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1
CHAPTER 7
Design for Quality and Product Excellence
Teaching Notes
The precise manner in which a person or team approaches product design, solving problems to
achieve product excellence, or developing product reliability is not as critical as doing it in a
systematic fashion. Students have been exposed to process management and improvement in
Chapter 7, but they may still have some difficulty in understanding how measurement
(metrology) and Six Sigma projects can be used at the design stage to make frequent, but gradual
changes as an approach to process improvement.
Key objectives for this chapter should include:
• To explore the typical structured product development process consisting of idea
generation, preliminary concept development, product/process development, full-scale
production, product introduction, and market evaluation.
• To learn that concurrent, or simultaneous, engineering is an effective approach for
managing the product development process by using multi-functional teams to help
remove organizational barriers between departments and therefore reduce product
development time. Design reviews help to facility product development by stimulating
discussion, raising questions, and generating new ideas
• To introduce the concept of Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) consisting of a set of tools and
methodologies used in the product development process to ensure that goods and services
meet customer needs and achieve performance objectives, and that the processes used to
make and deliver them achieve Six Sigma capability. DFSS consists of four principal
activities of: Concept development, Design development, Design optimization, and
Design verification. These activities are often incorporated into a variation of the
DMAIC process, known as DMADV, which stands for Define, Measure, Analyze,
Design, and Verify.
• To define concept development as the process of applying scientific, engineering, and
business knowledge to produce a basic functional design that meets both customer needs
and manufacturing or service delivery requirements. This involves developing creative
ideas, evaluating them, and selecting the best concept.

Design for Quality and Product Excellence 2
• To appreciate the concepts of innovation and creativity. Innovation involves the
adoption of an idea, process, technology, product, or business model that is either new or
new to its proposed application. Creativity is seeing things in new or novel ways. Many
creativity tools are designed to help change the context in which one views a problem or
opportunity, thereby leading to fresh perspectives.
• To explore Quality Function Deployment (QFD) -- a planning process to guide the
design, manufacturing, and marketing of goods by integrating the voice of the customer
throughout the organization. A set of matrices, often called the House of Quality, is used
to relate the voice of the customer to a product’s technical requirements, component
requirements, process control plans, and manufacturing operations.
• To investigate manufacturing specifications, consisting of nominal dimensions and
tolerances. Nominal refers to the ideal dimension or the target value that manufacturing
seeks to meet; tolerance is the permissible variation, recognizing the difficulty of
meeting a target consistently.
• Tolerance design involves determining the permissible variation in a dimension. A
scientific approach to tolerance design uses the Taguchi loss function. Taguchi assumes
that losses can be approximated by a quadratic function so that larger deviations from
target correspond to increasingly larger losses. For the case in which a specific target
value, T, is determined to produce the optimum performance, and in which quality
deteriorates as the actual value moves away from the target on either side (called
“nominal is best”), the loss function is represented by L(x) = k(x - T)2
.
• To study the dimensions of reliability—the ability of a product to perform as expected
over time. Formally, reliability is defined as the probability that a product, piece of
equipment, or system performs its intended function for a stated period of time under
specified operating conditions. In practice, the number of failures per unit time
determines reliability during the duration under consideration (called the failure rate),
look at functional failure at the start of product life (The early failure period is
sometimes called the infant mortality period), reliability failure after some period of
use.
• To understand why reliability is often modeled using an exponential probability
distribution and use the reliability function, specifying the probability of survival, which
is: R(T) = 1 – e-T
.
• To explore systems composed of individual components with known reliabilities,
configured in series, in parallel, or in some mixed combination, and how it ties into
various aspects of design, including optimization, tolerance design, and design
verification.
• To learn that design optimization includes setting proper tolerances to ensure maximum
product performance and making designs robust; a scientific approach to tolerance
design uses the Taguchi loss function. Techniques for design verification include

formal reliability evaluation, using techniques such as accelerated life testing and burn-
in.
• To examine the characteristics of Design Failure Mode And Effects Analysis
(DFMEA) -- a methodology to identify all the ways in which a failure can occur, to
estimate the effect and seriousness of the failure, and to recommend corrective design
actions.
• Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), sometimes called cause and effect tree analysis, is a
method to describe combinations of conditions or events that can lead to a failure. In
effect, it is a way to drill down and identify causes associated with failures and is a good
complement to DFMEA.
• To investigate good product design, which anticipates issues related to cost,
manufacturability, and quality. Improvements in cost and quality often result from
simplifying designs, and employing techniques such as design for manufacturability
(DFM) – the process of designing a product for efficient production at the highest level
of quality.
• To study social responsibilities in the design process including product safety and
environmental concerns, which have made Design for Environment (DfE) and design
for disassembly important features of products, because they permit easy removal of
components for recycling or repair, eliminate other environmental hazards, and makes
repair more affordable.
• To explore Design for Excellence (DFX), an emerging concept that includes many
design-related initiatives such as concurrent engineering, design for manufacturability
design for assembly, design for environment and other “design for” approaches. DFX
objectives include higher functional performance, physical performance, user
friendliness, reliability and durability, maintainability and serviceability, safety,
compatibility and upgradeability, environmental friendliness, and psychological
characteristics.
• To introduce concept engineering (CE) -- a focused process for discovering customer
requirements and using them to select superior product or service concepts that meet
those requirements.
• To appreciate that the purpose of a design review is to stimulate discussion, raise
questions, and generate new ideas and solutions to help designers anticipate problems
before they occur.
• To understand techniques for design verification including formal reliability evaluation.
These include accelerated life testing, which involves overstressing components to
reduce the time to failure and find weaknesses; and burn-in, or component stress testing,
which involves exposing integrated circuits to elevated temperatures in order to force
latent defects to occur.

• To appreciate that Six Sigma performance depends on reliable measurement systems.
Common types of measuring instruments used in manufacturing today fall into two
categories: “low-technology” and “high-technology.” Low-technology instruments are
primarily manual devices that have been available for many years; high-technology
describes those that depend on modern electronics, microprocessors, lasers, or advanced
optics.
ANSWERS TO QUALITY IN PRACTICE KEY ISSUES
Testing Audio Components at Shure, Inc.
1. The general definition of reliability as: the probability that a product, piece of equipment,
or system performs its intended function for a stated period of time under specified
operating conditions, is thoroughly tested by Shure. Tests are tailored to various market
segments, according to the type of use (or abuse) the equipment is likely to incur. For the
consumer market, Shure uses the cartridge drop and scrape test, which is particularly
important to test for, in the light of how “scratch” DJ’s use the equipment. For
presentation and installation audio systems, they use the microphone drop test and
perspiration test. For mobile communications, the two above tests, temperature, and cable
and cable assembly flex tests are applicable. For the performance audio, the microphone
drop test, perspiration test, sequential shipping, cable and cable assembly flex, and
temperature storage would all be appropriate. The purpose of the tests is to simulate
actual operating conditions so that the products can sustain accidents and rough handling
and perform effectively over a useful life. Quality characteristics that are studied are
achieved reliability and performance.
2. For the microphone drop test, the measures are probably variable measures of sound and
response levels, within an acceptable range. Thus, standard variables control charts may
be used. For the perspiration test, it may be that a p-chart or u-chart is used for attribute
measures. The cable and cable assembly flex test might use a p-chart to measure the
percentage of cables tested that failed due to rocking motions or twisting motions. The
sequential shipping tests would probably show varying proportions of failures due to
dropping, vibration, and rough handling. These might be sorted out using a Pareto chart.
Then efforts could be made to improve the most frequently occurring causes. The
cartridge drop and scrape test could also use p- or np-charts (see Chapter 13) to show
results per sample of 100 repetitions of the test. The temperature tests would most likely
use standard variables charts to measure whether test performance was within control
limits, or not.
Applying QFD in a Managed Care Organization
1. Although this example of QFD involved the design of a tangible items, it is more difficult
to implement in a service context, as opposed to a pure manufacturing context, because

both customer requirements and technical requirements are harder to quantify and assess
that with tangible products.
2. The detailed calculations in the Importance of the hows row and Percentage of
importance of the hows row used to arrive at these figures can be shown and verified on
the spreadsheet labelled QIP-QFD Healthcare.xlsx. Note that some discrepancies
involving incorrect multiplication, were found in part of the QFD “House of Quality.”

