![Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Cai, Zixing, 1938– author.
Title: Robotics : from manipulator to mobilebot / Zixing Cai,
Central South University, China & Hunan ZIXING AI Academy, China.
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022007584 | ISBN 9789811253461 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9789811253478 (ebook for institutions) | ISBN 9789811253485 (ebook for individuals)
Subjects: LCSH: Robotics.
Classification: LCC TJ211 .C26824 2023 | DDC 629.8/92--dc23/eng/20220622
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022007584
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Copyright © 2023 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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Desk Editors: Balamurugan Rajendran/Amanda Yun
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Balamurugan - 12756 - Robotics.indd 1
Balamurugan - 12756 - Robotics.indd 1 26/7/2022 3:58:18 pm
26/7/2022 3:58:18 pm](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23595592-250513023115-252dbafa/85/Robotics-From-Manipulator-To-Mobilebot-Zixing-Cai-9-320.jpg)
![August 10, 2022 7:47 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-ch01 page 1
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts
Since mankind entered the 21st century, in addition to devoting itself
to its own development, it has had to pay attention to issues such as
robots, aliens, and human clones. This book will not discuss the issue
of aliens and human cloning, but will focus on the issue of robots [4].
People of today are no strangers to the name “robot.” From
ancient myths and legends to modern science fiction, drama, movies
and TV, there are many wonderful depictions of robots. Although
many important results have been achieved in robotics, the vast
majority of robots in the real world is neither as wise and brave
as described in myths and literary works, nor as versatile as some
entrepreneurs and propagandists preach. At present, the capabilities
of robots are still relatively limited. However, robotics is developing
rapidly, and it can be said to be changing daily, and is beginning
to have an increasing impact on the entire economy, industry, agri-
culture and service industry, space and ocean exploration, and all
aspects of human life [14,51].
1.1 The Origin and Development of Robotics
1.1.1 The origin of robotics
The origin of robots can be traced back to more than 3,000 years ago.
“Robot” was a newly coined word that appeared in many languages
and scripts in the 1920s. It embodies a long-held dream of mankind,
that is, to create a human-like machine or artificial human to replace
all kinds of jobs of people [24].
1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23595592-250513023115-252dbafa/85/Robotics-From-Manipulator-To-Mobilebot-Zixing-Cai-52-320.jpg)
![August 10, 2022 7:47 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-ch01 page 2
2 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot
It was not until more than 60 years ago that “robot” was cited
as a professional term. However, the concept of robots has existed
in the human imagination for more than 3,000 years. As early as
the Western Zhou Dynasty (1066 BC–771 BC) in China, there was a
story about the artisan Yanshi who dedicated a singing and dancing
robot to King Zhou Mu. In the 3rd century BC, the ancient Greek
inventor Daedalus used bronze to create Talos, a guardian for King
Minos of Crete. In a book of the 2nd century BC, there was a descrip-
tion of a mechanized theater with robot-like performers that could
perform dances and line-ups in court ceremonies [24]. During the
China’s Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), the guide car invented
by Zhang Heng was the world’s earliest prototype of a robot [10].
In the modern era, mankind expects to invent all kinds of mechan-
ical tools and power machines to assist or even replace various kinds
of manual labor. The steam engine invented in the 18th century
opened up a new age of machine power instead of manpower. With
the invention of powered machines, the first industrial and scientific
revolution appeared in human society. The advent of various auto-
matic machines, powered machines and power systems has trans-
formed robots from fantasy to reality. Many mechanically controlled
robots, mainly various exquisite robot toys and handicrafts, emerged
at this period. For example, from 1768–1774 AD, the famous Swiss
watchmaker Jaquet-Droz and his sons designed and manufactured
three life-sized robots-writing dolls, drawing dolls, and organ dolls;
these were automatic machines controlled by cams and springs. In
1893, the walking robot Android designed by Canadian Moore was
powered by steam. These treasures of robotic craftsmanship marked
a big step forward for mankind on the long road of robots from dream
to reality.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the mother fetus of human
society and economy drew closer to the verge of giving birth to
robots, and humanity viewed this with unease, unsure if the robot
to come would be a darling or a monster. In 1920, the Czech play-
wright Karel Čapek first proposed the term “robot” in his science
fiction play “Rosam’s Universal Robot” (R.U.R) [22]. The drama
anxiously foretells the tragic impact that the development of robots
will have on human society and aroused widespread concern. What
Čapek highlighted was the safety, intelligence and self-reproduction](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23595592-250513023115-252dbafa/85/Robotics-From-Manipulator-To-Mobilebot-Zixing-Cai-53-320.jpg)
![August 10, 2022 7:47 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-ch01 page 3
Basic Concepts 3
of robots. The advancement of robotics technology was likely to cause
unwanted problems and undesirable results.
In response to social anxiety about the robots to come, the famous
American science fiction novelist Asimov proposed the famous
“Three Rules for Robots” in his novel “I am a Robot” in 1950 [5]:
(1) The robot must not endanger humans, and it is not allowed to
stand by while watching people suffer;
(2) Robots must absolutely obey humans, unless such obedience is
harmful to humans;
(3) The robot must protect itself from harm, unless it is to protect
humans or humans order it to make sacrifices.
These three rules gave new ethics to the robot society and make the
concept of robots more acceptable to human society.
The American George Dvor designed the first electronically pro-
grammable industrial robot in 1954 and published the robot patent
in 1961. In 1962, the first robot Unimate made by the US Universal
Automation (Unimation) was put into use at General Motors (GM),
which marked the birth of the first generation of robots [23]. Since
then, robots have become a reality in daily life and humans have
continued to write a new chapter in the history of robots with their
own wisdom and labor.
1.1.2 Development of robotics
In the first decade after the advent of industrial robots, from the
early 1960s to the early 1970s, the development of robotics technol-
ogy was relatively slow, and the efforts of many research units and
companies were unsuccessful. The main achievements of this stage
were the mobile intelligent robot Shakey developed by the Stanford
International Research Institute (SRI) in 1968 and the first robot
made by Cincinnati Milacron in 1973, the robot T3 etc. which were
suitable for putting on the market [6].
In the 1970s, the artificial intelligence (AI) academic commu-
nity began to have a keen interest in robots. They found that the
emergence and development of robots brought new vitality to the
development of artificial intelligence, provided a good test platform
and application place, and was a potential field in which artificial](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23595592-250513023115-252dbafa/85/Robotics-From-Manipulator-To-Mobilebot-Zixing-Cai-54-320.jpg)
Robotics From Manipulator To Mobilebot Zixing Cai
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- 6. ROBOTICS From Manipulator to Mobilebot 12756 9789811253461 tp.indd 1 12756 9789811253461 tp.indd 1 25/11/21 3:47 PM 25/11/21 3:47 PM
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- 8. NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO World Scientific ZIXING CAI Central South University, China & ZIXING Academy of AI, China ROBOTICS From Manipulator to Mobilebot 12756 9789811253461 tp.indd 2 12756 9789811253461 tp.indd 2 25/11/21 3:47 PM 25/11/21 3:47 PM
- 9. Published by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Cai, Zixing, 1938– author. Title: Robotics : from manipulator to mobilebot / Zixing Cai, Central South University, China & Hunan ZIXING AI Academy, China. Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022007584 | ISBN 9789811253461 (hardcover) | ISBN 9789811253478 (ebook for institutions) | ISBN 9789811253485 (ebook for individuals) Subjects: LCSH: Robotics. Classification: LCC TJ211 .C26824 2023 | DDC 629.8/92--dc23/eng/20220622 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022007584 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Copyright © 2023 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. For any available supplementary material, please visit https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/12756#t=suppl Desk Editors: Balamurugan Rajendran/Amanda Yun Typeset by Stallion Press Email: enquiries@stallionpress.com Printed in Singapore Balamurugan - 12756 - Robotics.indd 1 Balamurugan - 12756 - Robotics.indd 1 26/7/2022 3:58:18 pm 26/7/2022 3:58:18 pm
- 10. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page v Foreword by Song Jian Robotics — A Glorious Chapter in Automation∗ The advancement of modern automatic control technology has opened up new possibilities for scientific research and exploration work, and opened up new scientific undertakings that cannot be accomplished by manpower. In the 1990s, deep sea exploration from 6,000 meters to 10,000 meters was achieved. It has realized the detec- tion of Venus, Mars, Jupiter and some moons and comets in the solar system. The orbiting of the Hubble Space Telescope provides astronomers with unprecedented tools and opportunities to study the universe. In 1997, the Pathfinder trolley developed by American sci- entists successfully completed the field survey of the surface of Mars, which is one of the highest achievements of automation technology in this century. The advancement and application of robotics is the most convinc- ing achievement of automatic control in this century, and it is the highest level of automation in the contemporary era. It took only 20 years for the robot to learn to walk on two legs from crawling and become an upright robot, while it took millions of years for humans ∗ This is an excerpt of the academic report “Intelligent Control — Goal Beyond the Century” delivered by Academician Song Jian, Chairman of the 14th World Congress of the International Federation of Automatic Control (IFAC), and Pres- ident of the Chinese Academy of Engineering at the opening ceremony of the conference (July 5, 1999, in Beijing). v
