the ground on which the grand struggles of the day had occurred, were lying in fearful numbers all around. Many of the sufferers had been wounded by grapeshot, others mangled by the sabres, or trodden down by the horses of the cavalry. Death had been busily employed. Of the British, two hundred and forty were dead, including six officers; eleven hundred and ninety men and sixty officers wounded; and thirty privates and three officers missing. Other casualties had occurred. The tents had been shred to pieces by the French guns, and many of the wounded and sick, who were lying there, were killed. No wonder could be expressed that the loss of life had been so terrible, for thousands of brass cannon-balls were lying loosely about, and glistening on the sands. The French loss had been most severe. One thousand and fifty bodies were buried on the field of battle, and nearly seven hundred wounded were found mingled with the dead. The total loss sustained by Menou’s army could not have been much under four thousand; and in this the greater portion of his principal officers must be included. General Roiz was found dead in the rear of the redoubt, and the French order of battle discovered in his pocket. Near the same place two guns had been abandoned, and these, with a stand of colours, fell, as trophies of their victory, to the conquerors. No army could have behaved more gallantly than the British. Surrounded, partially broken, and even without a cartridge left, the contest was continued and a victory won. That the French fought bravely, that their attacks were vigorously made, and, after discomfiture, as boldly repeated, must be admitted; and that, in becoming the assailant, Menou conferred an immense advantage on the British, is equally true. There Menou betrayed want of judgment;
- 51. for had he but waited forty-eight hours the British must have attacked him. Indeed, the assault was already planned; and, as it was to have been made in the night, considering the strength of their position, and the fine matériel of the Republican troops, a more precarious trial could never have been hazarded. But the case was desperate; the successes of the 8th and 13th—and dearly bought, though gloriously achieved, they were—must have been rendered nugatory, unless forward operations could have been continued. In short, Menou fought Abercrombie’s battle, and he who must have been assailed, became himself the assailant. Military criticism, like political disquisitions, comes not within the design of a work merely intended to describe the action of the battle, or the immediate events that preceded or resulted; but, if the truth were told, during these brief operations, from the landing to the evening of the 21st, mistakes were made on both sides. The military character of Britain had been sadly lowered by mismanagement at home, and still more ridiculously undervalued abroad, and it remained for future fields and a future conqueror to re-establish for Britain a reputation in arms, and prove that the island-spirit wanted only a field for its display. After lingering a few days, the French Generals Lannuse and Bodet died of their wounds; and on the evening of the 28th March the British army had to lament the decease of their gallant and beloved commander. An attempt to extract the ball, attended with great pain, was unsuccessful. Mortification ensued, Sir Ralph sank rapidly, and while his country and his army engrossed his every thought, he expired, full of years and honour, universally and most justly lamented. The eulogy of his successor in command thus concludes:—“Were it permitted for a soldier to regret any one who has fallen in the service of his country, I might be excused for lamenting him more than any other person; but it is some consolation to those who tenderly loved him, that as his life was honourable so was his death
- 52. glorious. His memory will be recorded in the annals of his country, will be sacred to every British soldier, and embalmed in the recollection of a grateful posterity.”
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