Direction of Rate of Co. Rate of Absol. % Font Use of Gloss. Q&A Tbl. of Lang.
Improvement Import. Now Plan Improv. Wgt. Improve size Update Photos colors Terms Sect. Contnt. Frindly.
Ease-use 4.5 3.2 4.5 1.4 6.3 25.2% 3 1 3 3 9 3 9 3
Accuracy 5.0 3.1 4.6 1.5 7.4 29.5% 9 1 3 1
Timeliness 3.2 3.8 3.8 1.0 3.2 12.7% 9 1
Clarity 3.8 2.6 3.9 1.5 5.7 22.7% 1 1 3 1 9 3 1 3
Conciseness 2.5 4.1 4.1 1.0 2.5 9.9% 1 1
Import. of hows 108.1 427.9 153.4 98.2 460.0 244.7 249.1 173.0
% of Import. of hows 5.65% 22.35% 8.01% 5.13% 24.03% 12.78% 13.01% 9.04%
The numbers in the original table were verified by the calculations shown above (some columns of the original table were rearranged for convenience
of calculation). The rates of improvement, absolute weights, and percent improvements, based on the given values for “rate of importance” and
“company now” and “plan” were validated. As in the original table, the “importance of hows” and “percent of importance of hows” turned out to be
accurately calculated. Specific factors shown as the most important were “glossary terms” and “updates.”

3. The lessons that can be learned and applied to other service organizations that seek to
design or redesign their products and services include the facts that QFD provides for a
systematic approach to linking the “voice of the customer” to operational requirements.
By doing so, operating efficiencies can be realized and customer satisfaction can be
enhanced. In addition, employee satisfaction often can be improved, as well, as found in
the case. It must be recognized that time and effort is involved in gathering, sorting, and
analyzing the characteristics and factors. Also, there is subjectivity in applying ratings
and weights to variables. Hence, the results are not easy to predict and guarantees are
limited.
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Product design and development consists of six steps:
• Idea Generation. New or redesigned product ideas should incorporate customer
needs and expectations.
• Preliminary Concept Development. In this phase, new ideas are studied for
feasibility.
• Product/Process Development. If an idea survives the concept stage, the actual
design process begins by evaluating design alternatives and determining
engineering specifications for all materials, components, and parts. This phase
usually includes prototype testing, design reviews, and development, testing, and
standardization of the manufacturing processes
• Full-Scale Production. If no serious problems are found, the company releases the
product to manufacturing or service delivery teams.
• Market Introduction. The product is distributed to customers.
• Market Evaluation. An ongoing product development process that relies on
market evaluation and customer feedback to initiate continuous improvements.
2. Competitive pressures are forcing companies to reduce time to market, which means that
the time for product development is also squeezed. The problems incurred in speeding up
the process are well known. If done too hastily, the result will be the need to revise or
scrap the design, cost increases or project over-runs, difficulty in manufacturing the
product, early product failure in the field, customer dissatisfaction, and/or lawsuits due to
product liability. One of them most significant impediments to rapid design is poor intra-
organizational coordination. Reducing time to market can only be accomplished by
process simplification, eliminating design changes, and improving product
manufacturability. This requires involvement and cooperation of many functional groups
to identify and solve design problems in order to reduce product development and
introduction time.
3. Concurrent engineering is a process in which all major functions involved with bringing a
product to market are continuously involved with product development from conception
through sales. Such an approach not only helps achieve trouble-free introduction of
products and services, but also results in improved quality, lower costs, and shorter
product development cycles. Concurrent engineering involves multifunctional teams,
usually consisting of 4 to 20 members and including every specialty in the company. The

functions of such teams are to perform and coordinate the activities in the product
development process simultaneously, rather than sequentially. Companies exploit
concurrent engineering to achieve a competitive advantage. Typical benefits include 30 to
70 percent less development time, 65 to 90 percent fewer engineering changes, 20 to 90
percent less time to market, 200 to 600 percent improvement in quality, 20 to 110 percent
improvement in white collar productivity, and 20 to 120 percent higher return on assets.
4. Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) uses a set of tools and methodologies in the product
development process to ensure that goods and services will meet customer needs and
achieve performance objectives, and that the processes used to make and deliver them
achieve Six Sigma capability. DFSS consists of four principal activities:
• Concept development, in which product functionality is determined based upon
customer requirements, technological capabilities, and economic realities;
• Design development, which focuses on product and process performance issues
necessary to fulfill the product and service requirements in manufacturing or delivery;
• Design optimization, which seeks to minimize the impact of variation in production
and use, creating a “robust” design; and
• Design verification, which ensures that the capability of the production system meets
the appropriate sigma level
5. Concept development is the process of applying scientific, engineering, and business
knowledge to produce a basic functional design that meets both customer needs and
manufacturing or service delivery requirements. Developing new concepts requires
innovation and creativity.
Innovation involves the adoption of an idea, process, technology, product, or business
model that is either new or new to its proposed application. The outcome of innovation is
a discontinuous or breakthrough change and results in new and unique goods and services
that delight customers and create competitive advantage.
Innovations can be classified as:
1. An entirely new category of product; for example the iPod
2. First of its type on the market in a product category already in existence; for
example, the DVD player.
3. A significant improvement in existing technology, such as the blu-ray player
4. A modest improvement to an existing product, such as the latest iPad.
Creativity is seeing things in new or novel ways. In Japanese, the word creativity
has a literal translation as “dangerous opportunity.” Many creativity tools, such as
brainstorming and Brainwriting—a written form of brainstorming, are designed to
help change the context in which one views a problem or opportunity, thereby
leading to fresh perspectives. A creativity tool that finds extensive use in product
design is TRIZ, which is a Russian acronym for the Theory of Inventive Problem
Solving. TRIZ was developed by a Russian patent clerk who recognized that
concepts of inventive problem solving could be taught, in order to foster creative
problem solving.