- 11. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page vi vi Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot to go from crawling to standing upright. Robots can already use tools by hand, can see, listen, and speak in multiple languages. The robot does the dirtiest and tiring work safely and reliably. It is estimated that there are now nearly one million robots working on production lines in the world. Nearly 10,000 factories are producing robots, with sales increasing by more than 20% every year. Robots are ambitious and are preparing to enter the service industry in the 21st century. They will be taxi drivers, nurses in hospitals, family care for the elderly, and cashiers in banks. If microelectronics goes further, you can squeeze IBM/6000SP into its head and run Deep Blue software, just like defeating world champion Gary Kasparov in May 1997, letting the world chess mas- ters intimidated. Isaac Asimov once envisioned, “Robots have a mathematical genius, can mentally calculate triple integrals, and do tensor analysis problems like snacking,” and it is not difficult to do. The fear and social mentality against automation and robotics that emerged in the 1960s has proven to be unfounded. Today, in some countries that use robots the most, unemployment rates have not risen significantly. Even where they have, no one accuses scien- tists and engineers of controlling scientists and engineers. That is the fault of financiers and politicians. On the contrary, the widespread entry of smart technology into society is conducive to improving human quality of life, increasing labor productivity, improving the cultural quality of the entire society, and creating more employment opportunities. Standing on the threshold of entering the 21st century, looking back at the modern history of human civilization and progress, if the 19th century realized the mechanization of social manual labor and extended human physical strength, then the main feature of the 20th century was the realization of labor production automation, which greatly improved social labor productivity, has created much more social wealth than at any time in the past, completely changed human production and lifestyle, improved quality of life, and pro- longed the average life span of human beings. This is entirely the credit of modern science and technology. We can be proud that cybernetic scientists and engineers have made important contributions to this. It is predicted that in the 21st century, automation technology will remain the frontier of high technology and continue to be the core force for advancing the new
- 12. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page vii Foreword by Song Jian vii technological revolution. Manufacturing and service industries are still the main areas where it has made brilliant achievements. Driven by life sciences and artificial intelligence, a strong trend has emerged in the field of control theory and automation to improve the intelligence of control systems. A new academic group, the Interna- tional Federation on Intelligent Automation (IFIA) was established in 1992, marking that the research on intelligent control has entered the scientific frontier. Some consensus has been reached on the future development direction and path of this new discipline. The following points can be listed: First, studying and imitating human intelligence is the highest goal of intelligent control. Therefore, people call an automatic con- trol system that can automatically recognize and remember signals (images, language, text), learning, reasoning, and have automatic decision-making capabilities as intelligent control systems. Second, intelligent control must rely on multidisciplinary cooper- ation to achieve new breakthroughs. Life sciences and brain sciences are indispensable for more in-depth knowledge of the human body and brain function mechanisms. Uncovering the evolutionary mecha- nism of the biological world, the precise structure of self-organization ability, immune ability and genetic ability in the living system is extremely important for the construction of intelligent control sys- tem. This is mainly the task of biochemists and geneticists, but cyber- netic scientists and engineers can contribute to this. Third, the improvement of intelligence cannot rely solely on the accumulation of subsystems. To achieve “the whole is greater than the sum of the components,” nonlinear effects alone are not enough. The more intelligent the system will be, the more complex it will be. The behavior and structure of complex giant systems must be hierarchical. The harmonious unity of the interests of the subsystem and the whole is the basic principle for the survival and development of organisms. Each level has new characteristics and status descrip- tions. It is necessary to establish a structure compatible with each level up and down and a friendly interface with the surroundings. In statistical mechanics, the extraction of parameters from the thermal motion of molecules to the macroscopic state of gases is an example of hierarchical division. This is the best description of what physicists call “coarse-graining extraction.”
- 13. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page viii viii Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot Fourth, the evolution of all creatures in the world is gradual. Human beings have gone through 10,000 years from the Neolithic Age to robots. It only took 100 years from mechanical automation to electronic automation. It will take decades to achieve intelligent automation and raise the intelligence quotient of robots to the level of Homo sapiens. This is an insurmountable process of scientific and technological progress. In the second half of the 20th century, microelectronics, life sciences, and automation technology advanced by leaps and bounds, creating good starting conditions for the real- ization of intelligent control and intelligent automation in the next century. To achieve this goal, not only technological progress, but also breakthroughs in scientific ideas and theories are needed. Many scientists insist that this requires the discovery of new principles or the modification of known basic theorems of physics in order to thor- oughly understand and imitate human intelligence, and to design and manufacture automatic control systems with advanced intelligence. In any case, the process has already begun. It can be imagined that in the 31st IFAC meeting after 50 years, human production efficiency will be ten times higher than it is now, and no one will go hungry anymore. Elderly people all over the world can have a robot waiter by their side to help with their lives. Everyone attending the meet- ing may bring a robot secretary in the file box, just like the current electronic notebook. The 21st century is a particularly important historical period for mankind. The world’s population will stabilize at a relatively high level, such as twelve billion, which is double the current level. The scientific community must make necessary contributions to guarantee the survival and sustainable development of human beings and our homeland, the earth, and cybernetic scientists and engineers should undertake the main tasks. To further develop and vigorously pro- mote the application of cybernetics and automation technology, and to ensure that future generations live happily in a world free from shortage, hunger and pollution, it is our gift. As the physicist Murroy Gellmann said, in the foreseeable future, natural evolution, including humans, will give way to the advancement of human science, tech- nology and culture. The term Cybernetics comes from Greek and originally meant “helmsman.” We are at least qualified to be the scientific advisers and assistants of the helmsman and play a greater role in promoting social progress. This is our honor.
- 14. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page ix Foreword by Toshio Fukuda In 1962, the first robot of Unimation of the United States was put into operation at General Motors Company (GM), marking the birth of the first generation of modern robots. Since then, robots have become a reality of human production and life. In the past 60 years, significant progress has been made in robotics science and technology. As Academician Jian Song pointed out: The advancement and application of robotics is the most convinc- ing achievement of automatic control in the 20th century, and the highest level of automation in the contemporary era. Since mankind entered the 21st century, robotics has shown many notable features such as systematic and modularization, miniaturization and heavy- duty, mobility, agility, digitization, networking, and intelligence, and have become the most typical frontier integrated cross-technology field. Robot digital and modular design technology has been widely used; Various micro-robots have played a key role in many micro- assembly operations; Micro-nano robots and bionic robots can realize the analysis of single-cell biological characteristics, spatial detection and micro-nano operation of biology cells; Giant and heavy robot Hercules are showing their talents in shipyards and docks; The num- ber of mobile robots coming from behind has far exceeded that of tra- ditional robot operators; Many manipulators are also equipped with mobile platforms to become mobile manipulators with greater mobil- ity and high precision; The highly flexible agile processing robot unit has doubled the capacity of intelligent manufacturing; Robot applica- tion system engineering has been promoted; Networking robots have already become a reality for teleoperation, including telemedicine ix
- 15. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page x x Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot operations; Various types of intelligent robots have been used in industry, agriculture, construction, service industries such as space and deep-sea exploration, medical rehabilitation, and entertainment have been increasingly widely used, serving all walks of life and ben- efiting millions of households. As far as I know, international robotics research is very exten- sive and in-depth, and many societies affiliated to IEEE are waiting to conduct high-level robotics-related research and achieve high-level research results. With the rapid development of robotics, its research and application results have been fully reflected in numerous robotics monographs and scientific papers. These robotics monographs are completely rich and colorful. Most of these monographs are dedi- cated to the study of manipulators. In recent years, there are some monographs dedicated to the study of mobile robots. Some of them discuss the kinematics, dynamics, sensors, control, planning and pro- gramming of manipulators; It is also discussions on the architec- ture, dynamics model, state estimation, environment modeling and positioning, navigation and target tracking, perception and obsta- cle avoidance of mobile robots and intelligent vehicles. There are many wonderful chapters in these robotics monographs, and they have made outstanding contributions to the continuous development and technological upgrading of international robotics. However, it is still relatively rare to systematically and comprehensively study and summarize traditional robots (manipulators) and mobile robots at the same time. Professor Zixing Cai’s monograph Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot comprehensively discusses the main sci- entific and technological content of manipulators and mobile robots with a completely new look. The monograph Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot covers a wide range of topics in the field of robotics and is a high-level work with distinctive features. First of all, the book is comprehen- sive and involves the main core technologies of robotics, including the basic theories and technologies of robotic manipulators, and the basic principles and methods of mobile robots. Secondly, this book focuses on recent innovations, including those of the author, and intelligent methods such as computational intelligence and deep learning technology that are widely used in robotics. Third, based on national scientific research projects, theory and practice are highly integrated, with theory, technology and methods, and application
- 16. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xi Foreword by Toshio Fukuda xi examples, which will help readers to understand the development and application of robotics theory. Due to the above characteristics, this book will definitely be welcomed by readers in the field of robotics. Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot is a brand-new robotics monograph with a high technological and academic level and impor- tant application value. I am convinced that the publication of this book will have a positive impact on the international robotics com- munity, and make an important contribution to the promotion and application of robotics knowledge, and to the promotion of the devel- opment of international robotics. Toshio Fukuda Nagoya University, Japan Beijing Institute of Technology, China October 2021
