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Microengineering MEMS and Interfacing A Practical
Guide 1st Edition Danny Banks Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Danny Banks
ISBN(s): 9781420015416, 1420015419
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 8.65 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english

DK3182_half 1/18/06 11:31 AM Page 1
Microengineering,MEMS,
andInterfacing
APracticalGuide
Copyright © 2006 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books
Founding Editor
L. L. Faulkner
Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute
and Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
1. Spring Designer’s Handbook, Harold Carlson
2. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design, Daniel L. Ryan
3. Lubrication Fundamentals, J. George Wills
4. Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings, William A. Himmelman
5. Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics, G. Boothroyd
and C. Poli
6. Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Igor J. Karassik
7. Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design, Daniel L. Ryan
8. Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A: Materials
and Components; Part B: Processes and Design for Processes,
edited by Edward Miller
9. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
10. Vibrations of Shells and Plates, Werner Soedel
11. Flat and Corrugated Diaphragm Design Handbook, Mario Di Giovanni
12. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Alexander Blake
13. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints,
John H. Bickford
14. Optimal Engineering Design: Principles and Applications,
James N. Siddall
15. Spring Manufacturing Handbook, Harold Carlson
16. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications,
edited by Lewis H. Bell
17. Gears and Their Vibration: A Basic Approach to Understanding Gear
Noise, J. Derek Smith
18. Chains for Power Transmission and Material Handling:
Design and Applications Handbook, American Chain Association
19. Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook, edited by
Philip A. Schweitzer
20. Gear Drive Systems: Design and Application, Peter Lynwander
21. Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants: Systems Design
and Calculations, John D. Constance
22. CAD/CAM Systems Planning and Implementation, Charles S. Knox
23. Probabilistic Engineering Design: Principles and Applications,
James N. Siddall
DK3182_series.qxd 1/19/06 8:35 AM Page 1

24. Traction Drives: Selection and Application, Frederick W. Heilich III
and Eugene E. Shube
25. Finite Element Methods: An Introduction, Ronald L. Huston
and Chris E. Passerello
26. Mechanical Fastening of Plastics: An Engineering Handbook,
Brayton Lincoln, Kenneth J. Gomes, and James F. Braden
27. Lubrication in Practice: Second Edition, edited by W. S. Robertson
28. Principles of Automated Drafting, Daniel L. Ryan
29. Practical Seal Design, edited by Leonard J. Martini
30. Engineering Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications, Charles S. Knox
31. Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications,
Jerome C. Lange
32. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified Graphical and Analytical Techniques,
Lyndon O. Barton
33. CAD/CAM Systems: Justification, Implementation, Productivity
Measurement, Edward J. Preston, George W. Crawford,
and Mark E. Coticchia
34. Steam Plant Calculations Manual, V. Ganapathy
35. Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers, John A. Burgess
36. Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications,
Jasbir Singh
37. Potential Flows: Computer Graphic Solutions, Robert H. Kirchhoff
38. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design: Second Edition, Daniel L. Ryan
39. Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves: Selection
and Application, Michael J. Tonyan, edited by Tobi Goldoftas
40. Pressure Gauge Handbook, AMETEK, U.S. Gauge Division,
edited by Philip W. Harland
41. Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources: Fundamentals and Basic
Technology, R. P. Donovan
42. Design of Mechanical Joints, Alexander Blake
43. CAD/CAM Dictionary, Edward J. Preston, George W. Crawford,
and Mark E. Coticchia
44. Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing,
Girard S. Haviland
45. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Jon R. Mancuso
46. Shaft Alignment Handbook, John Piotrowski
47. BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers: Boilers, Combustion,
Fluid Flow, and Heat Transfer, V. Ganapathy
48. Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics,
Jerome C. Lange
49. Plastics Gearing: Selection and Application, Clifford E. Adams
50. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, William C. Orthwein
51. Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design, Harry L. Trietley
52. Metallurgical Applications of Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate
Phenomena, edited by Lawrence E. Murr, Karl P. Staudhammer,
and Marc A. Meyers
53. Magnesium Products Design, Robert S. Busk
54. How to Integrate CAD/CAM Systems: Management and Technology,
William D. Engelke

55. Cam Design and Manufacture: Second Edition; with cam design software
for the IBM PC and compatibles, disk included, Preben W. Jensen
56. Solid-State AC Motor Controls: Selection and Application,
Sylvester Campbell
57. Fundamentals of Robotics, David D. Ardayfio
58. Belt Selection and Application for Engineers, edited by
Wallace D. Erickson
59. Developing Three-Dimensional CAD Software with the IBM PC,
C. Stan Wei
60. Organizing Data for CIM Applications, Charles S. Knox, with contributions
by Thomas C. Boos, Ross S. Culverhouse, and Paul F. Muchnicki
61. Computer-Aided Simulation in Railway Dynamics, by Rao V. Dukkipati
and Joseph R. Amyot
62. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design,
P. K. Mallick
63. Photoelectric Sensors and Controls: Selection and Application,
Scott M. Juds
64. Finite Element Analysis with Personal Computers, Edward R. Champion,
Jr. and J. Michael Ensminger
65. Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Dale Ensminger
66. Applied Finite Element Modeling: Practical Problem Solving for Engineers,
Jeffrey M. Steele
67. Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering: Principles and Basic
Laboratory Experiments, Francis S. Tse and Ivan E. Morse
68. Centrifugal Pump Clinic: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Igor J. Karassik
69. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Alexander Blake
70. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
71. High Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Marsbed H. Hablanian
72. Pressure Sensors: Selection and Application, Duane Tandeske
73. Zinc Handbook: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, Frank Porter
74. Thermal Fatigue of Metals, Andrzej Weronski and Tadeusz Hejwowski
75. Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors,
Preben W. Jensen
76. Handbook of Electronic Package Design, edited by Michael Pecht
77. Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials, edited by
Marc A. Meyers, Lawrence E. Murr, and Karl P. Staudhammer
78. Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, Design and Applications, P. C. Koelet
79. Applied Combustion, Eugene L. Keating
80. Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication, edited by Wilfried J. Bartz
81. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified and Graphical Techniques, Second
Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lyndon O. Barton
82. Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer,
James W. Murdock
83. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, P. K. Mallick

84. Numerical Methods for Engineering Applications,
Edward R. Champion, Jr.
85. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Earl Logan, Jr.
86. Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Werner Soedel
87. Steam Plant Calculations Manual: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, V. Ganapathy
88. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Lewis H. Bell and Douglas H. Bell
89. Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance, Richard H. MacNeal
90. Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lawrence E. Nielsen
and Robert F. Landel
91. Mechanical Wear Prediction and Prevention, Raymond G. Bayer
92. Mechanical Power Transmission Components, edited by
David W. South and Jon R. Mancuso
93. Handbook of Turbomachinery, edited by Earl Logan, Jr.
94. Engineering Documentation Control Practices and Procedures,
Ray E. Monahan
95. Refractory Linings Thermomechanical Design and Applications,
Charles A. Schacht
96. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Applications and Techniques
for Use in Design, Manufacturing,
and Inspection, James D. Meadows
97. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints: Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
98. Shaft Alignment Handbook: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
John Piotrowski
99. Computer-Aided Design of Polymer-Matrix Composite Structures,
edited by Suong Van Hoa
100. Friction Science and Technology, Peter J. Blau
101. Introduction to Plastics and Composites: Mechanical Properties
and Engineering Applications, Edward Miller
102. Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design, Alexander Blake
103. Pump Characteristics and Applications, Michael W. Volk
104. Optical Principles and Technology for Engineers, James E. Stewart
105. Optimizing the Shape of Mechanical Elements and Structures,
A. A. Seireg and Jorge Rodriguez
106. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery, Vladimír Stejskal
and Michael Valásek
107. Shaft Seals for Dynamic Applications, Les Horve
108. Reliability-Based Mechanical Design, edited by Thomas A. Cruse
109. Mechanical Fastening, Joining, and Assembly, James A. Speck
110. Turbomachinery Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, edited by Chunill Hah
111. High-Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Marsbed H. Hablanian
112. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Workbook and Answerbook,
James D. Meadows