Concept development is an important tool for assuring quality because it provides a
systematic process that leaves a strong audit trail back to the voice of the customer. This
makes it difficult to challenge the results of skeptics and convert them. The process also
helps to build consensus and gives design teams confidence in selling their concept to
management. However, it takes a lot of discipline and patience.
6. Conceptual designs must be translated into measurable technical requirements and,
subsequently, into detailed design specifications. Detailed design focuses on establishing
technical requirements and specifications, which represent the transition from a
designer’s concept to a producible design, while also ensuring that it can be produced
economically, efficiently, and with high quality.
7. QFD benefits companies through improved communication and teamwork between all
constituencies in the production process, such as between marketing and design, between
design and manufacturing, and between purchasing and suppliers. Product objectives are
better understood and interpreted during the production process. Use of QFD determines
the causes of customer dissatisfaction, making it a useful tool for competitive analysis of
product quality by top management. Productivity as well as quality improvements
generally follow QFD. QFD reduces the time for new product development. QFD allows
companies to simulate the effects of new design ideas and concepts. Companies can
reduce product development time and bring new products into the market sooner, thus
gaining competitive advantage.
8. In the QFD development process, a set of matrices is used to relate the voice of the
customer to a product’s technical requirements, component requirements, process control
plans, and manufacturing operations. The first matrix, called the House of Quality,
provides the basis for the QFD concept.
Building the House of Quality consists of six basic steps:
* Identify customer requirements.
* Identify technical requirements.
* Relate the customer requirements to the technical requirements.
* Conduct an evaluation of competing products or services
* Evaluate technical requirements and develop targets.
* Determine which technical requirements to deploy in the remainder of the
production/delivery process.
The first House of Quality in the QFD process provides marketing with an important tool
to understand customer needs and gives top management strategic direction. Three other
“houses of quality” are used to deploy the voice of the customer to (in a manufacturing
setting) component parts characteristics, process plans, and quality control. The second
house applies to subsystems and components. At this stage, target values representing the
best values for fit, function, and appearance are determined. In manufacturing, most of

the QFD activities represented by the first two houses of quality are performed by
product development and engineering functions.
In the last two stages, the planning activities involve supervisors and production line
operators. In the third house, the process plan relates the component characteristics to key
process operations, the transition from planning to execution. Key process operations are
the basis for a control point. A control point forms the basis for a quality control plan
delivering those critical characteristics that are crucial to achieving customer satisfaction.
This is specified in the last house of quality. These are the things that must be measured
and evaluated on a continuous basis to ensure that processes continue to meet the
important customer requirements defined in the first House of Quality.
9. Manufacturing specifications consist of nominal dimensions and tolerances. Nominal
refers to the ideal dimension or the target value that manufacturing seeks to meet;
tolerance is the permissible variation, recognizing the difficulty of meeting a target
consistently. Traditionally, tolerances are set by convention rather than scientifically. A
designer might use the tolerances specified on previous designs or base a design decision
on judgment from past experience. Setting inappropriate tolerances can be costly, since
tolerance settings often fail to account for the impact of variation on product
functionality, manufacturability, or economic consequences. The Taguchi loss function is
a scientific approach to tolerance design. Taguchi assumed that losses can be
approximated by a quadratic function so that larger deviations from target cause
increasingly larger losses.
10. The Taguchi loss function is a useful concept for process design. Taguchi suggests that
there is not strict cut-off point that divides good quality from poor quality. Rather, he
assumed that losses can be approximated by a quadratic function so that larger deviations
from target correspond to increasingly larger losses. For the case in which a specific
target value, T, is determined to produce the optimum performance, and in which quality
deteriorates as the actual value moves away from the target on either side (called
“nominal is best”), the loss function is represented by L(x) = k(x - T)2
where x is any
actual value of the quality characteristic and k is some constant. Thus, (x – T) represents
the deviation from the target, and the loss increases by the square of the deviation.
11. Reliability is the probability that a product, piece of equipment, or system performs its
intended function for a stated period of time under specified operating conditions. There are
four key components of this definition, including probability, time, performance, and
operating conditions. All of these have to be considered in a comprehensive definition of
reliability. Probability allows comparison of different products and systems, time allows us
to measure the length of life of the product, performance relates to the ability of the product
to do what it was designed to do, and operating conditions specify to amount of usage and
the environment in which the product is used.
12. A functional failure is one incurred at the start of the product's life due to defective
materials, components, or work on the product. A reliability failure is one that is incurred
after some period of use. For example, if a new TV set suffers a blown picture tube during

the first week, it's a functional failure. There was obviously a defect in the manufacture of
the tube. If the vertical hold feature of the set goes out (perhaps 3 days after the 1 year
warranty is up), that is a reliability failure. It should reasonably be expected to last much
longer than one year, but it didn't.
13. Reliability engineers distinguish between inherent reliability, which is the predicted
reliability determined by the design of the product or process, and the achieved
reliability, which is the actual reliability observed during use. Achieved reliability can be
less than the inherent reliability due to the effects of the manufacturing process and the
conditions of use.
14. Failure rate is defined as the number of failures per unit of time during a specified time
period being considered. For example, if 15 MP-3 players were tested for 500 hours and
there were two failures of the units, the failure rate would be: 2 / (15 x 500) = 1 / 3750 or
0.000267.
15. The product life characteristics curve, is the so-called "bath-tub curve" because of its shape.
It is actually the failure rate curve, described above. Such curves can be used to understand
the distinctive failure rate patterns of various designs and products, over time.
16. The reliability function represents the probability that an item will not fail within a certain
period of time, T. It is directly related to the cumulative distribution function: F(T) =
1 - e-T
, that yields the probability of failures. Since F(T) is the probability of failure, the
reliability function, R(T) can be defined as the complement, e.g. probability of not failing:
R(T) = 1 - (1 - e-T
) = e-T
It can also be expressed using the mean time to failure (MTTF) value  as: R(T) = e-T/
17. The reliability of series, parallel, and series parallel is relatively easy to compute, given the
reliability of components in each system. For the series system, RS = R1R2R3. Thus
reliabilities are multiplicative.
For a parallel system, the relationships are a little more complex, since the units are designed
to use redundant components, so that if one unit fails the system can continue to operate.
The system reliability is computed as:
RS = 1 - [(1 - R1)(1 - R2)(1 - Rn)]
For series-parallel systems, the equivalent reliabilities of each parallel sub-system are
calculated, successively, until there are no more parallel sub-systems. The system is then
reduced to a serially equivalent system in which all component reliabilities can be
multiplied to get the final reliability value.
18. Robust design refers to designing goods and services that are insensitive to variation in
manufacturing processes and when consumers use them. Robust design is facilitated by

design of experiments to identify optimal levels for nominal dimensions and other tools
to minimize failures, reduce defects during the manufacturing process, facilitate assembly
and disassembly (for both the manufacturer and the customer), and improve reliability.
19. The purpose of Design Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (DFMEA) is to identify all the
ways in which a failure can occur, to estimate the effect and seriousness of the failure,
and to recommend corrective design actions. A DFMEA usually consists of specifying
the following information for each design element or function: Failure modes; effect of
the failure on the customer; severity, likelihood of occurrence, and detection rating;
potential causes of failure, and corrective actions or controls. A simple example of a
DFMEA for an ordinary household light socket is provided in the chapter.
20. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), sometimes called cause and effect tree analysis, is a method
to describe combinations of conditions or events that can lead to a failure. In effect, it is
a way to drill down and identify causes associated with failures and is a good
complement to DFMEA. It is particularly useful for identifying failures that occur only
as a result of multiple events occurring simultaneously. In other words FTA is a tool for
carrying out the entire DFMEA process.
21. Product design can have a major impact on manufacturability. If careful thought and
planning is not done by the designer (or design team), the end product can end up being
difficult or impossible to build due to placement of components, methods for
attachments, “impossible” tolerances, difficulties in attaching or fastening components
and/or difficulties in getting the whole assembled “system” to work smoothly, even with
the highest quality components. In addition time, materials, and other resources may be
wasted unnecessarily due to a poor manufacturing design.
The concept of Design for Manufacturability (DFM) is the process of designing a product so
that it can be produced efficiently at the highest level of quality. Its goal is to improve
quality, increase productivity, reduce lead time (time to market, as well as manufacturing
time) and maintain flexibility to adapt to future market conditions.
22. Key design practices for high quality in manufacturing and assembly include: 1) analyze all
design requirements to assess proper dimensions and tolerances, 2) determine process , 3)
identify and evaluate possible manufacturing quality problems, 4) select manufacturing
processes that minimize technical risks, and 5) evaluate processes under actual
manufacturing conditions.
23. Social responsibilities in the design process include safety and environmental concerns,
which have made Design for Environment (DFE) and Design for Disassembly important
features of products. Legal and environmental issues are becoming critical in designing
products and services, today. Product safety and its consequences, product liability, should
be of primary concern because of the damage that hazardous designs can do to consumers of
the product. Also, liability lawsuits can do major damage to the financial health of an
organization, as well as its image and reputation in the marketplace. Records and

