Learning in psychology | What is learning?
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The document outlines various types of learning, primarily focusing on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, latent learning, and observational learning. It highlights key figures such as Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, explaining fundamental principles and processes associated with each conditioning type. Concepts such as reinforcement, punishment, generalization, and the role of models in observational learning are also discussed.
Learning in psychology | What is learning?
- 1. Ali-007
- 2. Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
- 3. Types of learning •Conditioning: •Classical conditioning •Operant/operational/instrumental/func tional conditioning •Cognitive learning: •Latent learning •Observational learning
- 4. Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which people (or any organism) learns to associate two stimuli that occur in sequence. • Classical conditioning occurs when a person forms a mental association between two stimuli, so that encountering one stimulus means the person thinks of the other • Stimulus (the plural is stimuli): any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds.
- 5. Classical conditioning Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian physician/ neurophysiologist Nobel Prize in 1904 studied digestive secretions
- 6. Classical Conditioning Pavlov and Classical Conditioning • Ivan Pavlov organized and directed research in physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg, Russia, from 1891 until his death 45 years later. • The Institute of Experimental Medicine is where he conducted his classic experiments on the physiology of digestion, which won him a Nobel Prize in 1904.
- 7. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
- 8. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlov’s device for recording salivation
- 9. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlov and Classical Conditioning (continued) Pavlov conducted a study on dogs where he collected the saliva that the dogs would secrete naturally in response to food placed inside the mouth; he observed saliva collecting when the dogs heard the bell
- 10. Ivan Pavlov’s laboratory •The dogs were isolated inside soundproof cubicles and placed in harnesses to restrain their movements. •The experimenter observed the dogs through a one-way mirror. •Food and other stimuli were presented and the flow of saliva measured by remote control.
- 11. • 1. The acquisition phase is the initial learning of the conditioned response—for example, the dog learning to salivate at the sound of the bell. 2. Extinction is used to describe the elimination of the conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. • If a dog has learned to salivate at the sound of a bell, an experimenter can gradually extinguish the dog’s response by repeatedly ringing the bell without presenting food afterward. Principles of Classical Conditioning Process
- 12. Principles of Classical Conditioning Process3. Spontaneous Recovery. • Extinction does not mean, however, that the dog has simply unlearned or forgotten the association between the bell and the food. • After extinction, if the experimenter lets a few hours pass and then rings the bell again, the dog will usually salivate at the sound of the bell once again. • The reappearance of an extinguished response after some time has passed is called spontaneous recovery.
- 13. Principles of Classical Conditioning Process 4. Generalization • After an animal has learned a conditioned response to one stimulus, it may also respond to similar stimuli without further training. • If a child is bitten by a large black dog, the child may fear not only that dog, but other large dogs. • This phenomenon is called generalization. • Less similar stimuli will usually produce less generalization. • For example, the child may show little fear of smaller dogs.
- 15. Operant Conditioning • Operant or Instrumental Conditioning is a type of learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished. • Note: Skinner referred to this as Instrumental Conditioning/Learning • The term operant conditioning refers to the fact that the learner must operate, or perform a certain behaviour, before receiving a reward or punishment.
- 17. Operant Conditioning Thorndike and the Law of Effect •Edward Thorndike believed trial-and-error learning was the basis of most behavioral changes. •Trial-and-error learning: learning that occurs when a response is associated with a successful solution to a problem after a number of unsuccessful responses.
- 18. Operant Conditioning •This law states that behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences will be strengthened, and will be more likely to occur in the future. •Conversely, behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in the future.
- 19. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904- 1990) elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect developed behavioral technology
- 20. Operant Chamber Skinner Box chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforce. contains devices to record responses
- 21. Principles of Operant Conditioning 1. Reinforcement refers to any process that strengthens a particular behavior—that is, increases the chances that the behavior will occur again. • Positive reinforcement: a method of strengthening behavior by following it with a pleasant stimulus. • Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is a method of strengthening a behavior by following it with the removal or omission of an unpleasant stimulus. 1. Escape: In escape, performing a particular behavior leads to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. 2. Avoidance: In avoidance, people perform a behavior to avoid unpleasant consequences.
- 22. Principles of Operant Conditioning 2. Punishment weakens a behaviour, reducing the chances that the behavior will occur again. •Positive: involves reducing a behavior by delivering an unpleasant stimulus if the behavior occurs. •Negative: involves reducing a behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus if the behavior occurs.
- 23. Principles of Operant Conditioning 3. Shaping is a reinforcement technique that is used to teach animals or people behaviors that they have never performed before.In this method, the teacher begins by reinforcing a response the learner can perform easily, and then gradually requires more and more difficult responses. • For example, to teach a rat to press a lever that is over its head, the trainer can first reward any upward head movement, then an upward movement of at least one inch, then two inches, and so on, until the rat reaches the lever.
- 24. Principles of Operant Conditioning 4. Extinction: • It is the elimination of a learned behavior by discontinuing the reinforcement of that behavior 5. Generalization and discrimination • Occur in operant conditioning in much the same way that they do in classical conditioning. • In generalization, people perform a behavior learned in one situation in other, similar situations. • For example, a man who is rewarded with laughter when he tells certain jokes at a bar may tell the same jokes at restaurants, parties, or wedding receptions.
- 25. Principles of Operant Conditioning •Discrimination is learning that a behavior will be reinforced in one situation but not in another. •The man may learn that telling his jokes in church or at a serious business meeting will not make people laugh.
- 26. •Latent learning is learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it.
- 27. Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps • Edward Tolman believed that learning could take place without reinforcement. • Latent learning is learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement, but that is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so. • Cognitive map: a mental representation of a spatial arrangement, such as a maze. Cognitive learning
- 29. Observational Learning • Albert Bandura contends that many behaviors or responses are acquired through observational learning, or as he more often calls it now, social-cognitive learning. • Observational learning (sometimes called modeling): learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation.
- 30. Observational Learning Observational Learning (continued) •A model is the individual who demonstrates a behavior or serves as an example in observational learning. •The effectiveness of a model is related to his or her status, competence, and power.
- 31. Essential Factors for Observational Learning a.Attention. b.Retention. c.Reproduction. d.Motivation.
- 32. • First, the learner must pay attention to the crucial details of the model’s behavior. • A young girl watching her mother bake a cake will not be able to imitate this behavior successfully unless she pays attention to many important details—ingredients, quantities, oven temperature, baking time, and so on. Attention:
- 33. Retention: •Retention—the learner must be able to retain all of this information in memory until it is time to use it. •If the person forgets important details, he or she will not be able to successfully imitate the behavior.
- 34. Reproduction: • Third, the learner must have the physical skills and coordination needed for reproduction of the behavior. • The young girl must have enough strength and dexterity to mix the ingredients, pour the batter, and so on, in order to bake a cake on her own.
- 35. Motivation: •Finally, the learner must have the motivation to imitate the model. •That is, learners are more likely to imitate a behavior if they expect it to lead to some type of reward or reinforcement. •If learners expect that imitating the behavior will not lead to reward or might lead to punishment, they are less likely to imitate the behavior.
- 36. Thank you