![依然是特殊 ( 小批量 ) 产品 Intel Very Short Optics Interconnection Products Fiber to Home (EPON): AWG, Beam Splitter, etc. (Enablance) "For us doing a [line side] PIC in a big way without standards is risky,” Matt Traverso, senior manager, technical marketing at Opnext (Sept. 2008)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/frontierinoptomechatronicsv8-111027052149-phpapp01/85/Frontier-in-OptoMechaTronics-39-320.jpg)
Frontier in OptoMechaTronics
- 1. Frontier in OptoMechatronics 光机电一体化的前沿 Jin Lu, Ph.D. 吕锦博士 F ounder & CEO 创始人兼首席执行官 Extreme Ultra Precision Ottawa Laser Inc. 渥太华极端超精密激光公司 Ottawa ON Canada 加拿大安大略省渥太华市 － Emphasizing Optoelectronics Packaging & System Integration 强调光电封装及系统集成的重要性
- 2. About Speaker: Dr. Jin Lu received B.S. and M.S in Mechanical Eng. from CSU (P.R. China) in 1981 and 1985 respectively. Dr. Lu received Ph.D. in Optics, mechanical and electronics eng. from Ghent U. (Belgium) in 1994. He was post doctorial research follows in BECETL in 1995 and CAMT U. Sydney Australia in 1996, and & Visiting Scholar in UCSD in Summer 1995. Dr. Lu has been working in Ottawa Optics Valley (Canada Capital Region) and Silicon Valley (CA, U.S.A.) as senior opto-mechanical packaging engineer. Dr. Lu has been one of the pioneers in the development of engineering sciences and manufacturing technologies for photonics/biophotonics packaging applications since 1997. He worked for JDSU and Nortel. He co-founded a start-up EXUPOLI
- 3. Contents 导言：电脑整机的小型化趋势 (P.4 ~P.9) 极短距离光纤互连 (Optics Interconnection) (P.10 ~ P.16) 高新技术发展及光电子学（产业）的关系 (P.17 ~ P. 23) 光电产品的封装及系统集成的挑战 (P.24 ~ P.31) 《工程技术人员应用的许可营销理论》 (P. 32 ~ P. 35) Case Studies 案例研究 (6 Cases) (P.36 ~ P.56) Conclusions 结论（ P.57 ） Acknowledgements 致谢（ P.58 ）
- 4. Introduction: Miniaturization of Computer Hardware I. 导言：电脑整机的小型化趋势 The End of Moore's Law 摩尔定律的终结 The Paradigm Shift from Microelectronics Age to OptoElectronics Age 从微电子时代向光电子时代的模式转移
- 5. 2010 Wangjialing Coal Mine Flood 王家岭矿透水事故救援 Began on Sunday, March 28, 2010 (153 workers trapped in 9 in nine different platforms of the mine Some 3,000 people have been working round the clock for eight days (to April 5) to try to pump out water and reach the trapped miners 114 of the 153 missing miners have been rescued
- 6. 机器人制造机器人并受雇于危险行业 Robotics Made by Robotics – Generic Evaluation of Man Made Specie, Which will be Employed by Notoriously Dangerous Industries.
- 7. 开发下一代机器人将面临的挑战 History of Using Computer Assisted Hunan Activities: Office & Business Machines, such as: Word Process, Banking, Taxation, Human Resources & Government Budget (Leading by USA) Control Manufacture, Smart Infrastructure & Military Weapons, such as, Robotics Assemblers, CNC Machine (Leading By Japan); no-man Tank/disassemble mines & Spy Aircrafts (Leading By USA & Canada) One G Robotics Reproduce Next G Robotics & Robotics Replaces Hunan Labors 机器人种发展的需求和希望之一 : 计算机硬件小型化 (Intel, IBM & HP, AMD, Apple, RIM, SUN, Nortel …) Artificial Intelligence Software New Computer Architectures, such as Quantum Computing
- 8. 摩尔定律的终结 Moore's Law: the density of microprocessors would double every 18 months Ultimate limits of Moore's Law (wavelength of light used in Photolithography, atomic scale & thermo-noises by localized heating) By 2019 the current strategy of ever finer photolithography will have run its course
- 9. Engineering Ways Around the Roadblocks in 5 Year DUV (Deep-UltraViolet, 193-nanometer) Optical Lithography Achieved 29.9 nm Wide Print Circuitry (IBM, 2006) Immersion Lithography (HP, April 2008) Extend 193 nm Lmmersion Lithography with Double (or Triple) Patterning to 15 nm (Intel, 2015) (Disclosed in September 2009)
- 10. II. Very Short Distance Optics Interconnection 极短距离光纤互连 One of the Optics Solutions for the End of the Moore's Law
- 11. 极短距离光纤互连 (Optical Interconnection) Challenges: One of the Optics Solutions to the L imit of Moore's Law PC Board to Board Electric Wiring 10G limit Optical Interconnection 10G, 40G & 100G Terabits Interconnection N ew generation of low-cost photonic s integrated circuits (PIC) Could PIC take the whole communication photonics from bottom up in 2 decades? (Intel is leading the way, but still clumsily…) Why ?