documentation relating to the design process are the best defense against liability lawsuits.
These would include records on prototype development, testing, and inspection results.
Environmental issues involve questions of whether “environmentally friendly” designs
(those that minimize damage to the environment in manufacture and product use) are being
developed, what impacts will the design of the product have on the environment when it is
scrapped, and how can consumers be given the most value for their money, while balancing
the other two issues? The above questions can often be addressed by considering it as a
“design for environment” concept (often combined with and “design for disassembly”).
What is the best design for repairability/recylability?
24. Design for Excellence (DFX) is an emerging concept that includes many design-related
initiatives such as concurrent engineering, design for manufacturability design for
assembly, design for environment and other “design for” approaches. DFX objectives
include higher functional performance, physical performance, user friendliness, reliability
and durability, maintainability and serviceability, safety, compatibility and
upgradeability, environmental friendliness, and psychological characteristics. DFX
represents a total approach to product development and design involves the following
activities:
• Constantly thinking in terms of how one can design or manufacture products better,
not just solving or preventing problems
• Focusing on “things done right” rather than “things gone wrong”
• Defining customer expectations and going beyond them, not just barely meeting them
or just matching the competition
• Optimizing desirable features or results, not just incorporating them
• Minimizing the overall cost without compromising quality of function
25. The purpose of a design review is to stimulate discussion, raise questions, and generate
new ideas and solutions to help designers anticipate problems before they occur. To
facilitate product development, a design review is generally conducted in three major
stages of the product development process: preliminary, intermediate, and final. The
preliminary design review establishes early communication between marketing,
engineering, manufacturing, and purchasing personnel and provides better coordination
of their activities. It usually involves higher levels of management and concentrates on
strategic issues in design that relate to customer requirements and thus the ultimate
quality of the product. The preliminary design review evaluates such issues as the
function of the product, conformance to customer’s needs, completeness of
specifications, manufacturing costs, and liability issues.
After the design is well established, an intermediate review takes place to study the
design in greater detail to identify potential problems and suggest corrective action.
Personnel at lower levels of the organization are more heavily involved at this stage.
Finally, just before release to production, a final review is held. Materials lists, drawings,
and other detailed design information are studied with the purpose of preventing costly
changes after production setup.

26. Methods of product testing for reliability include: life testing, accelerated life testing,
environmental testing and vibration and shock testing. In life and accelerated life testing the
product is tested until it fails. The latter speeds up the process by overstressing the item to
hasten its eventual failure. Environmental and shock tests are performed to determine the
product's ability to survive and operate under adverse conditions of heat, cold, or shock.
SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
Note: Data sets for several problems in this chapter are available in the Excel workbook
C07Data on the Student Companion Site for this chapter accompanying this text. Click on the
appropriate worksheet tab as noted in the problem (e.g., Prob. 7-5) to access the data.
1. A hospital developed a design process consisting of the following steps: Plan, Design,
Measure, Assess, and Improve. Below is a list of specific activities that comprise these five
steps in random order. Place the activities in the most appropriate order within the correct
step of the design process.
Pilot or test design
Submit proposal
Define measures to assess design performance
Implement design
Identify potential solutions to reduce out of control conditions
Develop business plan
Disseminate improvements throughout the organization
Monitor process performance
Select the best solution to improve control
Identify out of control conditions
Propose new concept
Create design to meet requirements
Identify new improvement opportunities
Monitor the new process design
Implement the best solution to improve control
Verify proposal alignment with strategic objectives
Establish design team
Identify causes of out of control conditions
Analyze causes
Identify and validate customer requirements
Identify and evaluate best practices
Answer
1. Although the terms might vary slightly, the following model captures the stages of the
design process for the hospital:

2. Newfonia, Inc., is working on a design for a new smartphone. Marketing staff conducted
extensive surveys and focus groups with potential customers to determine the
characteristics that the customers want and expect in a smartphone. Newfonia’s studies
have identified the most important customer expectations as
• Initial cost
• Reliability
• Ease of use
• Features
• Operating cost
• Compactness
Develop a set of technical requirements to incorporate into the design of a House of
Quality relationship matrix to assess how well your requirements address these
expectations. Refine your design as necessary, based upon the initial assessment.
Answer
2. Analysis of customer responses for Newfonia’s proposed smartphone indicates the
likelihood of several strong relationships between customer requirements and associated
technical requirements of the design, such as value vs. price; features vs. compactness; and
ease of use vs. features. Operating costs may possibly be distantly related to initial cost and
features. Technical characteristics required to translate the “voice of the customer” into
operational or engineering terms might be measures of purchase cost, operating programs
(e.g., BranchOS, or other similar systems), number and type of features, weight, dimensions,
battery life, cost of replacement batteries, and peripherals.

3. Newfonia, Inc. (Problem 2), faces three major competitors in this market: Oldphonia,
Simphonia, and Colliefonia. It found that potential consumers placed the highest
importance on reliability (measured by such things as freedom from operating system
crashes and battery life), followed by compactness (weight/bulkiness), followed by
flexibility (features, ease of use, and types of program modules available). The operating
cost was only occasionally noted as an important attribute in the surveys. Studies of their
products yielded the information shown in the table in C07Data file for Prob.7-3on the
Student Companion Site for this chapter. Results of the consumer panel ratings for these
competitors are also shown in that spreadsheet. Using this information, modify and
extend your House of Quality from Problem 1 and develop a deployment plan for the
new smartphone. On what attributes should the company focus its marketing efforts?
Answer
3. With the new data given for Newfonia’s potential customers, a partial House of Quality
for the design of the smartphone can be built, as shown below. Note the strong
relationships between customer requirements and associated technical requirements of
the smartphone design.
The inter-relationships of the roof are not shown (limitations of MSWord software), but
these may be sketched in. For example, they would show a strong inter-relationship between
size and weight.
PARTIAL HOUSE OF QUALITY MATRIX
FOR NEWPHONIA’S SMARTPHONE CASE
Cost Size
(in.)
Wt.
(oz.)
Featr.
(num.)
Opr.P
rog.
Bat.
Life
Opr.
Cost
Importan
ce
12 3 45
Compet
Eval.
12 3 45
Selling
Pts.
1 2 3 4
5
Reliable Keeps
operating
   • x G S H *
Compact Fits
pocket
• x GSH
Not heavy   •  x S G Q
Features Calendar,
contact
mgt., etc.
 •  x G S H *
Ease of
use
Intuitive
operations
 • • x QS G *
Value Good
value
•  • x Q SG *
Competitive
Evaluation:
Oldphonia
3 4 5 4 5 5 5
Simfonia 5 4 3 2 2 2 3 • = Very strong relationship
Colliefonia 4 4 3 3 4 3 4  = Strong relationship