113. Handbook of Materials Selection for Engineering Applications,
edited by G. T. Murray
114. Handbook of Thermoplastic Piping System Design, Thomas Sixsmith
and Reinhard Hanselka
115. Practical Guide to Finite Elements: A Solid Mechanics Approach,
Steven M. Lepi
116. Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics, edited by Vijay K. Garg
117. Fluid Sealing Technology, Heinz K. Muller and Bernard S. Nau
118. Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design, A. A. Seireg
119. Influence Functions and Matrices, Yuri A. Melnikov
120. Mechanical Analysis of Electronic Packaging Systems,
Stephen A. McKeown
121. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Jon R. Mancuso
122. Thermodynamics: Processes and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
123. Gear Noise and Vibration, J. Derek Smith
124. Practical Fluid Mechanics for Engineering Applications, John J. Bloomer
125. Handbook of Hydraulic Fluid Technology, edited by George E. Totten
126. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, T. Kuppan
127. Designing for Product Sound Quality, Richard H. Lyon
128. Probability Applications in Mechanical Design, Franklin E. Fisher
and Joy R. Fisher
129. Nickel Alloys, edited by Ulrich Heubner
130. Rotating Machinery Vibration: Problem Analysis and Troubleshooting,
Maurice L. Adams, Jr.
131. Formulas for Dynamic Analysis, Ronald L. Huston and C. Q. Liu
132. Handbook of Machinery Dynamics, Lynn L. Faulkner and Earl Logan, Jr.
133. Rapid Prototyping Technology: Selection and Application,
Kenneth G. Cooper
134. Reciprocating Machinery Dynamics: Design and Analysis,
Abdulla S. Rangwala
135. Maintenance Excellence: Optimizing Equipment Life-Cycle Decisions,
edited by John D. Campbell and Andrew K. S. Jardine
136. Practical Guide to Industrial Boiler Systems, Ralph L. Vandagriff
137. Lubrication Fundamentals: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
D. M. Pirro and A. A. Wessol
138. Mechanical Life Cycle Handbook: Good Environmental Design
and Manufacturing, edited by Mahendra S. Hundal
139. Micromachining of Engineering Materials, edited by Joseph McGeough
140. Control Strategies for Dynamic Systems: Design and Implementation,
John H. Lumkes, Jr.
141. Practical Guide to Pressure Vessel Manufacturing, Sunil Pullarcot
142. Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications,
edited by Peter J. Shull
143. Diesel Engine Engineering: Thermodynamics, Dynamics, Design,
and Control, Andrei Makartchouk
144. Handbook of Machine Tool Analysis, Ioan D. Marinescu, Constantin Ispas,
and Dan Boboc

145. Implementing Concurrent Engineering in Small Companies,
Susan Carlson Skalak
146. Practical Guide to the Packaging of Electronics: Thermal and Mechanical
Design and Analysis, Ali Jamnia
147. Bearing Design in Machinery: Engineering Tribology and Lubrication,
Avraham Harnoy
148. Mechanical Reliability Improvement: Probability and Statistics for
Experimental Testing, R. E. Little
149. Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators: Design,
Applications, and Calculations, V. Ganapathy
150. The CAD Guidebook: A Basic Manual for Understanding
and Improving Computer-Aided Design, Stephen J. Schoonmaker
151. Industrial Noise Control and Acoustics, Randall F. Barron
152. Mechanical Properties of Engineered Materials, Wolé Soboyejo
153. Reliability Verification, Testing, and Analysis in Engineering Design,
Gary S. Wasserman
154. Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids: Third Edition, I. G. Currie
155. Intermediate Heat Transfer, Kau-Fui Vincent Wong
156. HVAC Water Chillers and Cooling Towers: Fundamentals, Application,
and Operation, Herbert W. Stanford III
157. Gear Noise and Vibration: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
J. Derek Smith
158. Handbook of Turbomachinery: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Earl Logan, Jr. and Ramendra Roy
159. Piping and Pipeline Engineering: Design, Construction, Maintenance,
Integrity, and Repair, George A. Antaki
160. Turbomachinery: Design and Theory, Rama S. R. Gorla
and Aijaz Ahmed Khan
161. Target Costing: Market-Driven Product Design, M. Bradford Clifton,
Henry M. B. Bird, Robert E. Albano, and Wesley P. Townsend
162. Fluidized Bed Combustion, Simeon N. Oka
163. Theory of Dimensioning: An Introduction to Parameterizing Geometric
Models, Vijay Srinivasan
164. Handbook of Mechanical Alloy Design, edited by George E. Totten,
Lin Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani
165. Structural Analysis of Polymeric Composite Materials, Mark E. Tuttle
166. Modeling and Simulation for Material Selection and Mechanical Design,
edited by George E. Totten, Lin Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani
167. Handbook of Pneumatic Conveying Engineering, David Mills,
Mark G. Jones, and Vijay K. Agarwal
168. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, Second Edition,
William C. Orthwein
169. Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication: Second Edition,
Bernard J. Hamrock, Steven R. Schmid, and Bo O. Jacobson
170. Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology for Microelectronic
Assemblies, edited by Karl J. Puttlitz and Kathleen A. Stalter
171. Vehicle Stability, Dean Karnopp
172. Mechanical Wear Fundamentals and Testing: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Raymond G. Bayer
173. Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics, E. Shashi Menon

174. Solid Fuels Combustion and Gasification, Marcio L. de Souza-Santos
175. Mechanical Tolerance Stackup and Analysis, Bryan R. Fischer
176. Engineering Design for Wear, Raymond G. Bayer
177. Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Werner Soedel
178. Refractories Handbook, edited by Charles A. Schacht
179. Practical Engineering Failure Analysis, Hani M. Tawancy, Anwar Ul-Hamid,
and Nureddin M. Abbas
180. Mechanical Alloying and Milling, C. Suryanarayana
181. Mechanical Vibration: Analysis, Uncertainties, and Control,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Haym Benaroya
182. Design of Automatic Machinery, Stephen J. Derby
183. Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Arun Shukla
184. Practical Guide to Designed Experiments, Paul D. Funkenbusch
185. Gigacycle Fatigue in Mechanical Practive, Claude Bathias
and Paul C. Paris
186. Selection of Engineering Materials and Adhesives, Lawrence W. Fisher
187. Boundary Methods: Elements, Contours, and Nodes, Subrata Mukherjee
and Yu Xie Mukherjee
188. Rotordynamics, Agnieszka (Agnes) Muszńyska
189. Pump Characteristics and Applications: Second Edition, Michael W. Volk
190. Reliability Engineering: Probability Models and Maintenance Methods,
Joel A. Nachlas
191. Industrial Heating: Principles, Techniques, Materials, Applications,
and Design, Yeshvant V. Deshmukh
192. Micro Electro Mechanical System Design, James J. Allen
193. Probability Models in Engineering and Science, Haym Benaroya
and Seon Han
194. Damage Mechanics, George Z. Voyiadjis and Peter I. Kattan
195. Standard Handbook of Chains: Chains for Power Transmission
and Material Handling, Second Edition, American Chain Association
and John L. Wright, Technical Consultant
196. Standards for Engineering Design and Manufacturing,
Wasim Ahmed Khan and Abdul Raouf S.I.
197. Maintenance, Replacement, and Reliability: Theory and Applications,
Andrew K. S. Jardine and Albert H. C. Tsang
198. Finite Element Method: Applications in Solids, Structures, and Heat
Transfer, Michael R. Gosz
199. Microengineering, MEMS, and Interfacing: A Practical Guide,
Danny Banks

DK3182_title 1/19/06 8:35 AM Page 1
Microengineering,MEMS,
andInterfacing
APracticalGuide
DannyBanks
Monisys Ltd.
Birmingham, England
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
Boca Raton London New York

Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8247-2305-8 (Hardcover)
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DK3182_Discl.fm Page 1 Monday, January 23, 2006 2:10 PM

Dedication
To Amanda Lamb
DK3182_C000.fm Page v Thursday, February 2, 2006 4:41 PM

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank everyone who has contributed material and assistance. Material
contributions should be acknowledged in the text, and I can only apologize if any
of these have been accidentally omitted. To you, and everyone else, many thanks.
DK3182_C000.fm Page vii Monday, February 13, 2006 10:25 AM

The Author
Danny Banks first studied electronic engineering at Leicester Polytechnic (now
DeMontfort University), U.K., graduating in 1990 with a B.Eng. (Hons). He then
joined the University of Surrey, U.K., as a Ph.D. student. His research involved
modeling and experimental investigation of micromachined microelectrodes for
recording neural signals from peripheral nerve trunks. He was awarded his Ph.D.
in 1995. Subsequently, he was employed as a postdoctoral research fellow in the
biomedical engineering group and was able to spend a further three years on this
research. From 1997 to 1999, he was employed as a postdoctoral fellow at the
European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany. His work
involved the investigation of microfabricated devices for biochemical analysis of
single cells. He was also involved in the promotion of artificial microstructures
for applications in molecular biology.
Since 1999 Dr. Banks has been employed at Monisys, a small company
specializing in embedded systems, sensors, and instrumentation R&D, located in
Birmingham, U.K. He is presently technical director.
Dr. Banks is a member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE), the
Society for Experimental Biology of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) and Euroscience.
DK3182_C000.fm Page ix Thursday, February 2, 2006 4:41 PM