- 12. 光电通信技术轨迹的二元性 EXUPOLI Predicts that since manufacturing technologies (Discrete, Hybrid & PIC) are pushing in both top-down & bottom up directions, the hybrid assembly solutions might last for at lest one or two decades. The ultimate winner will be PIC solution provider. How Long, 20Y?
- 13. 基于硅光电的光通信元 ( 组 ) 件 Silicon Laser (Generating Light) Silicon Waveguide (Selective Guiding & Transporting Light) Silicon Modulator (Encoding Light) Silicon Detector (Detecting Light) Device Packaging Intelligently Controlling All of these Photonic Functions.
- 14. Intel 平台
- 15. 中央处理器 (CPU) 的光学互连 Today, Optics is a niche technology. Tomorrow, it’s the mainstream of very chip that we build. (Sr. VP of Intel)
- 16. 硅激光器面临的挑战 Silicon Laser When voltage is applied to the contacts, current flows, and the electrons (-) and holes (+) recombine in the center and generate light. Intel Solution: Integrate the light-emitting capabilities of Indium Phosphide with the light-routing and low cost advantages of silicon. Duke U Solution (P-down Packaging Solution): Thin-film In0.2Ga0.8As/GaAs SQW deposited on Si
- 17. III. 高科技发展与光电子学的关系 III. The Relationship Between Hi-Tech Development and Optoelectronics
- 18. 二十一世纪是光电子学的时代 21 st century – the Age of opto-electronics 硅微电子技术发展已接近物理极限（十年左 右） Silicon based microelectronics approaches its physical limits in 10 years 从 1997 到 2009 年有十二人分享与光电子技术直接相关的四次诺贝尔物理奖 From 1997 to 2009, four Nobel prizes in Physics are shared by 12 winners 1997 ( 朱棣文 – 现 任美 国 能源部部長 ) Steven Zhu 2000 2005 2009 ( 高锟 -1970 年迄今任香港中文大学教授， 1987-1996 年任该校校长 ) Charles Kuen Kao
- 19. 1997 ~ 2009 激光有关 诺贝尔奖统计 Total Number of Nobel Prizes = 5 诺贝尔奖总数 = 5 Number of Nobel Prizes in Physics = 4 诺贝尔物理奖数 = 4 Number of Nobel Prize in Chemistry = 1 诺贝尔化学奖数 = 1 Number of Nobel Laureates = 13 诺贝尔奖获得者 = 13 Laureates in Physics = 12 (3 for each) 诺贝尔物理奖获得者 = 12 （四奖均为三人共享） Laureate in Chemistry =1 诺贝尔化学奖获得者 = 1 Laser is very important in the progresses of today’s Sciences and technology. 激光在今天的科学技术研究中起着至关重要的作用。
- 20. 以上诺贝尔奖给我辈的启示 Laser Extended Human Capability in Observing and M anipulating Nature 激光大大扩展了人类观察和控制自然的能力 Laser is One of the Three Most Important Cornerstones that Modern Information Technology Built on (I ntegrated C ircuit , S emiconductor H eterostructures , ‘both in Y2K Nobel Physics Prize’, and Low Loss SM Optics Fiber) 激光是现代信息技术的三大奠基石之一（表现在 Y2K 诺贝尔奖中集成电路，半导体异质结及低损耗单模光纤的有关技术应用中 )
- 21. 光电子产业的 5 个部分 CC Photonics (Communication & Computing) Biophotonics Sensing Photonics (Fiber Optics Sensor Networks) AC Photonics (Art & Consumer) Green Photonics Total: $968 Billion in 2018
- 22. 世界光电市场 OE will support our new lifestyle create $1T OE direct & $MT enabled business in 10 Y
- 23. 与光电子学息息相关的十大工业 ( 百万万亿 $ 市值 ) 10 industrial sectors strongly tied with opto-electronics($1MT)
- 24. IV. The Challenges in Optoelectronics Packaging & System Integration 光电产品的封装及系统集成的挑战 What Today’s Mechanical & OptoMechatronics Engineering Students in China Need to Know? 当今中国的机械和光机电工程师需知什么 ?