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- 18. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xiii Foreword by Volker Graefe The birth of robots made the dream of using machines to serve humans and society a reality, and it was a major technological event in the 20th century. Since the beginning of the 21st century, robotics and robot technology have accelerated their development from indus- trial robots for welding and assembly to a variety of robots in various industries and fields. Robots exist in many forms, from giant trans- port vehicles in shipyards to micro-nano robots for processing cells in nano-space. Since their beginnings over 60 years ago, robotics and robot technology have made great progress. Robots have been inte- grated into all walks of life and have entered thousands of households. They have played an important role in the economic development of countries around the world, improved people’s well-being and pro- moted social development. It may be said that robots have been integrated into human society and have become mankind’s right- hand man and friend. Zixing Cai has been known as an outstanding teacher and researcher of robotics and artificial intelligence for many years. He is a professor of the Central South University and the founder and the chief scientist of the Hunan ZIXING Artificial Intelligence Academy, both located in Changsha, the capital city of Hunan Province in China. As we are both engaged in robotics research and teaching and have many common interests, especially in the fields of intelligent mobile robots and artificial intelligence embodied in robots, I con- sider him a close colleague and, moreover, a personal friend. Being an Honorary Professor of the National University of Defense Technology and a senior Advisor of the Hunan ZIXING Artificial Intelligence xiii
- 19. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xiv xiv Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot Academy I have often visited Changsha to give lectures at these institutions and at the Central South University. On such occasions I had frequent and fruitful exchanges with Professor Cai and his asso- ciates about our many common research fields and research interests, which has given me a good understanding of his excellent research and teaching. One result of Zixing Cai’s lifelong work in robotics and artificial intelligence is his latest book, Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobile Robot. It will be of great interest and benefit for students and experts in a wide variety of areas within robotics. Readers who are mainly interested in manipulators may first learn the mathematical foun- dation, dynamics and kinematics of manipulators, and then study and discuss manipulator planning and control in combination with the actual situation. Readers studying mobile robots and intelligent driving may study the architecture, dynamics model, stability and tracking of mobile robots first, and then study and discuss the posi- tioning, modeling, navigation and control of mobile robots in combi- nation with actual topics. Of course, if readers are only interested in traditional manipulators or mobile robots, they can choose to read just the relevant chapters of the book. Readers who conduct in-depth research may have an opportunity to gain from this book some pro- fessional knowledge in visual perception, intelligent control, machine learning and intelligent programming. Many robotics monographs have been published already, but they hardly present a comprehensive and systematic research and analy- sis of traditional manipulators and intelligent mobile robots at the same time. Zixing Cai’s present book fills this gap. It introduces and discusses traditional manipulators and mobile robots simultaneously and at a high academic level. It would be difficult to find anybody who would be more qualified to write such a book that is truly use- ful for the reader than Zixing Cai who has been awarded the title “State Eminent Educator” in recognition of his excellent teaching and writing skills. This new monograph by Professor Cai is a high-level and compre- hensive book on robotics. It possesses systematic, advanced, novel, readable, and theory-to-practical, and it will surely provide a valu- able source of knowledge and teaching reference for a vast number of
- 20. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xv Foreword by Volker Graefe xv robotics researchers, university teachers and students. Most impor- tantly, it will make positive contributions to the development and application of robotics and robot technology in the world. Volker Graefe Bundeswehr University Munich Germany October 2, 2021
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- 22. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xvii Preface Mankind’s fantasy and pursuit of robots has a history of more than 3,000 years. It is expected that mankind can create a kind of human- like machines or artificial humans in order to support or even replace people in various labor and work. As a highly intersectional frontier discipline, robotics has aroused widespread interest from more and more people with different back- grounds who conducted in-depth research, achieved rapid develop- ment and remarkable achievements. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the development of the industrial robot industry has accel- erated, the prospects of the industrial robot market are promising, and the rapid development of service robots has entered thousands of households and benefited the people. In recent years, artificial intelligence has entered a new era of development, promoting inter- national robotics research and application into a new period, and pushing robotics technology to a higher level. I have been engaged in robotics research and teaching for 40 years. In the early 1980s, I started to teach myself the basics of robotics. From 1983 to 1985, I studied in the United States, successively at the University of Nevada (UNR) and Purdue University, under the guidance of professors such as K.S. Fu, R.P. Paul, Eugene Kosso and Y.S. Lu, to study robotics and artificial intelligence. After studying and returning to China, I carried out basic research and teaching of artificial intelligence and robotics, and contribute to the knowledge dissemination and talent training of related disciplines. The long period research and teaching in the robotics field have received many important achievements and have provided abundant xvii
- 23. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xviii xviii Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot materials and laid a solid foundation for the writing of the English monograph Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot. This book is a systematic and comprehensive introduction to the basic principles of robotics and its applications. The book con- sists of three parts and 12 chapters. Chapter 1 briefly describes the origin and development of robotics, discusses the definition of robotics, analyzes the characteristics, structure and classification of robots, and discusses the research field of robotics. Part I — the “Robot Manipulator” consists of five chapters, involving the math- ematical foundation, kinematics, dynamics, control and planning of the manipulator. Chapter 2 discusses the mathematical basis of the manipulator, including the position and posture transformation of the space particles, coordinate transformation, homogeneous coordi- nate transformation, object transformation and inverse transforma- tion, and general rotation transformation. Chapter 3 describes the representation and solution of manipulator motion equations, that is, manipulator forward kinematics and inverse kinematics problems, including the motion equations of manipulator motion posture, direc- tion angle, motion position and coordinates, as well as the represen- tation of link transformation matrix, and explain the solution meth- ods of the analytical solution, numerical solution and other solution methods, as well as the differential motion of the manipulator and its Jacobian matrix. Chapter 4 deals with the dynamics equations of the manipulator; focuses on the analysis of the two methods of solving the dynamics equations of the manipulator, namely the Lagrangian functional balance method and the Newton-Euler dynamic balance method, and then summarizes the steps to establish the Lagrangian equation, and take the two-link and three-link manipulators as exam- ples to derive the dynamic equations of the manipulator. Chapter 5 studies the position and force control of the manipulator, includ- ing robot control principles and control methods, transmission sys- tem structure, position servo control, position and force hybrid con- trol, decomposition motion control, and adaptive control and intel- ligent control of the manipulator. Chapter 6 discusses robotic plan- ning issues. After explaining the role and tasks of robot planning, start with the robot planning in the block world, and gradually carry out the discussion of robot planning, including rule deduction, logic calculation, general search method, and expert system-based
- 24. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xix Preface xix planning. In the aspect of robot path planning, it focuses on robot path planning based on approximate Voronoi diagram, robot path planning based on immune evolution and example learning, etc. Part II — the “Mobile Robot” consists of four chapters. Chapter 7 summa- rizes the architecture of the mobile robot and discusses the dynamic model, stabilization and tracking of the wheeled mobile robot and its design examples. Chapter 8 discusses the positioning and modeling of mobile robots, focusing on issues such as mobile robot map construc- tion, dead reckoning positioning, synchronous locating and mapping (SLAM), mobile robot SLAM data association methods, and mobile robot SLAM in a dynamic environment. Chapter 9 is about mobile robot navigation, introduces the main methods and development trends of mobile robot navigation, explores local navigation strategies and composite navigation strategies of mobile robots, and analyzes mobile robot path navigation based on ant colony algorithm, naviga- tion strategies based on feature points, and examples of robot navi- gation based on machine learning. Chapter 10 summarizes the intelli- gent control of mobile robots. After an overview of intelligent control and intelligent control systems, it focuses on the control of mobile robots based on neural networks and the control of mobile robots based on deep learning. Part III — the “Applications and Prospects of Robotics” consists of two chapters, and Chapter 11 introduces the application and market of robotics. First of all, the robot application areas introduced involve industrial robots, explore robots, service robots and military robots. Then, it discusses the latest development status of the domestic and foreign robotics market and the current status and forecast of the robotics market. Chapter 12 is the outlook for robotics, analyzing the development trend of robotics, including the ambitious development plans of robots in various countries, var- ious social problems brought about by robot applications, and the challenges of cloning technology to intelligent robot technology. I hope that this book will be particularly suitable as a learning reference for scientific and technical personnel engaged in robotics research, or in development and application of robots, and that it will also be used as a textbook for postgraduate and undergraduate students in colleges and universities.