Table of Contents
Part 1
Micromachining.......................................................1
I.1 Introduction..................................................................................................1
I.1.1 What Is Microengineering?.............................................................1
I.1.2 Why Is Microengineering Important?.............................................3
I.1.3 How Can I Make Money out of Microengineering?......................5
References .............................................................................................................7
Chapter 1 Photolithography..............................................................................9
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................9
1.2 UV Photolithography.................................................................................10
1.2.1 UV Exposure Systems...................................................................11
1.2.1.1 Mask Aligners .................................................................12
1.2.1.2 UV Light Sources ...........................................................15
1.2.1.3 Optical Systems...............................................................15
1.2.1.3.1 Contact and Proximity Printing .....................16
1.2.1.3.2 Projection Printing..........................................17
1.2.1.3.3 Projection and Contact Printing Compared...18
1.2.1.4 Optical Oddities ..............................................................19
1.2.1.4.1 The Difference between Negative
and Positive Resists........................................19
1.2.1.4.2 Optical Aberrations and Distortions ..............19
1.2.1.4.3 Optical Proximity Effects...............................20
1.2.1.4.4 Reflection from the Substrate ........................20
1.2.2 Shadow Masks...............................................................................21
1.2.3 Photoresists and Resist Processing ...............................................21
1.2.3.1 Photoresists......................................................................22
1.2.3.2 Photoresist Processing.....................................................24
1.2.3.2.1 Cleaning the Substrate ...................................25
1.2.3.2.2 Applying Photoresists ....................................27
1.2.3.2.3 Postexposure Processing ................................28
1.3 X-Ray Lithography....................................................................................28
1.3.1 Masks for X-Ray Lithography......................................................29
1.4 Direct-Write (E-Beam) Lithography.........................................................30
1.5 Low-Cost Photolithography ......................................................................32
1.6 Photolithography — Key Points ...............................................................34
References ...........................................................................................................35
DK3182_C000.fm Page xi Thursday, February 2, 2006 4:41 PM

Chapter 2 Silicon Micromachining................................................................37
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................37
2.2 Silicon........................................................................................................37
2.2.1 Miller Indices.................................................................................39
2.3 Crystal Growth ..........................................................................................39
2.4 Doping .......................................................................................................40
2.4.1 Thermal Diffusion .........................................................................41
2.4.2 Ion Implantation ............................................................................41
2.5 Wafer Specifications..................................................................................42
2.6 Thin Films .................................................................................................45
2.6.1 Materials and Deposition ..............................................................45
2.6.1.1 Depositing Thin Films ....................................................47
2.6.1.1.1 Thermal Oxidation .........................................47
2.6.1.1.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition ...........................47
2.6.1.1.3 Sputter Deposition..........................................49
2.6.1.1.4 Evaporation.....................................................50
2.6.1.1.5 Spinning..........................................................50
2.6.1.1.6 Summary.........................................................50
2.6.2 Wet Etching ...................................................................................52
2.6.3 Dry Etching ...................................................................................56
2.6.3.1 Relative Ion Etching .......................................................56
2.6.3.2 Ion-Beam Milling............................................................57
2.6.4 Liftoff.............................................................................................58
2.7 Structures in Silicon ..................................................................................59
2.7.1 Bulk Silicon Micromachining.......................................................59
2.7.1.1 Pits, Mesas, Bridges, Beams, and Membranes
with KOH........................................................................59
2.7.1.2 Fine Points through Wet and Dry Etching .....................63
2.7.1.3 RIE Pattern Transfer .......................................................64
2.7.1.4 Reflow .............................................................................64
2.7.2 Surface Micromachining ...............................................................64
2.7.3 Electrochemical Etching of Silicon ..............................................67
2.7.4 Porous Silicon................................................................................67
2.7.5 Wafer Bonding...............................................................................67
2.8 Wafer Dicing .............................................................................................68
2.8.1 The Dicing Saw.............................................................................68
2.8.2 Diamond and Laser Scribe............................................................69
2.8.3 Releasing Structures by KOH Etching .........................................70
References ...........................................................................................................72
Chapter 3 Nonsilicon Processes.....................................................................73
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................73
3.2 Chemical–Mechanical Polishing...............................................................73
3.3 LIGA and Electroplating...........................................................................74
DK3182_C000.fm Page xii Thursday, February 2, 2006 4:41 PM

3.4 Photochemical Machining.........................................................................75
3.5 Laser Machining........................................................................................75
3.5.1 IR Lasers........................................................................................76
3.5.2 Excimer Laser Micromachining....................................................77
3.6 Polymer Microforming..............................................................................79
3.6.1 Polyimides .....................................................................................80
3.6.2 Photoformable Epoxies (SU-8).....................................................80
3.6.3 Parylene and PTFE........................................................................81
3.6.4 Dry Film Resists............................................................................81
3.6.5 Embossing......................................................................................82
3.6.6 PDMS Casting...............................................................................83
3.6.7 Microcontact Printing....................................................................86
3.6.8 Microstereolithography..................................................................87
3.7 Electrical Discharge Machining................................................................89
3.8 Photostructurable Glasses..........................................................................90
3.9 Precision Engineering................................................................................91
3.9.1 Roughness Measurements .............................................................92
3.10 Other Processes .........................................................................................93
References ...........................................................................................................94
Chapter 4 Mask Design..................................................................................95
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................95
4.2 Minimum Feature Size..............................................................................95
4.3 Layout Software ........................................................................................95
4.3.1 File Formats...................................................................................97
4.3.1.1 Technology Files.............................................................98
4.3.1.1.1 Units ...............................................................99
4.3.1.2 Further Caveats .............................................................100
4.3.2 Graphics.......................................................................................100
4.3.3 Grid..............................................................................................101
4.3.4 Text ..............................................................................................101
4.3.5 Other Features .............................................................................102
4.3.6 Manhattan Geometry...................................................................102
4.4 Design......................................................................................................103
4.4.1 The Frame and Alignment Marks...............................................104
4.4.1.1 Scribe Lane ...................................................................104
4.4.1.2 Alignment Marks ..........................................................105
4.4.1.3 Test Structures...............................................................107
4.4.1.4 Layer and Mask Set Identification Marks....................108
4.4.1.5 Putting It All Together ..................................................108
4.4.1.6 Another Way to Place Alignment Marks......................111
4.4.2 The Device...................................................................................111
4.5 Design Rules............................................................................................117
4.5.1 Developing Design Rules............................................................120
DK3182_C000.fm Page xiii Monday, February 13, 2006 10:25 AM

4.6 Getting the Masks Produced ...................................................................122
4.6.1 Mask Plate Details.......................................................................122
4.6.2 Design File Details......................................................................123
4.6.3 Mask Set Details .........................................................................123
4.6.4 Step and Repeat...........................................................................124
4.6.5 Placement Requirements .............................................................124
4.7 Generating Gerber Files ..........................................................................124
4.8 Mask Design — Key Points....................................................................126
Part II
Microsystems .......................................................127
II.1 Introduction..............................................................................................127
II.1.1 Microsystem Components...........................................................128
Chapter 5 Microsensors................................................................................131
5.1 Introduction..............................................................................................131
5.2 Thermal Sensors......................................................................................131
5.2.1 Thermocouples ............................................................................131
5.2.2 Thermoresistors ...........................................................................132
5.2.3 Thermal Flow-Rate Sensors........................................................133
5.3 Radiation Sensors....................................................................................134
5.3.1 Photodiodes..................................................................................134
5.3.2 Phototransistors............................................................................135
5.3.3 Charge-Coupled Devices.............................................................135
5.3.4 Pyroelectric Sensors ....................................................................136
5.4 Magnetic Sensors.....................................................................................137
5.5 Chemical Sensors and Biosensors ..........................................................138
5.5.1 ISFET Sensors.............................................................................138
5.5.2 Enzyme-Based Biosensors ..........................................................140
5.6 Microelectrodes for Neurophysiology ....................................................141
5.7 Mechanical Sensors.................................................................................143
5.7.1 Piezoresistors...............................................................................143
5.7.2 Piezoelectric Sensors...................................................................144
5.7.3 Capacitive Sensors.......................................................................144
5.7.4 Optical Sensors............................................................................145
5.7.5 Resonant Sensors.........................................................................145
5.7.6 Accelerometers ............................................................................146
5.7.7 Pressure Sensors..........................................................................146
Chapter 6 Microactuators.............................................................................147
6.1 Introduction..............................................................................................147
6.2 Electrostatic Actuators.............................................................................147
DK3182_C000.fm Page xiv Thursday, February 2, 2006 4:41 PM