- 25. Optoelectronic Packaging Fundamentals A Textbook (Bentham Science Publishers Ltd., Oak Park, IL USA, 2011) Coauthored By: Jin Lu, Ph.D. in OptoMechatronics (U. Gent, 1994) Founder & Director, Extreme Ultra Precision Ottawa Laser Inc. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Rong Liu, Ph.D. in Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering () Professor in Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada The book Consists of 18 Chapters within 3 Parts
- 27. Optoelectronic Packaging Engineering Optoelectronics is the study and application of optoelectronic devices that interact with light, and thus is usually considered a sub-field of photonics . The optoelectronic packaging engineering is an engineering discipline that involves the creative application of scientific principles to design or develop the enclosures, protective and interconnection mechanism, which have to be built into the optoelectronic apparatus itself, or manufacturing processes to make it, or mathematics formulation to predict its behaviors under specific operating conditions.
- 28. Harnessing Light: Optical Science and Engineering for the 21 st Century Report by COSE (Committee on Optical Science and Engineering) by the National Academy in 1998: “ the relative lack of translation of laboratory bench top research into technology to improve or enable non-invasive clinical diagnostic measurements (i.e., blood gas / chemistry, serum markers, glucose monitoring, pharmacokinetics, etc.) ”
- 30. 光电封装与系统集成是光电业发展的瓶颈 光电封装中有大量非自动化装配工艺环节导致光电子器相对昂贵： 任何信号处理应用光电子器比微电子器更快，但高科技产品厂商，例计算机，互联网和电信有关的设备，一直面临两难的局面：即基于硅和铜导线的许多设备和制造工艺便宜，但无法提高传数速率 缺乏连接光电工商业研发与光电学术研究之间鸿沟的通用桥梁 介于传统光电封装技术和全光子集成电路制造技术之间的“光电封装与系统集成的柔性制造系统” TM 是扩破瓶颈的一个行之有效方法
- 31. The Challenges Are Interdisciplinary Technical Hurdles 光机电一体化是光机电三学科形成的交叉科学 , 急需培养知识面广阔的领军人才 光电封装与系统集成是光电及相关产品上市的最为关键的一步 《工程技术人员用许可营销理论》为指导下建构的许可谐振腔可成为新产品开发成功的重要保证
- 32. Permission Marketing for Engineers & Technicians 《工程技术人员用许可营销理论》 Turning Strangers into Friends, and Friends into Customers Constructing Permission Cavity to Achieve Resonant Effects Between One’s Product Development Team & Customers’ Team
- 33. 《工程技术人员用许可营销理论》 Coauthored By Dr. Jin Lu & Dr. Rong Liu Based on Lessons Learned from the History that Leads to the Bankruptcy of Nortel Networks (1999 ~ 2009) Three Parts 16 Chapters: Party I: Generic Marketing Fundamentals (6 Chapters) Party II: Permission Marketing (5 Chapters) Party III: Case Studies (5 Chapters: CISCO, Dell, Google, Sun Microsystems, Nortel Networks and Huawei)
- 34. 《工程技术人员用许可营销理论》
- 35. 《工程技术人员用许可营销理论》 In 7P Mixture, NPI (New Product Introduction) is in a Chaos In 8P Wheel, NPI (New Product Introduction) is Well Planned & Controlled
- 36. Six Case Studies 六个案件的研究
- 37. Case Contents: Case I: PIC from Bell OIC Lab to Intel Photonics Lab (40 Years Rocky Road, still Niche Products) (P.38 ~39) Case II: SMART DNA Sequencing Instrument (10 Years, Start-up, $150 M Venture Capital Investments) (P.40 ~ 42) Case III: DynaPro™ Plate Reader $5 Achieving S/N 1000 Times (P.43 ~ 44) Case IV: Nanosolar Utility Panel™ (P.45 ~ 53) Case V: Image Sensors in Vehicular Applications (P.54 ~ 55) Case VI: Laser Cannons Made in USA (P.56 ~)
- 38. Case I: Integrated Optics Circuits (Why 40 Ys?) Optical Integrated Circuits (OIC ) was originated by Stewart Miller of Bell Labs in 1969. Header of OIC in Bell Lab for 30 Ys Dr. Mario Paniccia, Director, Photonics Technology Lab, Intel Corporation (Intel Fellow) Introducing Intel’s Advances in Silicon Photonics (White Paper, 2004) Silicon Modulator (10 Gbps in 2005) Hybrid Silicon Laser (Intel & UCSB, 2006)