Targets $250 5 x
3.2
6 oz. 10 Win.
CE
35 Mod
.
 = Weak relationship
Deployment * * *
This analysis suggests that Newfonia should try to position itself between Simfonia and
Colliefonia in price and features. It should build on the strength of the customer’s reliability
concern, keeping battery life near 35 hours and use a proven operating program, such as
BranchOS. Enough features (10) should be offered to be competitive. If Newfonia can
design a high-value smartphone and sell it at an attractive price (say, $250 or less), it
should be a very profitable undertaking.
4. Georgio’s Giant Gyros conducted consumer surveys and focus groups concerning a new
giant gyro sandwich design, and the facility to sell it, and identified the most important
customer expectations (not in any order of priority) as
• Tasty, attractive, moderately healthy food
• Speedy service
• An easy-to-read menu board
• Accurate order filling
• Perceived value
Develop only a set of technical requirements to incorporate into the design of the product
and its delivery. Use a House of Quality relationship matrix to assess how well your
requirements address these expectations. Include some technical dimensions that may be
used to measure tasty, attractive, and “healthy” food; speedy service, acceptable menu
boards, order accuracy, or perceived value. Refine your design as necessary based upon
the initial assessment.
Answer
4. Analysis of customer responses for Georgio’s Giant Gyros indicates that there are likely to
be several strong relationships between customer requirements and associated technical
requirements of the product and delivery system that Georgio designs (for example, a giant
gyro product). Some strong relationships may be seen between moistness/flavor and trans-
fat; calories/sodium/t-fat and nutrition; staffing levels and work procedures; kitchen capacity
and facility layout; value and price; etc..
Note the three customer response categories that are unrelated to the design of the gyros --
order accuracy, speedy service, and menu board. These factors will probably require a
separate analysis as part of a facility and process design, thus focusing on the product in one
case, and the service delivery system in the other.

FOR GEORGIO’S GIANT GYROS
Price Size Calories Sodium % t-Fat
Facility
layout
Work
procedures
Imprtnce
12 3 45
Compet.
Eval.
12 3 4 5
Selling
Pts.
1 2 3 4 5
Taste Moistness     •  
Flavor     •  
Health Nutritious   • • •  
Visual Visually
Appealing
      
Speedy
service
Number of
staff
      •
Kitchen
capacity
     • •
Menu Size & font      • 
Order
accurac
y
Order check
process
      •
Value Good Value •      
Competitive Evaluation:
• = Very strong relationship
 = Strong relationship

5. Georgio’s Giant Gyros (Problem 4) acquired some additional information about product
characteristics. It found that consumers placed the highest importance on taste appeal
(especially flavor) and order accuracy, followed by healthy food (measured by sodium
content and calories), value, and service. The menu board was only casually noted as one
of the least important attributes in the surveys. Georgio faces three major competitors in
this market: Mario’s, Gyroking, and Antonio’s. Studies of their products yielded the
information shown in the worksheet tab Prob.7-4 in the Excel file C07Data on the
Student Companion Site for this chapter. Results of the consumer panel ratings for each
of these competitors can also be found there (a 1–5 scale, with 5 being the best). Using
this information, modify and extend your House of Quality from Problem 2 and develop
a deployment plan for a new gyro. Assume that a separate study will be made on the
physical facilities. On what attributes should the company focus its marketing efforts?
Answer
5. With the new data given in C07Data.xlsx for Prob. 7-05 for Georgio's customers, a partial
House of Quality for the design of the gyros can be built, as shown below. Note that the
relationships between customer requirements (flavor, health, value) and associated
technical requirements (% fat, calories, sodium, price) of the gyro design are strong. Note
also that the focus here is on design of the product, not the service aspects of order
accuracy and service.
The inter-relationships of the roof are not shown, due to the limitations of MS
Word® software. These may be sketched in. For example, they would show strong
inter-relationship between % t-Fat and calories.

FOR GEORGIO’S GIANT GYROS
Price Size Calories Sodium % t-Fat
Facility
layout
Work
procedures
Imprtnce
12 3 45
Compet.
Eval.
12 3 4 5
Selling
Pts.
1 2 3 4 5
Taste Moistness     •   A GK G A K
Flavor     •   AKG G K A
Health Nutritious   • • •   AKG K AG *
Visual Visually
Appealing
       AKG AG K
Speedy
service
Number of
Staff
      • AKG K A G
Kitchen
capacity
     • • AKG A G K *
Menu Size & font      •  A K G A KG
Order
accuracy
Order check
process
      • KAG K A G *
Value Good Value •       K A G K A G *
Competitive Evaluation:
Georgio’s 5 3 5 3 5 4 5
Gyroking 3 5 4 5 2 3 4
Antonio's 4 4 3 3 4 5 3
Georgio’s Targets
$0.51/
oz.
5.5
oz.
70/oz 110/ oz. 13% Improve Hold gains
• = Very strong relationship
 = Strong relationship

ANSWER – CONTINUED
5. The Importance and Competitive Evaluation of customer requirements can be read
from the survey results in the data tables in spreadsheet Prob07-05.xlsx that are provided,
and placed under their respective columns
Georgio’s Giant Gyros technical requirements must be placed on a more equal basis, which
would best be shown as units/ounce, except for the percent fat value. These are shown
below.
Company Price/Oz. Calories/Oz.* Sodium/Oz.* Fat (%) *
Georgio's $0.545 80.0 159.1 13
Kingyro $0.567 85.3 124.0 23
Antonio's $0.542 90.0 158.3 16
* Lower is better
Thus, we can see from the competitive evaluation of technical characteristics and Georgio’s
targets, that if Georgio’s is already low in price per ounce, as well as calories, and percent
fat, its new product is leaner and healthier, as well as being cost effective. This analysis
suggests that Georgio’s might consider increasing its size and flavor, which may indirectly
affect its visual appeal, as well. However, Georgio has not targeted the size for an increase.
At the same time, it should build on the strength of the nutrition trend by keeping the percent
fat and sodium low. Georgio's has targeted sodium for a major reduction, from 159/oz. to
110/oz., and slightly reducing the number of calories per ounce, from 80 to 70, to be even
more competitive. The facilities need some minor improvements, but their work procedures
appear to be customer-pleasing. They merely need to hold the gains. If Georgio’s can
design a flavorful, healthy, 5.5 oz. gyro and continue to sell it at the current attractive
price or $3.00, it should be a very profitable undertaking.
6. A blueprint specification for the thickness of a refrigerator part at Refrigaria, Inc. is 0.300
± 0.025 centimeters (cm). It costs $25 to scrap a part that is outside the specifications.
Determine the Taguchi loss function for this situation.
Answer
6. The Taguchi Loss Function for refrigerator part at Refrigaria, Inc. is: L(x) = k (x - T)2
$25 = k (0.025)2
k = 40000
 L(x) = k (x - T)2
= 40000 (x - T)2
7. A team was formed to study the refrigerator part at Refrigaria, Inc. described in Problem
6. While continuing to work to find the root cause of scrap, they found a way to reduce
the scrap cost to $15 per part.
a. Determine the Taguchi loss function for this situation.