- 25. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xx xx Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot Acknowledgements In the process of writing and publishing this book and the related books, I have received enthusiastic encouragement and help from many leaders, experts, professors, friends and students. Academi- cians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering, such as Song Jian, Zhang Zhongjun, Xiong Youlun, Zhang Qixian, and Cai Hegao, et al. wrote foreword for the above- mentioned works, reflecting the great support and love for the author and readers. Central South University, Hunan ZIXING Academy of Artificial Intelligence and Hunan Association for Artificial Intelli- gence, as well as many robotics experts, university teachers and stu- dents, editors and readers have concerned about my work and the compilation and publication of this book, and they have also put forward some very pertinent suggestions. These are all great help to the author, and I am deeply encouraged. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to relevant leaders, academicians, experts, editors, cooperating teachers and students, and readers. Dr. Song Jian, an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering, a foreign academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the US National Academy of Engineering, Academician of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Academician of the Eurasian Academy of Sciences, has long given me strong support, unremitting guidance and enthusiastic encour- agement for my robotics and artificial intelligence research. As the chairman of the conference and the president of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, his report at the opening ceremony of the 14th Con- ference of the International Federation of Automatic Control (IFAC) was far-sighted, philosophical, forward-looking and enlightening, and has been used as the foreword of my Robotics book (4 editions in 2000, 2009, 2015 and 2020), and adds luster to the book. Now, this foreword has become one of the forewords of this new book on robotics. I would like to pay high tribute to Academician Song Jian. I would like to especially thank Toshio Fukuda and Volker Graefe for writing the forewords for this book in their busy schedules. Toshio Fukuda is a professor of the Meijo University in Nagoya (Japan), President of the IEEE (2019–2021), an academician of the Japanese Academy of Sciences and a foreign academician of the Chi- nese Academy of Sciences, while Volker Graefe is an IROS Fellow,
- 26. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxi Preface xxi a professor of the Bundeswehr University Munich (Germany) and the director of the Intelligent Robots Laboratory there. Both of them are well-known experts and leaders in international robotics research. They have in-depth research and profound knowledge in various important fields of robotics, especially intelligent robots. Professor Toshio Fukuda is known as the “Father of International Micro-nano Robots,” leading the research of international micro-nano robots and bionic robots, Professor Volker Graefe has a solid research founda- tion in the fields of vision, navigation, communication and learning of intelligent robots, and is one of the pioneers in the research of international autonomous vehicle driving. The foreword written by the two masters is important support and love to the author. I sincerely thank many of my collaborators in robotics books and papers for their great cooperation and outstanding contribu- tions in the past 25 years. They are Chen Aibin, Chen Baifan, Chen Hong, Dai Bo, Duan Zhuohua, Gong Tao, Gu Mingqin, Guo Fan, He Hangen, Hu Dewen, Jiang Zhiming, Lai Xuzhi, Li Meiyi, Li Yi, Liu Juan, Liu Lijue, Peng Zhihong, Tang Shaoxian, Timofeev A V,Wang Lu, Wang Yong, Wen Zhiqiang, Xiao Xiaoming, Xie Bin, Xie Guanghan, Xu Xin, Yu Jinxia, Yu Lingli, Zhao Hui, Zheng Minjie, Zhou Xiang, Zou Xiaobing, etc. I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to Chen Qijun, Chen Rujun, Cui Yi’an, Fu Yili, Gao Pingan, Gao Yan, Huang Xinhan, Kuang Linai, Liao Yongzhong, Liu Hong, Liu Limei, Liu Xianru, Liu Xingbao, Liu Zhiyong, Liu Chaoyang, Lu Weiwei, Pan Wei, Pan Yi Xiao, Peng Meng, Peng Weixiong, Ren Xiaoping, Shi Yuexiang, Song Wu, Sun Guorong, Tan Min, Tan Ping, Tang Suqin, Wang Lei, Wang Wei, Wen Sha, Xie Jin, Yang Qiang, You Zuo, Zhang Quan, Zheng Jinhua, Zou Lei, Zou Yiqun, Zuo Fujun etc. the professor and postgraduates, for their support and help in my robotics work. In addition, I would like to thank the authors of relevant refer- enced robotics monographs, textbooks and related papers at home and abroad. Their writing results have provided valuable reference materials for this book. Experts and readers are welcome to criticize and correct this book. Cai Zixing July 19, 2022 In Deyi Garden, Changsha, China
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- 28. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxiii About the Author Zixing Cai is an IEEE Fellow and IEEE Life Fellow, academician of the International Academy of Navigation and Motion Control, CAAI Fellow, AAIA Follow, academician of the New York Academy of Sciences, United Nations Expert (UNIDO), Professor and Doc- toral Supervisor of the School of Informa- tion Science and Engineering at Central South University, China, Chief Scientist of Hunan ZIXING Academy of Artificial Intelligence. He has served as the Vice President of the Chinese Association for Arti- ficial Intelligence (CAAI) and Founding Director of the Intelligent Robotics Professional Committee of CAAI; Honorary Chairman of Hunan Society of Artificial Intelligence, China; Director of the Chi- nese Association of Automation (CAA) and member of Intelligent Automation Professional Committee of CAA; Member of the Arti- ficial Intelligence and Pattern Recognition Professional Committee of the Chinese Computer Federation (CCF); Member of the Eval- uation Committee of the IEEE Computational Intelligence Soci- ety (CIS); and Member of the IEEE CIS Evolutionary Computing Technology Committee. Prof Cai has also served as an Adjunct Pro- fessor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), USA; St. Peters- burg Technical University, Russia; Technical University of Denmark; Peking University, China; National University of Defense Technology, China; Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, China; Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, China; etc., xxiii
- 29. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxiv xxiv Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot and a Visiting Researcher at the Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences; St. Petersburg Automation and Informatics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences; and so on. Prof Cai is an academic leader in the fields of artificial intelligence, intelligent con- trol and robotics in China. In the robotics field, he has presided over or participated in national-level scientific and technological research projects, mainly related to key projects and major projects of the National Natural Science Foundation of China, such as “Theories and Methods of Navigation and Control of Mobile Robots in unknown Environ- ments,” “Key Technologies and Integrated Verification Platform for Autonomous Vehicles,” “Cognition Computing of Audiovisual Information,” “Key Scientific Issues in Intelligent Driving of High- way Vehicles,” “Technical Basis for Cooperative Identification and Reconstruction of Heterogeneous Multi-moving Objects,” “Fuzzy Control of High-speed Train Operation,” “Evolutionary Control of Autonomous Robots” and “Robot Planning Expert System” and other researches that have achieved internationally advanced research results. He has either independently or taken the lead in writing and publishing robotics-related monographs and textbooks, including Robotics: Principles and Applications (1988), Robotics (2000, 2009, 2015, 2022), Fundamentals of Robotics (2009, 2015, 2021), Theo- ries and Methods of Navigation and Control of Mobile Robots in Unknown Environments (2009), Principles and Techniques of Multi- Mobile Robot Cooperation (2011), Self-positioning Technology of Mobile Robots in Unknown Environments (2011), Key Techniques of Navigation Control for Mobile Robots under Unknown Environment (2016), Exploring the Kingdom of Robots (2018), Autonomous Vehi- cle: Perception, Mapping and Target Tracking Technology (2021), etc. Among them, Robotics won the first prize of the National Excel- lent Textbook Award of the China Ministry of Education, and Multi- Mobile Robot Collaboration Principles and Technology, and Mobile Robot Self-Positioning Technology in Unknown Environments were funded and published by the National Science and Technology Aca- demic Publication Fund. Theory and Method of Navigation and Con- trol of Mobile Robots in Unknown Environments was published by the Science Publishing Fund of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
- 30. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxv About the Author xxv Professor Cai has persisted in the teaching of and reformation of robotics for a long time. He has successively taught tens of thou- sands of undergraduate students, thousands of graduate students, and hundreds of overseas master’s students, as well as guided of the- ses and course theses. People have known these as Professor Cai Zixing’s “Hundreds-Thousands-Ten Thousands Education Project,” which aims to make positive contributions to the training of robotics and artificial intelligence talents. He has presided over eight national quality engineering projects of the Ministry of Education, China, including national quality courses, quality resource sharing courses, and national teaching teams etc. He has successively won the Outstanding Robotics Education Award of the China Robotics Congress, and the Outstanding Robotics Education Award of the Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence. Prof Cai is also the winner of the first National College Teachers Award, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Technology Achievement Award, Xu Teli Education Award, and BaoSteel Grand Prize of National Excellent Teacher Award. He was also awarded the First Prize of the Science and Technology Progress Award of the National Ministry of Education, and the First Prize of the National Excellent Teaching Material Award of Higher Education and other important awards. As a result, his rich achievements have made him being known as “the first person in artificial intelligence education in China,” “founder of the Chinese intelligent robotics discipline” and “founder of Chinese intelligent control.”