- 39. 依然是特殊 ( 小批量 ) 产品 Intel Very Short Optics Interconnection Products Fiber to Home (EPON): AWG, Beam Splitter, etc. (Enablance) "For us doing a [line side] PIC in a big way without standards is risky,” Matt Traverso, senior manager, technical marketing at Opnext (Sept. 2008)
- 40. Case II: Single Molecule Real Time (SMRT™) DNA 测序 ($1Bn Market) 仪器 Schematic Diagram of Reversed Confocal Illumination and Spectroscopy Scheme (Pacific Biosciences) (Why Long NPI?) 1G: 13 Ys & $3 Bn a Human Genome Project. 2G: not Suitable for personalized medicine 3G: 1K Genome $266 million VCs & 340 People NIH Awarded $6.6 M Founded in 2004
- 41. Key Technologies SMRT Cell & ZMW Each SMRT Cell Contains Thousands of ZMWs (Zero-Mode Waveguides). Each ZMW is a Cylindrical Hole, Tens of Nanometers in Diameter, Perforating a Thin Metal Film Supported by a Transparent Substrate Each ZMW Becomes a Nanophotonic Visualization Chamber Providing a Detection Volume of just (10 -21 liters) so that Single Molecule Can Be Detected.
- 42. SMRT™ Technology Problem of Background Interference. For Proper Functioning, DNA Polymerase Requires a High Concentration of Labeled Nucleotides, Which Creates a Fuorescent Background Thousands of Times Brighter than the Signal of a Single Incorporation Event. ZMW with DNA Polymerase and Phospholinked Nucleotides. Phospholinked Nucleotides are Added into the ZMW at the High Concentrations Required by the Enzyme.
- 43. Case III: Wyatt Technology Dynamic Light Scattering Instruments Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS): In a DLS Measurement, Time-Dependent Fluctuations in the Scattered Light Signal are Measured Ssing a Fast Photon Counter, Determining the Hydrodynamic Radius of Macromolecules or Particles.
- 44. DynaPro™ (Protein Solutions™) Plate Reader DynaPro™ Plate Reader™ In Nov. 2005, OZ Optics Team & Wyatt Technology Team Invented Remote Reflector to Stabilize the This Instrument S/N 1000 Time Achieved with Cost of $5 Testimonial on the Dynapro™ Platereader™: "I found that the instrument worked as well as one of your cuvette models, and the ability to do multiplexed kinetic and thermal assays, not to mention taking measurements in triplicate was fantastically useful." -Professor of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- 45. Case IV: Nanosolar Utility Panel™ Solar Photonics: The Sun daily provides about 10 000 times more energy to the Earth than we consume
- 46. World Solar Photovoltaic Market Grew to 5.95 Gigawatts ($37.1 billion) in 2008 Growth of 110% over the previous year Europe accounted for 82% of world demand in 2008 Spain's 285% growth pushed Germany into second place in the market ranking, US advanced to number three
- 47. New Nano PV Materials Challenges Need & Want: Solar Silicon Shortage Silicon Prices from $20-25/kilogram in 2004 to $100-200/kilogram in 2006 Silicon is Made from Silica – Sand Releasing 1.5 tons of carbon dioxide per ton of silicon. Most Solar Cell Silicon Made from the Rejects from the Computer Chip Industry (Poly-Crystalline Silicon with 15~20% Efficiency A Challenge for Today’s OptoMechanics Engineering Students: The world Market for PV Manufacturing Equipment is Forecast to exceed $9.2 billion in 2013 with $3 BN of Thin Film Equipment
- 48. Green Chip - Silicon Solar Cell (PV) Silicon is the main raw material in 90% of solar PV cells (Avg. 20.37% Efficiency).