6.2.1 Comb Drives................................................................................148
6.2.2 Wobble Motors ............................................................................149
6.3 Magnetic Actuators..................................................................................150
6.4 Piezoelectric Actuators............................................................................151
6.5 Thermal Actuators ...................................................................................151
6.6 Hydraulic Actuators.................................................................................152
6.7 Multilayer Bonded Devices.....................................................................153
6.8 Microstimulators......................................................................................153
Chapter 7 Micro Total Analysis Systems.....................................................155
7.1 Introduction..............................................................................................155
7.2 Basic Chemistry.......................................................................................156
7.2.1 Inorganic Chemistry ....................................................................157
7.2.1.1 Bond Formation ............................................................159
7.2.1.2 pH..................................................................................161
7.2.2 Organic Chemistry.......................................................................162
7.2.2.1 Polymers........................................................................164
7.2.2.2 Silicones ........................................................................166
7.2.3 Biochemistry................................................................................167
7.2.3.1 Proteins..........................................................................168
7.2.3.2 Nucleic Acids ................................................................170
7.2.3.3 Lipids.............................................................................172
7.2.3.3.1 Fats ...............................................................173
7.2.3.3.2 Phospholipids ...............................................173
7.2.3.3.3 Cholesterol....................................................174
7.2.3.4 Carbohydrates................................................................175
7.3 Applications of Microengineered Devices in Chemistry
and Biochemistry.....................................................................................176
7.3.1 Chemistry.....................................................................................177
7.3.1.1 Synthesis........................................................................177
7.3.1.2 Process and Environmental Monitoring .......................177
7.3.2 Biochemistry................................................................................177
7.3.3 Biology ........................................................................................178
7.3.3.1 Microscopy....................................................................178
7.3.3.2 Radioactive Labeling ....................................................179
7.3.3.3 Chromatography............................................................180
7.3.3.4 Electrophoresis..............................................................181
7.3.3.5 Mass Spectrometry........................................................182
7.3.3.6 X-Ray Crystallography and NMR................................182
7.3.3.7 Other Processes and Advantages ..................................183
7.4 Micro Total Analysis Systems.................................................................183
7.4.1 Microfluidic Chips.......................................................................183
7.4.2 Laminar Flow and Surface Tension ............................................184
7.4.3 Electroosmotic Flow....................................................................185
DK3182_C000.fm Page xv Thursday, February 2, 2006 4:41 PM

7.4.4 Sample Injection..........................................................................186
7.4.5 Microchannel Electrophoresis.....................................................186
7.4.6 Detection......................................................................................190
7.4.6.1 Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF)................................190
7.4.6.1.1 Derivatization ...............................................190
7.4.6.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of LIF Detection...........................................190
7.4.6.2 Ultraviolet (UV) Absorbance........................................191
of UV Absorption.........................................191
7.4.6.3 Electrochemical Detection ............................................192
7.4.6.3.1 Cyclic Voltammetry......................................193
of Cyclic Voltammetry .................................194
7.4.6.4 Radioactive Labeling ....................................................194
7.4.6.5 Mass Spectrometry........................................................194
7.4.6.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance .......................................195
7.4.6.7 Other Sensors ................................................................195
7.5 DNA Chips ..............................................................................................196
7.5.1 DNA Chip Fabrication ................................................................196
7.6 The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) .................................................197
7.7 Conducting Polymers and Hydrogels .....................................................197
7.7.1 Conducting Polymers ..................................................................198
7.7.2 Hydrogels.....................................................................................198
References .........................................................................................................199
Chapter 8 Integrated Optics .........................................................................201
8.1 Introduction..............................................................................................201
8.2 Waveguides..............................................................................................201
8.2.1 Optical Fiber Waveguides ...........................................................201
8.2.1.1 Fabrication of Optical Fibers........................................202
8.2.2 Planar Waveguides.......................................................................204
8.3 Integrated Optics Components................................................................204
8.4 Fiber Coupling.........................................................................................205
8.5 Other Applications...................................................................................205
8.5.1 Lenses ..........................................................................................205
8.5.2 Displays .......................................................................................206
8.5.3 Fiber-Optic Cross-Point Switches...............................................206
8.5.4 Tunable Optical Cavities.............................................................206
Chapter 9 Assembly and Packaging ............................................................209
9.1 Introduction..............................................................................................209
9.2 Assembly .................................................................................................209
DK3182_C000.fm Page xvi Thursday, February 2, 2006 4:41 PM

9.2.1 Design for Assembly...................................................................209
9.2.1.1 Auto- or Self-Alignment
and Self-Assembly ........................................................210
9.2.1.2 Future Possibilities........................................................211
9.3 Passivation ...............................................................................................211
9.4 Prepackage Testing .................................................................................212
9.5 Packaging.................................................................................................212
9.5.1 Conventional IC Packaging.........................................................213
9.5.2 Multichip Modules ......................................................................214
9.6 Wire Bonding ..........................................................................................214
9.6.1 Thermocompression Bonding .....................................................214
9.6.2 Ultrasonic Bonding......................................................................214
9.6.3 Flip-Chip Bonding.......................................................................215
9.7 Materials for Prototype Assembly and Packaging..................................215
Chapter 10 Nanotechnology..........................................................................217
10.1 Introduction............................................................................................217
10.2 The Scanning Electron Microscope ......................................................217
10.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy..................................................................219
10.3.1 Scanning Tunneling Electron Microscope...............................219
10.3.2 Atomic Force Microscope .......................................................220
10.3.3 Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscope ...............................221
10.3.4 Scanning Probe Microscope:
Control of the Stage.................................................................221
10.3.5 Artifacts and Calibration..........................................................221
10.4 Nanoelectromechanical Systems ...........................................................222
10.4.1 Nanolithography.......................................................................222
10.4.1.1 UV Photolithography for
Nanostructures.........................................................222
10.4.1.1.1 Phase-Shift Masks................................223
10.4.1.2 SPM “Pens”.............................................................224
10.4.2 Silicon Micromachining and Nanostructures ..........................224
10.4.3 Ion-Beam Milling.....................................................................225
10.5 Langmuir–Blodgett Films......................................................................227
10.6 Bionanotechnology ................................................................................228
10.6.1 Cell Membranes .......................................................................229
10.6.2 The Cytoskeleton .....................................................................230
10.6.3 Molecular Motors.....................................................................230
10.6.4 DNA-Associated Molecular Machines....................................232
10.6.5 Protein and DNA Engineering.................................................233
10.7 Molecular Nanotechnology....................................................................233
10.7.1 Buckminsterfullerene ...............................................................234
10.7.2 Dendrimers...............................................................................234
References .........................................................................................................235
DK3182_C000.fm Page xvii Thursday, February 2, 2006 4:41 PM

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Selection.—In order to intelligently select a machine so that it will properly
harmonize with the conditions under which it is to operate, there are several
things to be considered.
1. Type;
2. Capacity;
3. Efficiency;
4. Construction.
The general type of machine to be used is, of course, dependent on the
system employed, that is, whether it be direct or alternating, single or
polyphase.
Thus, the voltage in most cases is fixed except on transformer systems where a
choice of voltage may be had by selecting a transformer to suit.
In alternating current constant pressure transmission circuits, an average
voltage of 2,200 volts with step down transformer ratios of 1
⁄10 and 1
⁄20 is in
general use, and is recommended.
For long distance, the following average voltages are recommended 6,000;
11,000; 22,000; 33,000; 44,000; 66,000; 88,000; and higher, depending on the
length of the line and degree of economy desired.
In alternating circuits the standard frequencies are 25, and 60 cycles. These
frequencies are already in extensive use and it is recommended to adhere to
them as closely as possible.
Fig. 2,784.—Diagram of connections for testing to obtain the saturation curve of an alternator. The
saturation curve shows the relation between the volts generated in the armature and the amperes of
field current (or ampere turns of the field) for a constant armature current. The armature current may
be zero, in which case the curve is called no load saturation curve, or sometimes the open circuit
characteristic curve. A saturation curve may be taken with full load current in the armature; but this is
rarely done, except in alternators of comparatively small output. If a full load saturation curve be
desired, it can be approximately calculated from the no load saturation curve. The figure shows the
connections. If the voltage generated is greater than the capacity of the voltmeter, a multiplying coil or
a step down pressure transformer may be used, as shown. A series of observations of the voltage
between the terminals of one of the phases, is made for different values of the field current. Eight or
nine points along the curve are usually sufficient, the series extending from zero to about fifty per cent.
above normal rated voltage. The points should be taken more closely together in the vicinity of normal
voltage than at other portions of the curve. Care must be taken that the alternator is run at its rated