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- 32. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxvii Contents Foreword by Song Jian v Foreword by Toshio Fukuda ix Foreword by Volker Graefe xiii Preface xvii About the Author xxiii List of Tables xxxvii List of Figures xxxix 1. Basic Concepts 1 1.1 The Origin and Development of Robotics . . . . . . 1 1.1.1 The origin of robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.2 Development of robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Definition and Characteristics of Robots . . . . . . 6 1.2.1 Definition of robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2.2 Main features of the robot . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3 Composition and Classification of Robots . . . . . . 10 1.3.1 Composition of the robot system . . . . . . . 10 1.3.2 Degrees of freedom of the robot . . . . . . . . 12 1.3.3 Classification of robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.4 Research Fields of Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 xxvii
- 33. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxviii xxviii Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 1.5 Summary of this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.6 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Part I Robot Manipulator 31 2. Mathematical Fundamentals 33 2.1 Description of Pose and Coordinate System . . . . . 34 2.1.1 Location description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.1.2 Orientation description . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.1.3 Pose description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.2 Mapping of Translation and Rotation Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.2.1 Translation coordinate transformation . . . . 37 2.2.2 Rotation coordinate transformation . . . . . 37 2.3 Homogeneous Coordinate Transformation of Translation and Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.3.1 Homogeneous transformation . . . . . . . . . 40 2.3.2 Translation homogeneous coordinate transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.3.3 Rotation homogeneous coordinate transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.4 Object Transformation and Transformation Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.4.1 Object location description . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.4.2 Inverse transformation of homogeneous transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.4.3 Preliminary transformation equation . . . . . 51 2.5 General Rotation Transformation . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.5.1 General rotation transformation formula . . . 52 2.5.2 Equivalent rotation angle and shaft . . . . . . 55 2.6 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3. Manipulator Kinematics 61 3.1 Representation of the Motion Equation of Manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
- 34. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxix Contents xxix 3.1.1 Representation of manipulator movement posture and direction angle . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.1.2 Different coordinate system representation of translation transformation . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.1.3 Generalized linkage and generalized transformation matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.1.4 Steps and examples for establishing a link coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.2 Solving Kinematical Equation of Robot Manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.2.1 General problems solved by inverse kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.2.2 Analytical solution of inverse kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.2.3 Numerical solution of inverse kinematics . . . 88 3.3 Analysis and Comprehensive Examples of Manipulator Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 3.3.1 Examples of forward kinematics of manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 3.3.2 Examples of inverse kinematics of the manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3.4 Jacobian Formula of Manipulator . . . . . . . . . . 104 3.4.1 Differential motion of the manipulator . . . . 105 3.4.2 Definition and solution of Jacobian matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 3.4.3 Example of Jacobian matrix calculation for manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 3.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 4. Manipulator Dynamics 131 4.1 Dynamic Equations of Rigid Bodies . . . . . . . . . 132 4.1.1 Kinetic energy and potential energy of a rigid body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 4.1.2 Lagrange equation and Newton-Euler equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 4.2 Calculation and Simplification of Manipulator Dynamic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 4.2.1 Calculation of particle velocity . . . . . . . . 144
- 35. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxx xxx Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 4.2.2 Calculation of kinetic energy and potential energy of particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 4.2.3 Derivation of manipulator dynamics equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.2.4 Simplification of manipulator dynamics equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 4.3 Examples of Manipulator Dynamics Equations . . . 158 4.3.1 The dynamic equation of the two-link manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 4.3.2 Velocity and acceleration equations of three-link manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 4.4 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 5. Manipulator Control 173 5.1 Overview of Manipulator Control and Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 5.1.1 Classification, variables and levels of manipulator control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 5.1.2 Principle and transfer function of DC control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 5.1.3 Speed adjustment of DC motor . . . . . . . . 178 5.2 Position Control of the Manipulator . . . . . . . . . 180 5.2.1 General structure of manipulator position control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 5.2.2 Structure and model of single joint position controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 5.2.3 Coupling and compensation of multi-joint position controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 5.3 Force and Position Hybrid Control of the Manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 5.3.1 Force and position hybrid control scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 5.3.2 Synthesis of control law of force and position hybrid control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 5.4 Resolved Motion Control of Manipulator . . . . . . 202 5.4.1 Principle of resolved motion control . . . . . 203 5.4.2 Decomposition motion speed control . . . . . 207
- 36. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxxi Contents xxxi 5.4.3 Resolved motion acceleration control . . . . . 209 5.4.4 Resolved motion force control . . . . . . . . . 212 5.5 Adaptive Control of Manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . 216 5.5.1 State model and structure of adaptive controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 5.5.2 Manipulator model reference adaptive controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 5.6 Intelligent Control of Manipulator . . . . . . . . . . 223 5.6.1 Overview of manipulator control based on deep learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 5.6.2 Neural control of multi-fingered dexterous manipulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 5.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 6. Manipulator Planning 237 6.1 Overview of Manipulator Planning . . . . . . . . . . 237 6.2 Robot Planning in the Block World . . . . . . . . . 240 6.2.1 The robot problem in the block world . . . . 240 6.2.2 The solution of robot planning in the block world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 6.3 Robot Planning System Based on Resolution Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 6.3.1 Composition of STRIPS system . . . . . . . . 244 6.3.2 Planning process of STRIPS system . . . . . 245 6.4 Robot Planning Based on Expert System . . . . . . 249 6.4.1 Structure and mechanism of the planning system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 6.4.2 ROPES robot planning system . . . . . . . . 253 6.5 Conclusion and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 6.6 Path Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 6.6.1 The main methods and development trends of robot path planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 6.6.2 Robot path planning based on approximate VORONOI diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 6.6.3 Robot path planning based on immune evolution and example learning . . . . . . . . 269
- 37. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxxii xxxii Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 6.7 Robot Planning Based on Machine Learning . . . . 274 6.7.1 Overview of intelligent planning applications based on machine learning . . . . . . . . . . . 274 6.7.2 Research progress of autonomous route planning for unmanned ships based on deep learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 6.8 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Part II Mobile Robot 287 7. Architecture and Dynamics Model of Mobile Robot 289 7.1 Architecture of Mobile Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 7.1.1 Hierarchical architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 7.1.2 Reactive architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 7.1.3 Deliberate/reactive composite architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 7.2 Composition of Mobile Robot Prototype System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 7.2.1 Mobile system and sensor system of mobile robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 7.2.2 Software and hardware structure of mobile robot system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 7.3 Architecture of Four-layer Hierarchical Mobile Robot Navigation Control System . . . . . . . . . . 307 7.3.1 Decomposition of the control task of the nav- igation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 7.3.2 Four-layer modular autonomous driving control system structure . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 7.3.3 Structural characteristics of each layer of the driving control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 7.4 Dynamic Model of Wheeled Mobile Robot . . . . . 316 7.4.1 Typical mechanism of wheeled mobilebot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 7.4.2 Dynamic model of wheeled mobile robot under nonholonomic constraints . . . . . . . 318
- 38. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxxiii Contents xxxiii 7.5 Stabilization and Tracking of Wheeled Mobile Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 7.5.1 Stabilization and tracking controller design issues of wheeled mobile robots . . . . . . . . 321 7.5.2 Research on stabilization and tracking controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 7.6 Examples for Stabilization and Tracking Control Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 7.6.1 Tracking control law design based on backstepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 7.6.2 Trajectory generation method based on differential flatness for a wheeled mobile robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 7.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 8. Localization and Mapping of Mobile Robot 361 8.1 Introduction to Map Building of Mobile Robot . . . 361 8.2 Dead Reckoning Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 8.2.1 Proprioceptive sensor system . . . . . . . . . 368 8.2.2 Design of dead reckoning system . . . . . . . 370 8.2.3 Simulation and experiment . . . . . . . . . . 374 8.3 Map Building of Mobile Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 8.3.1 Map building based on laser radar . . . . . . 376 8.3.2 Map matching based on maximum likelihood estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 8.3.3 Self-localization based on feature mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 8.3.4 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 8.4 Simultaneous Localization and Mapping . . . . . . . 386 8.4.1 System state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 8.4.2 EKF algorithm with local maps . . . . . . . . 388 8.4.3 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 8.5 Data Association Approach for Mobile Robot SLAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 8.5.1 Data association problem in SLAM . . . . . . 395 8.5.2 Hybrid data association approach . . . . . . . 397 8.5.3 Experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