- 49. Changing the Path: the 2nd Trajectory of the Solar Photonics Courtesy of Michael Lebby (President & CEO of OIDA)
- 50. The Duality of the Trajectory of the Solar Photonics
- 51. Production Process Each of our production steps is geared towards achieving high intrinsic throughput so that we can produce solar cells and panels with superior cost and capital efficiency: Nanoparticle Ink Printed Foil & Cell Formation Panel Assembly
- 52. Roll-to- R oll P rocessing (Reduce Cost)
- 53. Automated Solar Panel Assembly Line (one solar panel every ten seconds) Rapid Thermal Processing (RTP) Tool in Nanosolar's Cell Manufacturing Facility
- 54. Case V: Image Sensors in Vehicular Applications (Your Turn?)
- 55. Volvo’s Collision Warning System Sources: Volvo, Kodak Collision avoidance systems that could also be potentially linked to the brake system and smart air-bag deployment
- 56. Case VI: Laser Cannons Made in USA Boeing's Advanced Tactical Laser (ATL) Boeing had fitted a high-energy ( Chemical Oxygen Iodine ) Laser cannon aboard a C-130 Hercules military cargo plane, creating a "Laser Gunship“, which could be the raygun for conventional war. (Dec. 2007)
- 57. Boeing Laser Cannon Boeing's new laser cannon can melt a hole in a tank from five miles away and 10,000 feet up— 'Tactical' raygun weighs only 20 tonnes
- 58. Laser Cannons A $36 million contract to Boeing: "continue developing a truck-mounted, high-energy laser weapon system” (Aug. 2008) Laser Centurion Demonstrator developed by Raytheon, combines proven radar and threat-detection technology (Feb. 2009)
- 59. Conclusions 结论 二十一世纪是光电子的时代 , 未来光电子学及产业大发展将源于激光技术，特别表现在激光精密光谱技术，计算机视觉和光能传输（ 2005 和 2009 年诺贝尔物理奖）方面，以及激光与其他现代信息工业，例如与新型商务管理科学和光封装技术相结合的方向上 。 光电子产业的直接年产值在 2020 年将超过一万亿美元。亦是年产值超过一百万万亿美元的十大工业的关键子产业。 光电子元件封装和系统集成是一个跨学科的工程学分支。共同存在于两个或两个以上主要工程分支部门的技术障碍对工程师们极具挑战性。这些技术障碍阻碍了产品生命周期管理的正常营运。此类问题，当人们在研究和开发与颠覆性（持续性）技术相关的创（革）新产品时，更为突出。 当代光机电设计工程师应掌握一定程度的现代营销知识才能无往而不胜。
- 60. Acknowledgements 致谢 加拿大国家研究院工业研究援助计划委员会 (NRC-IRAP) 统管的“加拿大政府首选创新和技术援助计划”的部分资助 加拿大 Ottawa University & Carleton University 的合作 清华 , 北大 , 苏州大学 , 深大 , 浙大 , 中南大学和港中大等大学的邀请
Editor's Notes
- #4: Permission Marketing for Engineers
- #8: Computers Faster Only for 75 More Years
- #9: In April 2005, Intel offered $10,000 to purchase a copy of the original Electronics Magazine. David Clark, an engineer living in the UK, was the first to find a copy and offer it to Intel.