b. If the process deviation from target can be reduced to 0.015 cm, what is the Taguchi
loss?
Answer
7. The Taguchi Loss Function is: L(x) = k (x - T)2
a) $15 = k (0.025)2
k = 24000
 L(x) = k (x - T)2
= 24000 (x - T)2
b) L(x) = 24000 (x - T)2
 L(0.015) = 24000 (0.015)2
= $5.40
8. A specification for the length of an auto part at PartsDimensions, Inc. is 5.0 ± 0.10
centimeters (cm). It costs $40 to scrap a part that is outside the specifications. Determine
the Taguchi loss function for this situation.
Answer
$40 = k (0.10)2
k = 4000
 L(x) = k (x - T)2
= 4000 (x - T)2
9. A team was formed to study the auto part at PartsDimensions described in Problem 8.
While continuing to work to find the root cause of scrap, the team found a way to reduce
the scrap cost to $20 per part.
a. Determine the Taguchi loss function for this situation.
b. If the process deviation from target can be reduced to 0.040 cm, what is the Taguchi
loss?
Answer
a) $20 = k (0.10)2
k = 2000
 L(x) = k (x - T)2
= 2000 (x - T)2
b) L(x) = 2000 (x - T)2

 L(0.040) = 2000 (0.040)2
= $ 3.20
10. Ruido Unlimited makes electronic soundboards for car stereos. Output voltage to a
certain component on the board must be 12 ± 0.5 volts. Exceeding the limits results in an
estimated loss of $60. Determine the Taguchi loss function.
Answer
$60 = k (0.5)2
k = 240
 L(x) = k (x - T)2
= 240 (x - T)2
11. An electronic component at Eltcomp has a specification of 100 ± 0.4 ohms. Scrapping
the component results in a $81 loss.
a. What is the value of k in the Taguchi loss function?
b. If the process is centered on the target specification with a standard deviation of 0.2
ohm, what is the expected loss per unit?
Answer
11. For Eltcomp’s specification of 100 ± 0.4 ohms:
a) L(x) = k (x - T)2
$81 = k (0.4)2
k = 506.25
b) EL(x) = k (2
+ D2
) = 506.25 ( 0.22
+ 02
) = $20.25
12. An automatic cookie machine at AutoCM, Inc., must deposit a specified amount of 25 ±
0.3 grams (g) of dough for each cookie on a conveyor belt. It costs $0.03 to scrap a
defective cookie. A sample of 50 cookies was drawn from the production process, which
has been determined to be approximately normally distributed, and the results, in grams,
can be found in worksheet tab Prob.7-12 in the Excel file C07Data file on the Student
Companion Site for this chapter.
a. What is the value of k in the Taguchi loss function?
b. Determine how much the process varies from the target specification, based on the
mean difference and standard deviation of the sample results. What is the expected loss
per unit?
Answer
12. For a specification of 25 ± 0.3 grams and a $0.03 scrap cost:

Analysis of the dataset for Prob. 7-12 provides the following statistics:
x = 25.0056; D = 25.0056 - 25.00000 = 0.0056
 = 0.0566
a) L(x) = k (x - T)2
$0.03 = k (0.3)2
k = 0.333
b) For  = 0.0566
EL(x) = k (2
+ D2
) = 0.333 (0.05662
+ 0.00562
) = $0.0011
See spreadsheet Prob07-12.xlsx for details.
13. A computer chip designed by the MicroKeeb Co. has a specification for the distance
between two adjacent pins of 2.000 ± 0.002 mm. The loss due to a defective chip is $4. A
sample of 25 chips was drawn from the production process and the results, in millimeters,
can be found in the worksheet tab Prob. 7-13 in the Excel file C07Data file.
a. Compute the value of k in the Taguchi loss function.
b. What is the expected loss from this process based on the sample data?
Answer
13. For a specification of 2.000 ± .002 mm and a $4 scrap cost:
Analysis of the dataset for problem 7-13 provides the following statistics:
x = 2.00008; D = 2.00008 - 2.00 = 0.00008
 = 0.00104
a) L(x) = k (x - T)2
$4 = k (0.002)2
 k = 1,000,000
b) EL(x) = k (2
+ D2
) = 1,000,000 ( 0.001042
+ 0.000082
) = $1.088
See spreadsheet Prob07-13.xlsx for details.
14. In the production of Raphael Transformers, any output voltage that exceeds 120 ± 10
volts is unacceptable to the customer. Exceeding these limits results in an estimated loss
of $200. However, the manufacturer can adjust the voltage in the plant by changing a
resistor that costs $2.25.
a. Determine the Taguchi loss function.
b. Suppose the nominal specification is 120 volts. At what tolerance should the
transformer be manufactured, assuming that the amount of loss is represented by the cost
of the resistor?

Answer
14. a) The Taguchi Loss function is: L(x) = k (x - T)2
200 = k (100)2
k = 0.5
So, L(x) = 0.5 (x-T)2
b) $2.25 = 0.5 (x-120)2
4.50 = (x - 120)2
(x - T)Tolerance = 50
.
4 = 2.12 volts
2.12 = x - 120
 x = 122.12
15. At Elektroparts Manufacturers’ integrated circuit business, managers gathered data from
a customer focus group and found that any output voltage that exceeds 55 ± 0.5 volts was
unacceptable to the customer. Exceeding these limits results in an estimated loss of $75.
However, the manufacturer can still adjust the voltage in the plant by changing a resistor
that costs $2.00.
a. Determine the Taguchi loss function.
b. Suppose the nominal specification remains at 55 volts. At what tolerance should the
integrated circuit be manufactured, assuming that the amount of loss is represented by the
cost of the resistor?
Answer
15. a) The Taguchi Loss function is: L(x) = k (x - T) 2
75 = k (0.5)2
k = 300
So, L(x) = 300 (x-T)2
b) The Taguchi Loss function is: L(x) = k (x - T) 2
$2.00 = 300 (x-55)2
0.00667 = (x - 55)2
(x - T)Tolerance = 00667
.
0 = 0.0817 volts
0.0817 = x - 55

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FLOWERING DOGWOOD
Leaves usually opposite; sepals usually 4, calyx tube joined to
the ovary; petals usually 4, or absent; stamens 4, alternate
with the petals; ovary inferior; fruit a drupe.
Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) grows from Massachusetts to
Ontario, Texas, and Mexico, but few people realize that it grows very
luxuriantly and is widespread in the woods of East Texas. The beauty
of the dogwood is not in the flowers, as one might expect, but in the
four broad white floral leaves (bracts) which surround the flower-

86
cluster. These bracts are a creamy white but are often tinged with
pink. The minute greenish-white flowers have four petals and bloom
in March before the leaves appear. The oblong scarlet fruits, about
half an inch long, ripen in the fall.
It is said that dogwood gets its name from the fact that the bark of
an English dogwood was used to treat mangy dogs. Another source
for the name is given in a recent magazine which shows a
photograph of a section of wood from a dogwood tree. By means of
the growth rings of the tree, the section depicted the head of a
swimming dog. Among the useful substances obtained from the tree
are quinine from all parts, scarlet dye from the bark, and wood for
tools. Enough quinine is obtained by chewing the twigs to ward off
malarial fever.

SMALL-FLOWERED DOGWOOD
Rough-Leaved Cornel. Small-Flowered Dogwood (Cornus asperifolia) is
hardly recognized as a dogwood because it does not have showy
floral bracts. The rough leaves become very lovely in the fall as the
veins take on a reddish-purple color. It is a very common shrub in
thickets along streams or in moist ground from Texas to Southern
Ontario. The flowers bloom in Texas from April to June, and the
white fruits mature in the fall. The fruits are about ¼ inch in
diameter and contain 2 seeds with a stony coat which is covered by
a thin pulp.