- 39. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxxiv xxxiv Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 8.6 Mobile Robot SLAM in Dynamic Environment . . . 401 8.6.1 Real-time detection of dynamic obstacle by laser radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 8.6.2 Uniform target model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 8.6.3 SLAMiDE system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 8.6.4 Experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 8.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 9. Mobilebot Navigation 423 9.1 Main Methods and Development Trends of Mobilebot Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 9.1.1 Navigation method based on case learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 9.1.2 Navigation method based on environment model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 9.1.3 Navigation method based on behavior . . . . 427 9.1.4 The development trend of mobile robot navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 9.2 Local Navigation Strategy for Mobilebot . . . . . . 431 9.2.1 Overview of local navigation methods . . . . 431 9.2.2 Disturbance rule design based on simulated annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 9.2.3 Program design of local navigation . . . . . . 440 9.3 Strategies and Implements of Composite Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 9.3.1 Strategies of composite navigation . . . . . . 442 9.3.2 Implementation of composite navigation . . . 455 9.4 Mobilebot Path Navigation Based on Ant Colony Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 9.4.1 Introduction to ant colony optimization algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 9.4.2 Path navigation based on ant colony algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 9.5 Navigation Strategy Based on Feature Points . . . . 461 9.5.1 Feature extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 9.5.2 Navigation behaviors based on feature points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
- 40. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxxv Contents xxxv 9.5.3 Design and implementation of the navigation strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 9.6 Mobilebot Navigation Based on Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 9.6.1 Advances in intelligent navigation based on machine learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 9.6.2 Autonomous navigation based on deep reinforcement learning for unmanned ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 9.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 10. Intelligent Control of Mobile Robots 489 10.1 Overview of Intelligent Control and Intelligent Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 10.1.1 Introduction to intelligent control and intelligent control system . . . . . . . . . . . 490 10.1.2 The basic structure of the intelligent control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 10.2 Mobile Robot Control Based on Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 10.2.1 Tracking control of mobile robots . . . . . . . 502 10.2.2 Navigation control and formation control of mobile robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 10.2.3 Visual control of mobile robots . . . . . . . . 510 10.3 Mobile Robot Control Based on Deep Learning . . . 513 10.3.1 Overview of mobile robot control based on deep learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 10.3.2 Example of mobile robot control based on deep learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 10.4 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 Part III Applications and Prospect of Robotics 529 11. Application and Market of Robotics Technology 531 11.1 Application Fields of Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 11.1.1 Industrial robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
- 41. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxxvi xxxvi Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 11.1.2 Explore robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 11.1.3 Service robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 11.1.4 Military robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 11.2 Status Quo and Forecast of Robot Market . . . . . 538 11.3 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 12. Robotics Outlook 547 12.1 Development Trend of Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . 547 12.2 Robot Development Plans in Various Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 12.3 Social Problems Caused by the Application of Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 12.4 The Challenge of Cloning Technology to Intelligent Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 12.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Index 573
- 42. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxxvii List of Tables 3.1 Parameter table of Denavit-Hartenberg corresponding to the three-link manipulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.2 Link parameters of PUMA 560 manipulator. . . . . . . 96 4.1 Coefficient values of two-link manipulators under different loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 4.2 Two-link manipulator link parameters. . . . . . . . . . . 159 5.1 Classification and analysis methods of manipulator control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 5.2 Motor-tachometer unit parameter values. . . . . . . . . 189 5.3 Stanford-JPL manipulator effective inertia. . . . . . . . 189 6.1 Difference table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 6.2 Comparison of world models of planning systems. . . . . 257 6.3 Comparison of planning time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 8.1 Measurement error of LMS291. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 8.2 Performance of ICNN, JCBB and LIJ in a simple environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 8.3 Performance of ICNN, JCBB and LIJ in a complex environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 9.1 Result statistics of navigation experiences. . . . . . . . . 470 10.1 Deep reinforcement learning convolutional neural network parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 xxxvii
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- 44. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xxxix List of Figures 1.1 Basic structure of the robot system . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.2 Sketch of the geometric structure of the manipulator . . 11 1.3 The six degrees of freedom of a rigid body . . . . . . . . 13 1.4 Examples of robot degrees of freedom . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.5 Degrees of freedom and mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.1 Location representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.2 Representation of orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.3 Translation transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.4 Rotation transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.5 Compound transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.6 Effect of rotation order on the transformation result . . 45 2.7 Combination of translation transformation and rotation transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.8 Transformation of wedge-shaped objects . . . . . . . . . 47 2.9 Transformation equations and its directed transformation diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.1 Vectors o, a and p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.2 Definition of Euler angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.3 Use roll, pitch and yaw to represent the manipulator movement posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.4 Expressing position in cylindrical and spherical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.5 Schematic diagram of establishing the four parameters of the link and the coordinate system agreed by Craig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 xxxix
- 45. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xl xl Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 3.6 Schematic diagram of coordinate system transformation between adjacent ends of link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.7 A three-link plane manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.8 Setting of the link coordinate system of a three-link manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.9 Two-link manipulator with link lengths L1 and L2 . . . 80 3.10 Three-link manipulator (the dotted line represents the second solution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.11 Multi-solution selection when there are obstacles in the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 3.12 The inverse kinematics solution of a planar two-link manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.13 FABRIK algorithm iteration example . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.14 The linkage coordinate system of PUMA560 manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.15 PUMA 560 4 sets of solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 3.16 Differential change of coordinate system {A} . . . . . . 109 3.17 Differential transformation diagram between two coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.18 The posture and differential transformation diagram of Example 3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 3.19 Transmission of joint speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 3.20 The relationship between T Ji and i nT . . . . . . . . . . 123 4.1 Kinetic energy and potential energy of general objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 4.2 Two-link manipulator (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 4.3 Two-link manipulator (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 4.4 Four-link manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 4.5 Coordinate system of two-link manipulator . . . . . . . 159 4.6 Three-link manipulator device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 5.1 The control variables of each joint of the manipulator . 175 5.2 Principle of DC motor servo drive . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 5.3 Open-loop block diagram of excitation control DC motor with load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 5.4 Block diagram of the armature control DC motor transmission device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 5.5 DC motor control principle diagram with speed feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 5.6 Basic structure of manipulator position control . . . . . 181
- 46. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xli List of Figures xli 5.7 Block diagram of the position control system of the Stanford manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 5.8 Schematic diagram of a joint motor-gear-load combined device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 5.9 Structure diagram of robot position controller. . . . . . 187 5.10 The i-th joint full controller with n joints . . . . . . . . 191 5.11 Active rigid control block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 5.12 Structure of R-C controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 5.13 Improved R-C hybrid control system structure . . . . . 196 5.14 Block diagram of operating space force/position hybrid control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5.15 Force diagram at the end of the manipulator . . . . . . 198 5.16 Exploded motion speed control block diagram . . . . . . 208 5.17 A block diagram of a resolved motion acceleration control scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 5.18 Block diagram of resolved motion force control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 5.19 Structure of the manipulator adaptive controller. (a) Model reference adaptive controller (b) Self-tuning adaptive controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 5.20 Structure diagram of non-linear compensation and decoupling MRAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 5.21 Hardware diagram of the control system . . . . . . . . . 228 5.22 Controller structure diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 5.23 Software flow chart of Host . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 6.1 Robot question in the block world . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 6.2 Search tree representing the move action . . . . . . . . . 242 6.3 State space of the robot problem in the block world . . 243 6.4 A simplified model of STRIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 6.5 The world model of the intermediate target state . . . . 249 6.6 Search diagram of a robot planning example . . . . . . . 249 6.7 AND diagram of a robot planning example . . . . . . . 250 6.8 Robot planning based on expert system . . . . . . . . . 251 6.9 Simplified block diagram of the ROPES system . . . . . 253 6.10 Environmental model of robot assembly line . . . . . . . 255 6.11 Comparison of planning speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 6.12 Voronoi diagram of point set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 6.13 Using grass fire method to generate GVG diagram . . . 268 6.14 Immune operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