- #12: Moore's law : Moore's law describes an important trend in the history of computer hardware : that the number of transistors that can be inexpensively placed on an integrated circuit is increasing exponentially , doubling approximately every two years In early 2006, IBM researchers announced that they had developed a technique to print circuitry only 29.9 nm wide using deep-ultraviolet (DUV, 193-nanometer) optical lithography . 2. Bringing Light to Silicon (http://www.technologyreview.com/Infotech/17519/)
- #15: MMI – Monolithic Memories, Inc. ( MMI ) produced bipolar PROMs, programmable logic device s, and logic circuits (including 7400 series TTL). A team of MMI engineers,under the direction of Ze'ev Drori and headed by John Birkner and H. T. Chua, invented the class of devices known as Programmable Array Logic ( PAL ). MMI was founded in 1969 by former Fairchild Semiconductor engineer Ze'ev Drori , later the President and CEO of Tesla Motors . MMI was acquired by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) in 1987, though AMD later spun off their programmable logic division as Vantis , which was then acquired by Lattice Semiconductor . The source of this article is wikipedia , the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL . Intel’s long experience with silicon fabrication led it to examine other approaches. In the course of these investigations, Intel discovered that complimentary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)—the same technology used in all Pentium® 4 processors today—could be used to modulate the light at much higher speeds. The transistor-like structure can be embedded in the optical waveguides (the passageways through which the light travels in silicon). Intel’s long experience with silicon fabrication led it to examine other approaches. In the course of these investigations, Intel discovered that complimentary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)—the same technology used in all Pentium® 4 processors today—could be used to modulate the light at much higher speeds. The transistor-like structure can be embedded in the optical waveguides (the passageways through which the light travels in silicon).
- #16: number of interconnects per area
- #17: single quantum well (SQW)
- #19: "for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light" “ for basic work on information and communication technology” "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics" "for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit" "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence" "for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique“ “ for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication” ； "for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit – the CCD sensor" http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8292372.stm “ for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication” “ 因其在光通信中光在光纤中的传输方面所做的奠基性的工作” “ for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit – the CCD sensor” “ 因他们在成像半导体电路 - CCD 传感器方面的发明”
- #22: Our Focus will be in Communication Photonics C Photonics - Textile Photonics - Philips and France Telecom CyberDisplay – Cyber goggles Printed photonics Technologies
- #23: Optical Fiber Components (orange) SSL – 40 B in 2018 FPD – Flat Panel Display = Big 3: Display/TV, Computing & Solar -> 500 Billion in 2018 Global photonics components market from $345B (2007) to $608B (2018)
- #24: 多核芯片集成电路处理器需要从芯片到芯片电互连技术 a multitrilliondollar worldwide market
- #26: References: Optoelectronics (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectronics) Early Observations on the Prosecutions of the Business Scandals of 2002-03:
- #28: References: Optoelectronics (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectronics) Early Observations on the Prosecutions of the Business Scandals of 2002-03:
- #29: The NRC strongly recommended initiatives to assemble expert, multi-disciplinary teams comprised of physical and life scientists, engineers and physicians to (1) elucidate the mechanisms of transport and interaction of photons in biomaterials; (2) identify critical areas where photonics could significantly impact biomedical research and clinical medicine; and (3) exploit these opportunities by developing the appropriate photonic technology (e.g., light sources, detectors or imaging systems) and/or methodology. The NRC also recommended government funding and resources to support these initiatives and to promote multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional research as a new paradigm.
- #39: In the course of these investigations, Intel discovered that complimentary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)—the same technology used in all Pentium® 4 processors today—could be used to modulate the light at much higher speeds.
- #40: photonic integration is the clear long-term winner, but for now he remains cautious
- #41: NHGRI (National Human Genome Research Institute) of the NIH (National Institute of Health) awarded
- #42: Exploiting DNA polymerase as a sequencing engine requires single molecule detection. DNA polymerization is a stochastic process, where intervals between incorporation events typically vary. Thus a population of polymerases even acting on the same template would quickly become out of phase with each other. Figure 1. Problem of background interference. For proper functioning, DNA polymerase requires a high concentration of labeled nucleotides, which creates a fluorescent background thousands of times brighter than the signal of a single incorporation event. Existing single molecule detection techniques are limited to low nanomolar concentrations to reduce the background fluorescence of other nucleotides in solution. At higher concentrations, hundreds or thousands of labeled molecules flood the detection volumes of these microscope systems (Figure 1) . This creates a high background noise level, against which it is not possible to detect individual fluorophores. However, polymerases require this high concentration level, without which the speed, accuracy, and processivity of the enzyme all suffer. http://www.pacificbiosciences.com/index.php?q=observation-window
- #43: zero-mode waveguides
- #46: Photovoltaic= Photovoltaik = 光伏
- #54: Applying the latest in robotics—primarily from the automotive industry—and even reinventing lamination tooling enables us to assemble cells into panels with high throughput and the highest quality.
- #59: The Land & See Transported Laser Cannons provide defense from ground, air and missile threats, as well as other mortar and artillery attacks