speed, and this speed must be kept constant. Deviations from constant speed may be most easily
detected by the use of a tachometer. If the machine be two phase or three phase, the voltmeter may be
connected to any one phase throughout a complete series of observations. The voltage of all the phases
should be observed for normal full load excitation by connecting the voltmeter to each phase
successively, keeping the field current constant at normal voltage. This is done in order to see how
closely the voltage of the different phases agree.
In fixing the capacity of a machine, careful consideration should be given to the
conditions of operation both present and future in order that the resultant
efficiency may be maximum.
Most machines show the best efficiency at or near full load. If the load be
always constant, as for instance, a pump forcing water to a given head, it would be
a simple matter to specify the proper size of machine, but in nearly all cases, and
especially in electrical plants, the load varies widely, not only the daily and hourly
fluctuations, but the varying demands depending on the season of the year and
growth of the plant's business. All of these conditions tend to complicate the
matter, so that intelligent selection of capacity of a machine requires not only
calculation but mature judgment, which is only obtained by long experience.
Fig. 2,785.—Saturation curve taken from a 2,000 kw., three phase alternator of the revolving field type,
having 16 poles, and generating 2,000 volts, and 576 amperes per phase when run at 300 R.P.M.
In selecting a machine, or in fact any item connected with the plant its
construction should be carefully considered.

Standard construction should be insisted upon so that in the event of damage a
new part can be obtained with the least possible delay.
The parts of most machines are interchangeable, that is to say, with the refined
methods of machinery a duplicate part (usually carried in stock) may be obtained
at once to replace a defective or broken part, and made with such precision that
little or no fitting will be required.
The importance of standard construction cannot be better illustrated than in
the matter of steam piping, that is, the kind of fittings selected for a given
installation.
With the exception of the exhaust line from engine to condenser, where
other than standard construction may sometimes be used to reduce the
frictional resistance to the steam, the author would adhere to standard
construction except in very exceptional cases. Those who have had practical
experience in pipe fitting will appreciate the wisdom of this.
For installations in places remote from large supply houses, the more usual
forms of standard fittings should be employed, such as ordinary T's, 45° and 90°
elbows, etc.
In such locations, where designers specify the less usual forms of standard
fittings such as union fittings, offset reducers, etc., or special fittings made to
sketch, it simply means, in the first instance that they usually cannot be
obtained of the local dealer, making it necessary to order from some large
supply house and resulting in vexatious delays.
As a rule, those who specify special fittings have found that their making
requires an unreasonable length of time, and the cost to be several times that of
the equivalent in standard fittings.
An examination of a few installations will usually show numerous special and
odd shape fittings, which are entirely unnecessary.
Moreover, a standard design, in general, is better than a special design,
because the former has been tried out, and any imperfection or weakness
remedied, and where thousands of castings of a kind are turned out, a better
article is usually the result as compared with a special casting.
In the matter of construction, in addition to the items just mentioned, it
should be considered with respect to
1. Quality;
2. Range;
3. Accessibility;
4. Proportion;
5. Lubrication;
6. Adjustment.

It is poor policy, excepting in very rare instances, to buy a "cheap" article, as,
especially in these days of commercial greed, the best is none too good.
Figs. 2,786 and 2,787.—Wheel and roller pipe cutters illustrating range. The illustrations show the
comparative movements necessary with the two types of cutter to perform their function. The wheel
cutter requiring only a small arc of movement will cut a pipe in an inaccessible place as shown, which
with a roller cutter would be impossible. Accordingly, the wheel cutter is said to have a greater range
than the roller cutter.
Perhaps next in importance to quality, at least in most cases, is range. This
may be defined as scope of operation, effectiveness, or adaptability. The
importance of range is perhaps most pronounced in the selection of tools,
especially for plants remote from repair shops.
For instance, in selecting a pipe cutter, there are two general classes: wheel
cutters, and roller cutters. A wheel cutter has three wheels and a roller cutter one
wheel and two rollers, the object of the rollers being to keep the wheel
perpendicular to the pipe in starting the cut and to reduce burning. It must be
evident that in operation, a roller cutter requires sufficient room around the pipe to
permit making a complete revolution of the cutter, whereas, with a wheel cutter,
the work may be done by moving the cutter back and forth through a small arc, as
illustrated in figs. 2,786 and 2,787. Thus a wheel cutter has a greater range than a
roll cutter.
Range relates not only to ability to operate in inaccessible places but to the
various operations that may be performed by one tool.
PROPERTIES OF STANDARD WROUGHT IRON PIPE
Diameter.
Thick-
ness.
Circumference. Transverse are
Nominal
internal.
Actual
external.
Actual
internal.
External. Internal. External. Internal.
Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Sq. ins. Sq. ins.
⅛ .405 .27 .068 1.272 .848 .129 .0573
¼ .54 .364 .088 1.696 1.144 .229 .1041
⅜ .675 .494 .091 2.121 1.552 .358 .1917
½ .84 .623 .109 2.639 1.957 .554 .3048

¾ 1.05 .824 .113 3.299 2.589 .866 .5333
1 1.315 1.048 .134 4.131 3.292 1.358 .8626
1¼ 1.66 1.38 .14 5.215 4.335 2.164 1.496
1½ 1.9 1.611 .145 5.969 5.061 2.835 2.038
2 2.375 2.067 .154 7.461 6.494 4.43 3.356
2½ 2.875 2.468 .204 9.032 7.753 6.492 4.784
3 3.5 3.067 .217 10.996 9.636 9.621 7.388
3½ 4. 3.548 .226 12.566 11.146 12.566 9.887
4 4.5 4.026 .237 14.137 12.648 15.904 12.73
4½ 5. 4.508 .246 15.708 14.162 19.635 15.961
5 5.563 5.045 .259 17.477 15.849 24.306 19.99
6 6.625 6.065 .28 20.813 19.054 34.472 28.888
7 7.625 7.023 .301 23.955 22.063 45.664 38.738
8 8.625 7.982 .322 27.096 25.076 58.426 50.04
9 9.625 8.937 .344 30.238 28.076 72.76 62.73
10 10.75 10.019 .366 33.772 31.477 90.763 78.839
11 12. 11.25 .375 37.699 35.343 113.098 99.402
12 12.75 12. .375 40.055 37.7 127.677 113.098
PROPERTIES OF STANDARD WROUGHT IRON PIPE
(Continued)
Diam.
Length of
pipe per
square
foot of
Length of
pipe per
containing
one cubic
foot.
Nominal
weight
per foot.
Number of
threads
per inch.
Nominal
internal.
External
surface
Internal
surface
Inches Feet. Feet. Feet. Pounds.
⅛ 9.44 14.15 2513. .241 27
¼ 7.075 10.49 1383.3 .42 18
⅜ 5.657 7.73 751.2 .559 18
½ 4.547 6.13 472.4 .837 14
¾ 3.637 4.635 270. 1.115 14
1 2.904 3.645 166.9 1.668 11½
1¼ 2.301 2.768 96.25 2.244 11½
1½ 2.01 2.371 70.66 2.678 11½
2 1.608 1.848 42.91 3.609 11½

2½ 1.328 1.547 30.1 5.739 8
3 1.091 1.245 19.5 7.536 8
3½ .955 1.077 14.57 9.001 8
4 .849 .949 11.31 10.665 8
4½ .764 .848 9.02 12.34 8
5 .687 .757 7.2 14.502 8
6 .577 .63 4.98 18.762 8
7 .501 .544 3.72 23.271 8
8 .443 .478 2.88 28.177 8
9 .397 .427 2.29 33.701 8
10 .355 .382 1.82 40.065 8
11 .318 .339 1.450 45.95 8
12 .299 .319 1.27 48.985 8
Open construction should be employed, wherever possible, so that all parts
of a machine that require attention, or that may become deranged in operation,
may be accessible for adjustment or repair.
The design should be such that there is ample strength, and the bearings for
moving parts should be of liberal proportions to avoid heating with minimum
attention.
A comparison of the proportions used by different manufacturers for a machine
of given size might profitably be made before a selection is made.
The matter of lubrication is important.
Fast running machines, such as generators and motors, should be provided with
ring oilers and oil reservoirs of ample capacity, as shown in figs. 2,788 to 2,794.