- 47. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xlii xlii Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 7.1 Lidar and vision sensor of mobile robot . . . . . . . . . 297 7.2 Three-layer control model of mobile robot with compound architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 7.3 Human/intelligent system’s cognitive process of the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 7.4 Hierarchical control architecture of mobile robot oriented to spatial knowledge representation . . . . . . . 303 7.5 Hardware structure of the mobile robot control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 7.6 Structure of the four-layer modular automobile autonomous driving control system . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 7.7 General structure of the intelligent controller in the layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 7.8 Schematic diagram of main modules of the operation control layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 7.9 Schematic diagram of the main modules of the behavior planning layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 7.10 Schematic diagram of the main modules of the behavior decision layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 7.11 Schematic diagram of the main modules of the mission planning layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 7.12 Schematic diagram of the system monitoring module structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 7.13 Schematic diagram of the structure of the vehicle state perception module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 7.14 Path-tracing schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 7.15 Trajectory-tracking control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . 344 7.16 Mobile robot system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 7.17 “8”-shaped trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 7.18 Feasible solution maps of (a1, a2, a3) . . . . . . . . . . . 349 7.19 Nominal control input (τ1d, τ2d) as functions of time . . 349 8.1 Classification of environmental models . . . . . . . . . . 363 8.2 Typical raster map and geometric map . . . . . . . . . . 365 8.3 Hardware components of the dead reckoning system . . 370 8.4 Coordinate transformation in world coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 8.5 Simulation of mobile robot’s traversing the terrain with sine-wave change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 8.6 Experiment of mobile robot’s traversing the slope . . . . 375
- 48. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xliii List of Figures xliii 8.7 Measurement principle of laser radar . . . . . . . . . . . 376 8.8 Coordinate transformation from laser radar to global environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 8.9 Algorithms description based on fuzzy logic . . . . . . . 382 8.10 Fuzzy membership function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 8.11 Mobile Robot MORCS-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 8.12 Local map matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 8.13 Navigation based on localization correction . . . . . . . 386 8.14 System State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 8.15 The essential steps of the filtering process in one period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 8.16 Robot trajectory and landmark locations . . . . . . . . 392 8.17 True robot path and landmark observations . . . . . . . 392 8.18 Errors in the local map EKF algorithm . . . . . . . . . 394 8.19 Running time of ICNN, JCBB and LIJ . . . . . . . . . . 400 8.20 Correct rate of ICNN, JCBB and LIJ . . . . . . . . . . 401 8.21 Real-time detection of dynamic obstacles based on maintaining grid maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 8.22 Mobile robot MORCS-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 8.23 Real-time detection when mobile robot is still . . . . . . 407 8.24 Real-time detection in the corridor when mobile robot is moving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 8.25 Real-time detection in the room when mobile robot is moving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 8.26 SLAMiDE System Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 8.27 SLAMiDE system implementation process . . . . . . . . 413 8.28 Experimental results in corridor environment. (a) The blue is static map, and the red is dynamic map, and the green is the trajectory of MORCS-I. (b) The comparison of the robot trajectory estimation between SLAMiDE and dead reckoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 8.29 Experimental results in lobby. The blue is static map, and the red is dynamic map, and the green is the trajectory of MORCS-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 9.1 Schema-based reactive path planning . . . . . . . . . . . 432 9.2 Local planning based on rolling window . . . . . . . . . 434 9.3 Probability P{δ|φ} distribution of the disturbance being “true” under the target constraint . . . . . . . . . 437
- 49. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xliv xliv Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9.4 P{δ| φ} Probability distribution curve of the disturbance being “true” under local trap constraint . . 437 9.5 Probability P{δ | p} distribution curve of the disturbance being “true” under constraint of sensor information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 9.6 Flow chart of local planning program based on SA disturbance control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 9.7 Path planning based on A∗ search . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 9.8 Path planning based on D∗ search . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 9.9 Path planning based on reverse D∗ search . . . . . . . . 448 9.10 Navigation simulation experiment of reverse D∗ planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 9.11 Warning regional settings of LM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 9.12 Local rolling planning window based on LMS291 . . . . 452 9.13 Reactive behavior control structure diagram in compound navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 9.14 Delete operations of redundant path points . . . . . . . 456 9.15 Deliberate path planning based on the environment . . 457 9.16 Adaptive behavior of ant colony . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 9.17 Representation of a line in the robot coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 9.18 Robot navigation behaviors along the wall . . . . . . . . 465 9.19 Robot corridor navigation behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . 466 9.20 Robot doorway navigation behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . 466 9.21 State behavior sets of the FSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 9.22 State transition diagram of FSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 9.23 Robot navigation experiment based on feature points . . 469 9.24 Actor-Critic (AC) algorithm structure . . . . . . . . . . 476 9.25 Structure of deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 9.26 DDPG algorithm flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 9.27 Structure of unmanned ship path planning model based on DDPG algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 9.28 Execution process of the UAV path planning model . . 480 10.1 General structure of an intelligent controller. 1 — Intelligent control system; 2 — Multilayer controller; 3 — Multi sensor system . . . . . . . . . . . 492 10.2 Dual structure of intelligent control . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 10.3 Ternary structure of intelligent control . . . . . . . . . . 494
- 50. August 10, 2022 7:52 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-fm page xlv List of Figures xlv 10.4 Quaternary structure of intelligent control (a) Four- element intelligent control structure; (b) Simplified diagram of the four-element structure . . . . . . . . . . 494 10.5 Cascade structure of hierarchical intelligent machine . . 495 10.6 Typical structure of expert controller . . . . . . . . . . . 497 10.7 Basic structure of fuzzy control system . . . . . . . . . . 498 10.8 Schematic diagram of learning control system . . . . . . 499 10.9 Structure of the supervised learning NN controller . . . 500 10.10 Basic structure of an evolutionary control system . . . . 501 10.11 Structure of a robot controlled by a NN with supervised learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 10.12 The system structure of a two-wheeled mobile robot . . 507 10.13 Adaptive system structure based on RBF neural network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 10.14 Algorithm framework of deep reinforcement learning . . 519 10.15 Convolutional NN model with deep reinforcement learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 10.16 Training flowchart of deep reinforcement learning algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 11.1 Scale of the global robot market in 2019 . . . . . . . . . 538 11.2 Statistics and forecast of global industrial robot sales and growth rate (2009–2019). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 11.3 Statistics and forecast of global service robot sales and growth rate (2014–2020). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 11.4 2013–2018 (statistics) and 2019–2022 (forecast) global annual installations of industrial robots . . . . . . . . . 541 11.5 Industrial robot sales volume in the world’s top five countries in 2017–2018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 12.1 Average robot price index and labor compensation index in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 12.2 Ternary intersection structure diagram of robotics . . . 565
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- 52. August 10, 2022 7:47 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-ch01 page 1 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Since mankind entered the 21st century, in addition to devoting itself to its own development, it has had to pay attention to issues such as robots, aliens, and human clones. This book will not discuss the issue of aliens and human cloning, but will focus on the issue of robots [4]. People of today are no strangers to the name “robot.” From ancient myths and legends to modern science fiction, drama, movies and TV, there are many wonderful depictions of robots. Although many important results have been achieved in robotics, the vast majority of robots in the real world is neither as wise and brave as described in myths and literary works, nor as versatile as some entrepreneurs and propagandists preach. At present, the capabilities of robots are still relatively limited. However, robotics is developing rapidly, and it can be said to be changing daily, and is beginning to have an increasing impact on the entire economy, industry, agri- culture and service industry, space and ocean exploration, and all aspects of human life [14,51]. 1.1 The Origin and Development of Robotics 1.1.1 The origin of robotics The origin of robots can be traced back to more than 3,000 years ago. “Robot” was a newly coined word that appeared in many languages and scripts in the 1920s. It embodies a long-held dream of mankind, that is, to create a human-like machine or artificial human to replace all kinds of jobs of people [24]. 1