87
The dogwood family includes several other trees and shrubs which
are common in Texas. Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) has 2-3 blue oval
fruits about half an inch long in a cluster. It is one of the first trees in
East Texas whose foliage takes on an autumnal coloring.
Lindheimer’s garrya (Garrya lindheimeri), an evergreen shrub with
thick leathery leaves, is very abundant in the hills of Central and
West Texas. It bears dense clusters of small blue berries less than ¼
inch in diameter.
CARROT FAMILY (Umbelliferae)

PRAIRIE LACE
Furrowed stems; leaves usually much divided, sheathing at
the base; sepals 5, calyx tube joined to ovary; petals 5;
stamens 5; ovary inferior; fruit 2-celled, prominently ribbed
and often with resin canals.
Prairie Lace. Dwarf Queen Anne’s Lace (Bifora americana) is the pride of
the North Texas prairie in late April and May. It is also found in
Oklahoma and Arkansas. In favorable seasons it grows in great
masses with the Indian blankets and the false coreopsis. The

88
umbrella-clusters of white flowers are very showy. The plants do not
have oil tubes, as do most members of the carrot family, and so lack
the strong scent common to many.
It usually grows about a foot high and is widely branched at the top.
The leaves are finely divided with numerous thread-like divisions.
The flowers are one-fourth inch broad and have five notched petals
which are broader than long. The fruits have two ball-shaped
divisions, each about one-eighth inch in diameter and faintly ridged.

89
False Purple Thistle. Eryngo (Eryngium leavenworthii) is not a
true thistle, but it is popularly known as one. The ancient
Greeks had the same idea, for the name “Eryngium” is their name
for a kind of thistle. Correctly speaking it is a purple carrot, as it
belongs to a large group of the carrot family, some of which are
widely cultivated abroad for their striking purple foliage. The flowers
are clustered in an oblong head, quite different from the dainty
flower clusters of Queen Anne’s lace. Other common names of this
group include sea-holly, rattlesnake master, and button snake-root,
the two latter from their accredited property of curing snake-bites.
Candelabrum plant is a name sometimes given which is very
appropriate because of its branching habit of growth.
The plants grow one to three feet high, usually in dense masses
along roadsides and fields and on prairies from Central Texas to
Kansas. In August the gray-green foliage of the plants is quite
conspicuous against darker greens, but it gradually takes on a royal
purple hue. Few plants can rival it for beauty in late August and
September. The dense heads of purple flowers with their long,
slender dark-blue stamens add to the vividness. The dried plants are
often kept for winter decoration, but the purple does not remain so
intense.
The stems are branched at the top, the flower heads growing on
short stalks in the forks of the branches. The deeply lobed leaves
clasp the stem, the leaf segments bearing many spiny-teeth. A tuft
of small, rigid, spiny leaves grows out of the top of the flower head.
Several eryngoes are found in the state. The yucca-leaved eryngo
(Eryngium aquaticum) grows in the summer in sandy areas or low
grounds from Texas to Minnesota and Connecticut. It bears little
resemblance in habit of growth or coloring to the purple thistle. Most
of the long leaves are clustered at the base, and a stout flower stalk
bears at the top several head-like clusters of white flowers.

90
The carrot family is a large group of plants, most of which have lacy,
fern-like leaves and dainty umbrella-clusters of small flowers and
fruit which separates into two ribbed 1-seeded divisions. The plants
are usually rich in oil tubes, and some contain deadly poisons.
BEGGAR’S TICKS
Beggar’s Ticks. Seed-Ticks. Bird’s Nest Carrot (Daucus pusillus) is
probably more familiar in fruit than in flower. The clusters of seeds

91
resemble a bird’s nest. The fact that the seeds are covered with
several rows of barbed prickles makes them very difficult to remove
from clothing. Their presence in wool renders it inferior in quality. It
is very abundant throughout the state from April to June and occurs
in most of the Southern and Western States.
The small white flowers grow in a dense, lace-like cluster at the top
of slender stems 1-2 ft. high. The leaves are finely divided. The
flower cluster is long-stalked and is surrounded by a circle of the
green leaves; thus the flowers as well as the seeds have a nest-like
appearance.
Wild Carrot. Queen Anne’s Lace (Daucus carota), the ancestor of the
garden carrot, was introduced from Europe and may be found in
scattered places over the state. It is a larger plant than the beggar’s
ticks, with very wide-spreading and dainty flower clusters. It does
not bloom until summer.

WILD DILL
Wild Dill. Prairie Parsley (Pleiotaenia nuttallii) is a conspicuous plant
on prairies throughout the state and ranges to Michigan and
Alabama. The flowers bloom in April and May, and the seeds mature
and fall in June and July. The stiff, stout stems, commonly two feet
high, become dry and brown but remain standing through the winter
months. The upper leaves are not divided so much as the lower,
which are deeply divided and have broad segments. The flowers are
small and greenish-yellow and grow in clusters about 2 inches broad.

92
The foliage and seeds were used for seasoning by pioneers. It is
very much like the cultivated dill (Anethum graveolens), a native of
Southeastern Europe. The latter is taller and has leaves with
threadlike divisions.
Other well-known members of the carrot family include the parsnip,
parsley, myrrh, chervil, caraway, and celery. The well-known poison
hemlock (Conium maculatum), by which Socrates met his death, is a
native of Europe but may now be found in North and South America.
It grows in great abundance along the streams of the Edwards
Plateau between Fredricksburg and Austin.
HEATH FAMILY (Ericaceae)

TREE-HUCKLEBERRY
Herbs or shrubs; sepals 4-5; corolla urn-shaped or cylindric,
4-5-lobed; stamens 8 or 10; anthers opening by terminal
pores; ovary superior or inferior.
Tree-Huckleberry. Farkleberry (Batodendron arboreum) is also known
as upland-huckleberry, sparkleberry, and gooseberry. The name is
Greek and means “blackberry tree.” The huckleberries are often
placed in a family separate from other heaths. The tree-huckleberry
is a shrub or small tree, very abundant in the woods of East Texas

93
and the Southern States. The dainty, drooping sprays of white bell-
shaped flowers remind one of the lily-of-the-valley. The shining oval
leaves are short-stalked, 1-2 in. long. The black berries are not
edible.
Well-known members of the heath family include the trailing
arbutus, cranberry, blueberry, bean-berry, winter-green,
rhododendron, and azalea. Thickets of the pink azalea or swamp-
honeysuckle (Azalea nudiflora) occur in a few places in East Texas.
In the mountains of Southwest Texas may be found the arbutus-
tree, madroña, or naked Indian, so called because of its red wood
and scaling bark. Its small, red fleshy fruits look like strawberries.
Stagger-bush (Neopieris mariana) is a common shrub in swampy
places.
PRIMROSE FAMILY (Primulaceae)

TEXAS WATER-PIMPERNEL SHOOTING STAR
Leaves often basal; sepals usually 5, often leafy; corolla
tubular, 5-lobed; stamens 5, opposite the petals; ovary
superior; fruit a capsule.
Texas Water-Pimpernel. Brookweed (Samolus cuneatus) is a plant found
wherever springs or moist ledges occur in limestone hills of Texas.
The plants have a basal rosette of broad rounded leaves. The
slender stems are 6-12 inches high and bear a few leaves which are
narrowed at the base. The 5-lobed white flowers are short and bell-

94
shaped and appear from April to September. The pink water-
pimpernel (Samolus ebracteatus) grows in sandy soil along the
coast.
Shooting Star (Dodecatheon stanfieldia) is a rare plant and should be
afforded protection. It is found in rich, moist soil from Central Texas
to Louisiana. The flowers are very much like those of Dodecatheon
meadia but are larger and have broader petals.
The primrose family is represented in horticulture by many primroses
from Asia, cyclamens from Greece to Syria, and the cowslip from
Europe. The scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) is found on sandy
prairies in South Texas in the spring.
EBONY FAMILY (Ebenaceae)