Fig. 2,788.—Sectional view showing a ring oiler or self oiling bearing. As shown the pedestal or bearing
standard is cored out to form a reservoir for the oil. The rings are in rolling contact with the shaft, and
dip at their lower part into the oil. In operation, oil is brought up by the rings which revolve because of
the frictional contacts with the shaft. The oil is in this way brought up to the top of the bearing and
distributed along the shaft gradually descending by gravity to the reservoir, being thus used over and
over. A drain cock, is provided in the base so that the oil may be periodically removed from the reservoir
and strained to remove the accumulation of foreign matter. This should be frequently done to minimize
the wear of the bearing.
All bearings subject to appreciable wear should be made adjustable so that
lost motion may be taken up from time to time and thus keep the vibration and
noise of operation within proper limits.
Selection of Generators.—This is governed by the class of work to be
done and by certain local conditions which are liable to vary considerably for
different stations.
These variable factors determine whether the generators must be of the
direct or alternating current type, whether they must be wound to develop a
high or a low voltage, and whether their outputs in amperes must be large or
small. Sufficient information has already been given to cover these various
cases; there are, however, certain general rules that may advantageously be
observed in the selection of generators designed to fill any of the
aforementioned conditions, and it is well to possess certain facts regarding their
construction.
Figs. 2,789 to 2,794.—Self oiling self aligning bearing open. Views showing oil grooves, rings, bolts etc.
Ques. Name an important point to be considered in selecting a
generator.
Ans. Its efficiency.
Ques. What are the important points with respect to efficiency?
Ans. A generator possessing a high efficiency at the average load is more
desirable than a generator showing a high efficiency at full load.
Ques. Why?

Ans. The reason is that in station practice the full load limit is seldom
reached, the usual load carried by a generator ordinarily lying between the one-
half and three-quarter load points.
Ques. How do the efficiencies of large and small generators
compare?
Ans. There is little difference.
Fig. 2,795.—Rotor of Westinghouse type T turbine dynamo set. The dynamo is of the commutating pole
type either shunt or compound wound. The turbine is of the single wheel impulse type. The wheel is
mounted directly on the end of the shaft as shown. Steam is used two or more times on the wheel to
secure efficiency. A fly ball governor is provided with weights hung on hardened steel knife edges. In
case of over speeding, an automatic safety stop throttle valve is tapped shutting off the steam supply.
This type of turbine dynamo set is especially applicable for exciter service in modern, superheated
steam generating stations where the steam pressure exceeds 125 pounds. Westinghouse Type T
turbines operate directly (that is, without a reducing valve) on pressures up to 200 pounds per square
inch with steam superheated to 150 degrees Fahrenheit.
Ques. How are the sizes and number of generator determined?
Ans. The sizes and number of generator to be installed should be such as to
permit the engines operating them being worked at nearly full load, because the
efficiencies of the latter machines decrease rapidly when carrying less than this
amount.
Ques. What is understood by regulation?
Ans. The accuracy and reliability with which the pressure or current
developed in a machine may be controlled.
It is generally possible if purchasing of a reputable concern, to obtain access to
record sheets on which may be found results of tests conducted on the generator
in question, and as these are really the only means of ascertaining the values of
efficiency and regulation, the purchaser has a right to inspect them. If, for some
reason or other, he has not been afforded this privilege, he should order the
machine installed in the station on approval, and test its efficiency and regulation
before making the purchase.

Fig. 2,796.—Cross section of electrical station showing small traveling crane.
Installation.—The installation of machines and apparatus in an electrical
station is a task which increases in difficulty with the size of the plant. When the
parts are small and comparatively light they may readily be placed in position,
either by hand, by erecting temporary supports which may be moved from place
to place as desired, or by rolling the parts along on the floor upon pieces of iron
pipe. If, however, the parts be large and heavy, a traveling crane such as shown
in fig. 2,797, becomes necessary.
Ques. What precaution should be taken in moving the parts of
machines?
Ans. Care should be taken not to injure the bearings and shafts, the joints in
magnetic circuits such as those between frame and pole pieces, and the
windings on the field and armature.

Fig. 2,797.—Cross section of electrical station showing a traveling crane for the installation or removal of
large and heavy machine parts. A traveling crane consists of an iron beam which, being supplied with
wheels at the ends, can be made to move either mechanically or electrically upon a track running the
entire length of the station. This track is not supported by the walls of the building, but rests upon
beams specially provided for the purpose. In addition to the horizontal motion thus obtained, another
horizontal motion at right angles to the former is afforded by means of the carriage which, being also
mounted on wheels, runs upon a track on the top of the beam. Electrical power is generally used to
move the carriage and also the revolving drums contained thereon, the latter of which give a vertical
motion to the main hoist or the auxiliary hoist, these hoists being used respectively for raising or
lowering heavy or light loads. In the larger sizes of electric traveling crane, a cage is attached to the
beam for the operator, who, by means of three controllers mounted in the cage, can move a load on
either the main or auxiliary hoist in any direction.
The insulations of the windings are perhaps the most vital parts of a generator,
and the most readily injured. The prick of a pin or tack, a bruise, or a bending of
the wires by resting their weight upon them or by their coming in contact with
some hard substance, will often render a field coil or an armature useless.
Owing to its costly construction, it is advisable when transporting armatures by
means of cranes to use a wooden spreader, as shown in fig. 2,798 to prevent the
supporting rope bruising the winding.
Fig. 2,798.—View of armature in transit showing use of a wooden spreader as a protection. If a chain be
used in place of the rope, a padding of cloth should be placed around the armature shaft and special
care taken that the chain does not scratch the commutator.
Ques. If an armature cannot be placed at once in its final position
what should be done?
Ans. It may be laid temporarily upon the floor, if a sheet of cardboard or
cloth be placed underneath the armature as a protection for the windings; in
case the armature is not to be used for some time, it is better practice to place it
in a horizontal position on two wooden supports near the shaft ends.

Ques. What kind of base should be used with a belt driven
generator or motor?
Ans. The base should be provided with V ways and adjusting screws for
moving the machine horizontally to take up slack in the belt, as shown in fig.
2,799.
Owing to the normal tension on the belt, there is a moment exerted equal in
amount to the distance from the center of gravity of the machine to the center of
the belt, multiplied by the effective pull on the belt. This force tends to turn the
machine about its center of gravity. By placing the screws as shown, any turning
moment, as just mentioned, is prevented.
Fig. 2,799.—Plan of belt drive machine showing V ways and adjusting screws for moving the machine
forward from the engine or counter shaft to take up slack in the belt.
Ques. How should a machine be assembled?
Ans. The assembling should progress by the aid of a blue print, or by the
information obtained from a photograph of the complete machine as it appears
when ready for service. Each part should be perfectly clean when placed in
position, especially those parts between which there is friction when the
machine is in operation, or across which pass lines of magnetic force; in both
cases the surfaces in contact must be true and slightly oiled before placing in
position.
Contact surfaces forming part of electrical circuits must also be clean and tightly
screwed together. An important point to bear in mind when assembling a machine
is, to so place the parts that it will not be necessary to remove any one of them in
order to get some other part in its proper position. By remembering this simple rule

much time will be saved, and in the majority of instances the parts will finally be
better fitted together than if the task has to be repeated a number of times.
When there are two or more parts of the machine similarly shaped, it is often
difficult to properly locate them, but in such cases notice should be taken of the
factory marks usually stamped upon such pieces and their proper places
determined from the instructions sent with the machine.
Figs. 2,800 to 2,802.—Starrett's improved speed indicator. In construction, the working parts are
enclosed like a watch. The graduations show every revolution, and with two rows of figures read both
right and left as the shaft may run. While looking at the watch, each hundred revolutions may be
counted by allowing the oval headed pin on the revolving disc to pass under the thumb as the
instrument is pressed to its work. A late improvement in this indicator consists in the rotating disc,
which, being carried by friction may be moved to the starting point where the raised knobs coincide.
When the spindle is placed in connection with the revolving shaft, pressing the raised knob with the
thumb will prevent the disc rotating, while the hand of the watch gets to the right position to take the
time. By releasing the pressure the disc is liberated for counting the revolutions of the shaft when every
100 may be noted by feeling the knob pass under the thumb lightly pressed against it, thus relieving the
eye, which has only to look on the watch to note the time.
Ques. What should be noted with respect to speed of generator?
Ans. Each generator is designed to be run at a certain speed in order to
develop the voltage at which the machine is rated. The speed, in revolutions per
minute, the pressure in volts, and the capacity or output in watts (volts ×
amperes) or in kilowatts (thousands of watts) are generally stamped on a
nameplate screwed to the machine.
This requirement frequently requires calculations to be made by the erectors to
determine the proper size pulleys to employ to obtain the desired speed.

Fig. 2,803.—Home made belt clamp. It is made with four pieces of oak of ample size to firmly grip the
belt ends where the bolts are tightened. The figure shows the clamp complete and in position on the
belt and clearly illustrates the details of construction. In making the long bolts the thread should be cut
about three-quarter length of bolt and deep enough so that the nuts will easily screw on.
Example.—What diameter of engine pulley is required to run a dynamo at a
speed of 1,450 revolutions per minute the dynamo pulley being 10 inches in
diameter and the speed of engine, 275 revolutions per minute?
The diameter of pulley required on engine is 10 × (1,450 ÷ 275) = 53
inches, nearly.
Rule.—To find the diameter of the driving pulley, multiply the speed of the
driven pulley by its diameter, divide the product by the speed of the driver and the
answer will be the size of the driver required.
Example.—If the speed of an engine be 325 revolutions per minute, diameter of
engine pulley 42 inches, and the speed of the dynamo 1,400 revolutions per
minute, how large a pulley is required on dynamo?
The size of the dynamo pulley is 42 × (325 ÷ 1,400) = 9¾ inches.
Rule.—To find the size of dynamo pulley, multiply the speed of engine by the
diameter of engine wheel and divide the product by the speed of the dynamo.

Figs. 2,804 and 2,805.—A good method of lacing a belt. The view at the left shows outer side of belt,
and at the right, inner or pulley side.
Example.—If a steam engine, running 300 revolutions per minute, have a belt
wheel 48 inches in diameter, and be belted to a dynamo having a pulley 12 inches
in diameter, how many revolutions per minute will the dynamo make?
The speed of dynamo will be 300 × (48 ÷ 12) = 1,200 rev. per min.
Rule.—When the speed of the driving pulley and its diameter are known, and
the diameter of the driven pulley is known, the speed of the driven pulley is found
by multiplying the speed of the driver by its diameter in inches and dividing the
product by the diameter of the driven pulley.
Example.—What will be the required speed of an engine having a belt wheel
46 inches in diameter to run a dynamo 1,500 revolutions per minute, the dynamo
pulley being 11 inches in diameter?
The speed of the engine is 1,500 × (11 ÷ 46) = 359 rev. per min. nearly.

Fig. 2,806.—Wiring diagram and directions for operating Holzer-Cabot single phase self-starting motor.
Location: The motor should be placed in as clear and dry a location as possible, away from acid or
other fumes which would attack the metal parts or insulation, and should be located where it is easily
accessible for cleaning and oiling. Erection: The motor should be set so that the shaft is level and
parallel with the shaft it is to drive so that the belt will run in the middle of the pulleys. Do not use a
belt which is too heavy or too tight for the work it has to do, as it will materially reduce the output of
the motor. The belt should be from one-half to one inch narrower than the pulley. Rotation: In order to
reverse the direction of rotation, interchange leads A and B. Suspended Motors: Motors with ring oil
bearings may be used on the wall or ceiling by taking off end caps and revolving 90 or 180 degrees until
the oil wells come directly below the bearings. Starting: Motors are provided with link across two
terminals on the upper right hand bracket at the front of the motor and with this connection should
start considerable overloads. If the starting current be too great with this connection, it may be reduced
by removing the link. Temperatures: At full load the motor will feel hot to the hand, but this is far
below the danger point. If too hot for touch, measure temperature with a thermometer by placing bulb
against field winding for 10 minutes, covering thermometer with cloth or waste. The temperature should
not exceed 75 degrees Fahr. above the surrounding air. Oiling: Fill the oil wells to the overflow before
starting and keep them full. See that the oil rings turn freely with shaft. Care: The motor must be kept
clean. Smooth collector rings with sandpaper and see that the brushes make good contact. When
brushes become worn they may be reversed. When fitting new brushes or changing them always
sandpaper them down until they make good contact with the collector rings, by passing a strip of
sandpaper beneath the brush.
Rule.—To find the speed of engine when diameter of both pulleys, and speed
of dynamo are given, multiply the dynamo speed by the diameter of its pulley and
divide by the diameter of engine pulley.
Ques. How are the diameters and speeds of gear wheels figured?
Ans. The same as belted wheels, using either the pitch circle diameters or
number of teeth in each gear wheel.
Figs. 2,807 to 2,809.—Wiring diagrams and directions for operating Holzer-Cabot slow speed alternating
current motors. Erecting: In installing the motor, be sure the transformer and wiring to the motor are
large enough to permit the proper voltage at the terminals. If too small, the voltage will drop and
reduce the capacity of the motor. Oiling: Maintain oil in wells to the overflow. Starting: Single phase
motors are started by first throwing the starting switch down into the starting position, and when the
motor is up to speed, throwing it up into the running position. Do not hold the switch in starting
position over 10 seconds. Starter for single phase motors above ½ H.P. are arranged with an adjusting
link at the bottom of the panel. The link is shown in the position of least starting torque and current.

Connect from W to 2 or W to 3 for starting heavier loads. Two or three phase motors are started simply
by closing the switch. These motors start full load without starters. The motor should start promptly on
closing the switch. It should be started the first time without being coupled to the line shaft. If the
motor start free, but will not start loaded, it shows either that the load upon the motor is too great, the
line voltage too low, or the frequency too high. The voltage and frequency with the motor running
should be within 5% of the name plate rating and the voltage with 10 to 15% while starting. If the
motor do not start free, either it is getting no current or something is wrong with the motor. In either
case an electrician should be consulted. Solution: To reverse the direction of rotation interchange the
leads marked "XX" in the diagrams. Temperature: At full load the motor should not heat over 75
degrees Fahr. above the temperature of the surrounding air; if run in a small enclosed space with no
ventilation, the temperature will be somewhat higher.
Ques. What should be noted with respect to generator pulleys?
Ans. A pulley of certain size is usually supplied with each generator by its
manufacturer, and it is not generally advisable to depart much from the
dimensions of this pulley. Accordingly, the solution of the pulley problem usually
consists in finding the necessary diameter of the driving pulley relative to that of
the pulley on the generator in order to furnish the required speed.
Ques. What is the chief objection to belt drive?
Ans. The large amount of floor space required.
Fig. 2,810.—Tandem drive for economizing floor space with belt transmission. Belts of different lengths
are used, as shown, each of which passes over the driving wheel d of the engine, and then over the
pulley wheel of one of the generators. In such an arrangement the belts would be run lengthwise
through the room in which the machines are placed, and it is obvious that since the width of the room
would be governed by the width of the machines thus installed, this method is a very efficient one for
accomplishing the end in view.
Ques. How may the amount of space that would ordinarily be
required for belt drive, be reduced?
Ans. By driving machines in tandem as in fig. 2,810, or by the double pulley
drive as in fig. 2,811.
Ques. What is the objection to the tandem method?
Ans. The most economical distance between centers cannot be employed for
all machines.
Ques. What is the objectionable tendency in resorting to floor
economy methods with belt transmission?

Ans. The tendency to place the machines too closely together. This is poor
economy as it makes the cleaning of the machines a difficult and dangerous
task; it is therefore advisable to allow sufficient room for this purpose regardless
of the method of belting employed.
Fig. 2,811.—Double pulley drive for economizing floor space with belt transmission. Where a center
crank engine is used both pulleys may be employed by belting a machine to each as shown. Although
considerable floor space would be saved by the use of this scheme if the generators thus belted were
placed at M and G yet still more floor space would be saved by having them occupy the positions
indicated at M and S.
Ques. What is the approved location for an alternator exciter?
Ans. To economize floor space the exciter may be placed between the
alternator and engine at S in fig. 2,811.
Belts.—In the selection of a belt, the quality of the leather should be first
under consideration. The leather must be firm, yet pliable, free from wrinkles on
the grain or hair side, and of an even thickness throughout.
Fig. 2,812.—Separately excited belt driven alternator showing approved location of exciter. In an
electrical station where alternating current is generated, the alternators for producing the current
generally require separate excitation for their field windings; that is, it is usually necessary to install in
conjunction with an alternator a small dynamo for supplying current to the alternator field. The exciter
is a comparatively small machine; in fact, it requires only about 1 per cent. of the capacity of the
alternator which it excites, and so being small is often belted to an auxiliary pulley mounted on the
alternator shaft. Considerable floor space would be occupied by an installation of this nature if the
exciter be placed at M, and belted to the alternator as indicated by the dotted lines. By locating the
exciter at S, between the alternator and the engine, much floor space will be saved and the general
appearance of the installation improved.
If the belt be well selected and properly handled, it should do service for
twenty years, and even then if the worn part be cut off, the remaining portion
may be remade and used again as a narrower and shorter belt.
Besides leather belts, there are those made of rubber which withstand moisture
much better than leather belts, and which also possess an excellent grip on the
pulley; they are, however, more costly and much less durable under normal
conditions.