MEXICAN PERSIMMON
Trees or shrubs; leaves usually leathery; calyx 3-11-lobed;
petals united, 3-7; stamens 6-14, or more; ovary superior.
Mexican Persimmon (Diospyros texana) is also called ’possum plum,
“chapote,” and black persimmon. It is a shrub or small tree found in
river-valleys and on limestone hills from Central Texas to Mexico. It
may be easily recognized by its smooth, light-gray bark, small
leaves, and creamy heath-like flowers. The bell-shaped flowers are
in dense clusters on the tree which has pollen-bearing flowers,

95
whereas the seed-bearing flowers, which grow on a separate tree,
are larger and fewer in number. The black fruits ripen in August,
when the pulp becomes juicy but somewhat insipid.
The black wood is hard and, like other species of ebony, takes an
excellent polish. It is used for making tools. The Mexicans use a
black dye obtained from the fruits in dyeing sheep-skins. The
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) is found wild from
Connecticut to East Texas, where the sprouts are vicious pests in
plowed lands.
GENTIAN FAMILY (Gentianaceae)

MOUNTAIN PINK
Leaves opposite; calyx usually tubular, 5-lobed; petals united
at base, 4-12; stamens as many as petals; ovary superior.
Mountain Pink. Showy Centaury (Erythraea beyrichii) grows on gravelly
limestone hills in Texas and Arkansas. The stems are branched near
the base and often form hemispherical clumps a foot in diameter
which are covered with pink flowers in June. The plants are being
rapidly exterminated for ornamental purposes, for they are very

96
showy and the flowers will last two weeks or more. The flowers have
a united tubular corolla with 5 lobes.
The scientific name is from the Greek meaning “red.” The flowers of
some species are red, but those in Texas are pink. The Texan
centaury (Erythraea texense) is a very small plant with small flowers.
It is found from Texas to Missouri in June and July. Buckley’s
centaury or pink gentian (Erythraea calycosa) is found in moist soil
in the western part of the state. It is a tall, slender plant 1-2 ft. high.
It ranges from Missouri to Mexico. The centaury plants were
formerly valued as a medicine for fever. They were gathered and
dried at flowering time.

97
Purple Gentian. Bluebell (Eustoma russellianum) is also called
Russell’s eustoma, Texas bluebell, blue gentian, blue marsh
lily, and bosque blue gentian. The latter name is used in El Paso,
where the purple gentian grows on the flood plain of the Rio Grande
River. It is one of the loveliest flowers in the state, sometimes
occurring in great profusion on moist prairies from Mexico to
Colorado and Louisiana. It is especially abundant in Southeast Texas,
where it is gathered in wholesale quantities by florists. It is an
excellent cut-plant, the flowers lasting for several days and new
buds continually opening.
Few people have had success in transplanting the purple gentian
into their gardens. Only recently has there been a report of seeds
successfully germinated. It is said that soaking for 48 hours in water
will produce germination. Each flower produces a number of very
minute seeds.
The large, bell-shaped flowers, 2-3 inches broad, are a bluish-
purple; in fading, they spread widely and take on more of the blue
tinge. They are constricted into a short narrow tube at the base.
Inside, the flowers are marked with yellow at the base and have
purple markings in the throat. The five stamens with large anthers
are attached to the corolla tube. At the time the pollen is shed, the
anthers lie in a horizontal position around the style. The stigmas are
interesting. There are two diamond-shaped lobes which are erect
until they are ready to receive pollen, and then they take a
horizontal position. The calyx has five linear lobes which are united
at the base with a colorless membrane. The oblong capsules are
about half an inch long.
The plants are very smooth and are erect, with a few erect
branches. The leaves are ovate-oblong and are usually 1-2½ inches
long.
“Eustoma” means “open mouth”, referring to the large throat of the
flower. The smaller bluebell in Southern Texas and Northern Mexico

98
is Eustoma gracile.
PINK TEXAS STAR
Pink Texas Star. Prairie Sabbatia (Sabbatia campestris) is also known
as meadow pink, rose pink, pink prairie gentian, marsh pink, and sea
star. It ranges from Missouri and Kansas to Texas and is found on
moist prairies throughout Central Texas from April to June. It is
particularly abundant on southern coastal prairies where it makes a

99
showy landscape display with phlox, coreopsis, and other plants in
March and April. The sabbatias are named in honor of two Italian
botanists, L. and C. Sabbati.
The plants are low, 3-12 inches high, and have wing-angled stems
and short smooth leaves about ½-1¼ inches long. The flowers are
about 1½ inches broad, much larger than those of the mountain
pink, and more cup-shaped. They are usually deep pink in color, but
purplish-pink and white forms may occasionally be noted. Around
the throat are yellow, star-shaped markings over the white base of
the petals. The long, linear calyx lobes are quite conspicuous when
the flower is in bud or after the corolla has wilted.
DOGBANE FAMILY (Apocynaceae)

BLUE TEXAS STAR
Plants with milky juice; sepals usually 5; corolla tubular, 5-
lobed; stamens usually 5, inserted on corolla tube and
alternate with the lobes; ovary superior; fruit mostly of 2
spreading follicles.
Blue Texas Star. Texas Dogbane. Blue-Star (Amsonia texana) belongs to
a group named in honor of Charles Amson, a colonial physician. The
stems are usually unbranched, 8-12 inches high, and are covered
with narrow linear leaves. Like that of other amsonias, the tubular

100
throat is lined with white hairs. The name of twin-pods might be
given to the amsonias. The numerous seeds are borne in two
narrow, erect pods which are united at the base and split along the
inner sides. The pods are 3-4 inches long. The plant is perennial,
growing in low clumps on limestone hillsides of Texas. The plants in
North Texas form a conspicuous bluish-green line on low hills, when
the flowers bloom in late March and April.
The oleander, periwinkle, and vinca are well-known members of the
dogbane family. They all have a milky sap which is quite poisonous
in the oleander, Indian hemp, and others. “Bane” is the common
word in Northern Europe for “murderer” and is applied to poisonous
plants.
MILKWEED FAMILY (Asclepiadaceae)

GREEN-FLOWERED MILKWEED
Leaves usually opposite or whorled; sepals 5; petals 5, usually
reflexed and with a 5-lobed crown; stamens 5, the pollen
united into 1 or 2 waxy masses in each sac; carpels 2, free
except for the united disk-like stigma.
Green-Flowered Milkweed. Silkweed (Asclepiodora decumbens) is a
widespread plant from Arkansas to Utah and Northern Mexico. It is
found on the central and western plains, blooming in early spring
and sometimes again in the fall. The stout, leafy stems, topped by

101
the ball-shaped heads of flowers form conspicuous clumps about a
foot high. The flowers have a sweet nectar which draws many insect
visitors. They bloom in April and early May, and the large warty pods
mature in a few weeks. As the seeds bear a tuft of hairs at one end,
they are easily scattered by the wind and other agents. It is one of
the first plants to appear on burned-over areas.
The milkweeds get their name from the bitter milky sap. The flowers
are quite different from other flowers in that there is a crown
between the petals and the stamens. In many the pollen is borne in
two pear-shaped masses with a thread-like connection. In the green-
flowered milkweed, purple hoods are attached to the crown and
hang over the pollen-sacs.

Managing for Quality and Performance Excellence 9th Edition Evans Solutions Manual

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Managing for Quality and Performance Excellence 9th Edition Evans Solutions Manual