In addition to leather and rubber belts, there are belts composed of cotton, of a
combination of cotton and leather, and of rope. The leather belt, however, is the
standard and is to be recommended.
Equally important with the quality of a belt is its size in order to transmit the
necessary power.
The average strain under which leather will break has been found by many
experiments to be 3,200 pounds per square inch of cross section. A good quality of
leather will sustain a somewhat greater strain. In use on the pulleys, belts should
not be subjected to a greater strain than one eleventh their tensile strength, or
about 290 pounds to the square inch or cross section. This will be about 55 pounds
average strain for every inch in width of single belt three-sixteenths inch thick. The
strain allowed for all widths of belting—single, light double, and heavy double—is in
direct proportion to the thickness of the belt.
Ques. How much horse power will a belt transmit?
Ans. The capacity of a belt depends on, its width, speed, and thickness. A
single belt one inch wide and travelling 1,000 feet per minute will transmit one
horse power; a double belt under the same conditions, will transmit two horse
power.
Fig. 2,813.—One horse power transmitted by belt to illustrate the rule given above. A pulley is driven by
a belt by means of the friction between the surfaces in contact. Let T be the tension on the driving side
of the belt, and T', the tension on the loose side; then the driving force = T-T'. In the figure T is taken
at 34 lbs. and T' at 1 lb.; hence driving force = 34-1 = 33 lbs. Since the belt is travelling at a velocity of
1,000 feet per minute the power transmitted = 33 lbs. × 1,000 ft. = 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute = 1
horse power.
This corresponds to a working pull of 33 and 66 lbs. per inch of width
respectively.
Example.—What width double belt will be required to transmit 50 horse power
travelling at a speed of 3,000 feet per minute?
The horse power transmitted by each inch width of double belt travelling at the
stated speed is
( 1 × 3,000 / 1,000 ) × 2 = 6,
hence the width of belt required to transmit 50 horse power is
50 ÷ 6 = 8.33, say 8 inches.

Ques. At what velocity should a belt be run?
Ans. At from 3,000 to 5,000 feet per minute.
Ques. How may the greatest amount of power transmitting capacity
be obtained from belts?
Ans. By covering the pulleys with leather.
Ques. How should belts be run?
Ans. With the tight side underneath as in fig. 2,814.
Figs. 2,814 and 2,815.—Right and wrong way to run a belt. The tight side should be underneath so as
to increase the arc of contact and consequently the adhesion, that is to say, a better grip, is in this way
obtained.
Ques. What is a good indication of the capacity of a belt in
operation?
Ans. Its appearance after a few days' run.
If the side of the belt coming in contact with the pulley assume a mottled
appearance, it is an indication that the capacity of the belt is considerably in excess
of the power which it is transmitting, inasmuch as the spotted portions of the belt
do not touch the pulley; and in consequence of this there is liable to be more or
less slipping.
Small quantities of a mixture of tallow and fish oil which have previously been
melted together in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter, will, if
applied to the belt at frequent intervals, do much toward softening it, and thus by
permitting its entire surface to come in contact with the pulley, prevent any
tendency toward slipping. The best results are obtained when the smooth side of
the belt is used next to the pulley, since tests conducted in the past prove that
more power is thus transmitted, and that the belt lasts longer when used in this
way.

Fig. 2,816.—The Hill friction clutch pulley for power control. The clutch mechanism will start a load
equivalent to the double belt capacity of the pulley to which the clutch is attached.
Ques. What is the comparison between the so called endless belts
and laced belts?
Ans. With an endless belt there is no uneven or noisy action as with laced
belts, when the laced joint passes over the pulleys, and the former is free from
the liability of breakage at the joint.
Ques. How should a belt be placed on the pulleys?
Ans. The belt should first be placed on the pulley at rest, and then run on
the other pulley while the latter is in motion.
The best results are obtained, and the strain on the belt is less, when the speed
at which the moving pulley revolves is comparatively low. With heavy belts,
particular care should be taken to prevent any portion of the clothing being caught
either by the moving belt or pulleys, as many serious accidents have resulted in the
past from carelessness in regard to this important detail. The person handling the
belt should, therefore, be sure of a firm footing, and when it is impossible to
secure this, it is advisable to stop the engine and fit the belt around the engine
pulley as well as possible by the aid of a rope looped around the belt.

Fig. 2,817—Sectional view of Hill clutch mechanism. In every case the mechanism hub A, and in a clutch
coupling the ring W, is permanently and rigidly secured to the shaft and need not be disturbed when
removing the wearing parts. When erected, the adjustment should be verified, and always with the
clutch and ring engaged and at rest. If the jaws do not press equally on the ring, or if the pressure
required on the cone be abnormal, loosen the upper adjusting nuts T´ on eye bolts and set up the
lower adjusting nuts T´´ until each set of jaws is under the same pressure. Should the clutch then slip
when started it is evident that the jaw pressure is insufficient and a further adjustment will be
necessary. All clutches are equipped throughout with split lock washers. Vibration or shock will not
loosen the nuts if properly set up. The jaws can be removed parallel to the shaft as follows: Remove the
gibs V, and withdraw the jaw pins P, then pull out the levers D. Do not disturb the eye bolt nuts T´ and
T´´. The outside jaws B can now be taken out. Remove the bolt nuts I allowing the fulcrum plates R to
be taken off. On the separable hub pattern the clamping bolts must be taken out before fulcrum plate is
removed. The inside jaws C may now be withdrawn. Always set the clutch operating lever in the
position as shown in fig. 2,816 to avoid interference with mechanism parts. Oil the moving parts of the
clutch. Keep it clean. Examine at regular intervals.
Ques. Under what conditions does a belt drive give the best results?
Ans. When the two pulleys are at the same level.
If the belt must occupy an inclined position it should not form a greater angle
than 45 degrees with the horizontal.
Ques. What is a characteristic feature in the operation of belts, and
why?
Ans. Belts in motion will always run to the highest side of a pulley; this is due
partially to the greater speed in feet per minute developed at that point owing
to the greater circumference of the pulley, and also to the effects of centrifugal
force.
If, therefore, the highest sides of both pulleys be in line with each other, and
the shafts of the respective pulleys be parallel to each other, there will be no
tendency for the belt to leave the pulleys when once in its proper position. In order
that these conditions be maintained, the belt should be no more than tight enough
to prevent slipping, and the distance between the centers of the pulleys should be
approximately 3.5 times the diameter of the larger one.

Fig. 2,818.—Hill clutch mechanism Smith type. The friction surfaces are wood to iron, the wood shoes
being made from maple. All parts of the toggle gear are of steel and forgings with the exception of the
connection lever which is of cast iron.
Ques. What minor appurtenances should be provided in a station?
Ans. Apparatus should be installed as a prevention against accidents, such as
fire, and protection of attendants from danger.
In every electrical station there should be a pump, pipes and hose; the pump
may be either directly connected to a small electric motor or belted to a
countershaft, while the pipes and hose should be so placed that no water can
accidentally reach the generators and electrical circuits. A number of fire bucket
filled with water should be placed on brackets around the station, and with these
there should be an equal number of bucket containing dry sand, the water being
used for extinguishing fire occurring at a distance from the machines and
conductors, and the sand for extinguishing fire in current carrying circuits where
water would cause more harm than benefit. To prevent the sand being blown
about the station, each sand bucket, when not in use, should be provided with a
cover.
Neat cans and boxes should be mounted in convenient places for greasy rags,
waste, nuts, screws, etc., which are used continually and which therefore cannot
be kept in the storeroom.
While it is important to guard against fire in the station, it is equally necessary
to provide for personal safety. All passages and dark pits should therefore be
thoroughly lighted both day and night, and obstacles of any nature that are not
absolutely necessary in the operation of the station, should be removed. Moving
belts, and especially those passing through the floor, should be enclosed in iron

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