- 53. August 10, 2022 7:47 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-ch01 page 2 2 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot It was not until more than 60 years ago that “robot” was cited as a professional term. However, the concept of robots has existed in the human imagination for more than 3,000 years. As early as the Western Zhou Dynasty (1066 BC–771 BC) in China, there was a story about the artisan Yanshi who dedicated a singing and dancing robot to King Zhou Mu. In the 3rd century BC, the ancient Greek inventor Daedalus used bronze to create Talos, a guardian for King Minos of Crete. In a book of the 2nd century BC, there was a descrip- tion of a mechanized theater with robot-like performers that could perform dances and line-ups in court ceremonies [24]. During the China’s Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), the guide car invented by Zhang Heng was the world’s earliest prototype of a robot [10]. In the modern era, mankind expects to invent all kinds of mechan- ical tools and power machines to assist or even replace various kinds of manual labor. The steam engine invented in the 18th century opened up a new age of machine power instead of manpower. With the invention of powered machines, the first industrial and scientific revolution appeared in human society. The advent of various auto- matic machines, powered machines and power systems has trans- formed robots from fantasy to reality. Many mechanically controlled robots, mainly various exquisite robot toys and handicrafts, emerged at this period. For example, from 1768–1774 AD, the famous Swiss watchmaker Jaquet-Droz and his sons designed and manufactured three life-sized robots-writing dolls, drawing dolls, and organ dolls; these were automatic machines controlled by cams and springs. In 1893, the walking robot Android designed by Canadian Moore was powered by steam. These treasures of robotic craftsmanship marked a big step forward for mankind on the long road of robots from dream to reality. At the beginning of the 20th century, the mother fetus of human society and economy drew closer to the verge of giving birth to robots, and humanity viewed this with unease, unsure if the robot to come would be a darling or a monster. In 1920, the Czech play- wright Karel Čapek first proposed the term “robot” in his science fiction play “Rosam’s Universal Robot” (R.U.R) [22]. The drama anxiously foretells the tragic impact that the development of robots will have on human society and aroused widespread concern. What Čapek highlighted was the safety, intelligence and self-reproduction
- 54. August 10, 2022 7:47 Robotics: From Manipulator to Mobilebot 9in x 6in b4639-ch01 page 3 Basic Concepts 3 of robots. The advancement of robotics technology was likely to cause unwanted problems and undesirable results. In response to social anxiety about the robots to come, the famous American science fiction novelist Asimov proposed the famous “Three Rules for Robots” in his novel “I am a Robot” in 1950 [5]: (1) The robot must not endanger humans, and it is not allowed to stand by while watching people suffer; (2) Robots must absolutely obey humans, unless such obedience is harmful to humans; (3) The robot must protect itself from harm, unless it is to protect humans or humans order it to make sacrifices. These three rules gave new ethics to the robot society and make the concept of robots more acceptable to human society. The American George Dvor designed the first electronically pro- grammable industrial robot in 1954 and published the robot patent in 1961. In 1962, the first robot Unimate made by the US Universal Automation (Unimation) was put into use at General Motors (GM), which marked the birth of the first generation of robots [23]. Since then, robots have become a reality in daily life and humans have continued to write a new chapter in the history of robots with their own wisdom and labor. 1.1.2 Development of robotics In the first decade after the advent of industrial robots, from the early 1960s to the early 1970s, the development of robotics technol- ogy was relatively slow, and the efforts of many research units and companies were unsuccessful. The main achievements of this stage were the mobile intelligent robot Shakey developed by the Stanford International Research Institute (SRI) in 1968 and the first robot made by Cincinnati Milacron in 1973, the robot T3 etc. which were suitable for putting on the market [6]. In the 1970s, the artificial intelligence (AI) academic commu- nity began to have a keen interest in robots. They found that the emergence and development of robots brought new vitality to the development of artificial intelligence, provided a good test platform and application place, and was a potential field in which artificial
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- 56. you or others to drive so profitable a trade in my boats, and by the assistance and management of my servants (as those seamen are that I pay wages to), and I to have no benefit for freight, nor thanks, but the contrary? I need not tell you how this comes to be a prejudice to me; you are not so ignorant as to require information in the case; you are free to follow any lawful callings, but not at my charges, in my boats, and with my seamen. You cannot justify it (as you say you can); but I will justify that in this and other things you are ungrateful, and (perhaps I shall make it appear) unjust too. I have deserved better from you." On the 21st September 1675, a letter is written to the agent at Deal, wherein Whitley puts his finger on the cause of the neglects at that port. "I am daily tormented," says he, "with the complaints of the merchants, and my ears are filled with the noise of seamen's wives and others concerning the neglect of their letters, who are now fully resolved to redress themselves to His Majesty.... It will be proved that your boats very seldom go on board with letters, to force the seamen to come ashore to drink at your house.... They go on board other ships with brandy and other liquors." The boats sailing in the packet service to and from Holland were Galiot-Hoys, of which three were regularly engaged—two of 60 tons and one of 40 tons, and in each six men were employed. The tonnage of these boats was not greater than that of a decently-sized Stonehaven fishing boat; yet they were supposed to provide adequate accommodation for passengers. In 1675, the passenger fare from Harwich to Holland was 12s. In February 1674, a proposal was on foot for conveying letters from Flanders and Holland to Spain and Portugal by way of England, but it does not appear that the plan was given effect to. The idea was to set up a packet service for this purpose from Plymouth to some port in Spain, the boats to be employed being of 40, 50, or 60 tons, "with good conveniency of cabins, and able to encounter storms," and furnished with crews of not under seven or eight good men. In one of his letters on this subject Whitley writes, that "the gentleman that demands £50 per mensem for a vessel of 60 tons is much out of the way"; and he
- 57. adds, "I have two of that burthen to Holland at a less rate." A service of this kind from Plymouth is stated to have been kept up in Cromwell's time; but possibly the reference is to the packets set up by Charles I. when he was in the West of England and at war with the Parliamentary party. The port of despatch then was Weymouth. Whitley was very sympathetic over the hardships to which the seamen were exposed in his service. To the agent at Dover he writes, on the occasion of a disaster:—"I am very much afflicted for the loss of Mr. Lambert, who had the character of an honest, able man. It was a great mercy that the rest were preserved. I pray God send us good accounts of our other boats, with better weather. We must resign ourselves and all our concernments to the will of God, and depend on His providence." On another occasion, he expresses himself thus:—"I pray God keep our men and boats in safety these terrible storms; I assure you my heart aches often for them." About the same period, Whitley deplores the loss of the captain of one of the Dublin packet boats, who was washed overboard. Reference has been made to the packet boats conveying passengers as well as mails. These, it seems, were not always kept in a tidy condition, and the Deputy Postmaster-General had to speak his mind on the subject, drawing an unpleasant contrast between his own countrymen and foreigners. "Your boats," says Whitley to the agent at Harwich, "are also rendered so contemptible, so nasty, ill provided, and out of order, that we do not only lose many passengers, that will not venture with them, but it is a reproach to our nation to have such bad accommodation, when our neighbours are so neat and exact in theirs." In some respects the reproachful contrast is one not confined to Whitley's days. Not only was it the case that separate rooms were not always provided at the country post offices for the treatment and safe custody of letters, but the following complaints from the Deputy
- 58. Postmaster-General prove that at certain places the letters were very carelessly dealt with. To the postmaster of Rochester, Whitley writes: —"I hear there is great neglect in your sending out of letters, and that there is a great abundance of them scattered about your house, especially in your chamber and upon the tester of your bed. This shows want of order in your business. You should get some room apart to be your office, in which only you should bring your mails, open and close them, and where you should sort letters, and let nobody come into it but yourself." The position of affairs at Hereford was perhaps worse. In June 1675, the postmaster, Mr Philpotts, is thus written to:—"I have complaints from persons of very good credit, that their letters are not safe in your hands; they do not directly accuse you, but allege that your office being kept in the prison, it gives opportunity to prisoners, by countenance with some of your servants, to intercept letters of business with writings, and whereby the parties concerned are much damnified and the office abundantly scandalized." At Witham, on one occasion, the mail was allowed to lie at the stage from ten o'clock at night till six the next morning, "the servants refusing to rise out of their beds to forward it." At times the mail seems to have been intrusted to anyone who could ride a horse. For carelessness in a matter of this kind the postmaster of Sittingbourne was challenged, in July 1675, in the following terms:—"Now have you completed the score of your neglects and miscarriages, in sending the Flanders mail yesterday by a stranger, a Dutchman (without any guide or servant of your own), who suffered it to be broke open on the way, the Secretaries of States' packets and letters to be visited and tore, and many letters lost," etc. About the same time, the postmaster of Rochester offended in a like fashion. "You sent the mail," writes Whitley, "by a seaman last Saturday, who rid alone, thinking he had some gentleman's portmantle behind him; but coming to Dartford, and understanding it to be the mail of letters, he presently swore that if he had known what it had been, he would have cast it into some ditch by the way, for he scorned to be a post-boy." The post-boys employed were not certainly of high
- 59. character in all cases. In an inquiry respecting the opening of a mail by the way, Whitley writes thus to the postmaster of Colchester:—"I have made inquiry what has become of the Post Boy that formerly lived at Whitechapel, whom you rendered such a notorious rogue, whose father was hanged, and he deserved the same; and I find you have got him to your house, which I much wonder at, you knowing him to be such a wicked villain. I cannot conceive any place to be more likely for such rogueries to be committed than where such are employed." The boys employed were in some cases very young. About delays at Sarum, Whitley writes:—"I am apt to believe the boys that ride are very little, and so discouraged in a dark night, which may be the chief occasion of the slow coming of the mails." Well might the little fellows be discouraged in a midwinter's night, riding through lonely country, along ill-kept roads lying at times under water and full of ruts and stones. Frequent mention is made at this time of the waters being out covering the ways, and one postmaster was desired to provide "able and high horses" in order to secure the forwarding of the mails. In one of Whitley's letters, the road from London to Dover is described as the "best and fairest in England," although, compared with our own fine system of highways, it may have been a very sorry affair. But relatively it carried the palm at the time we are dealing with. The horses supplied for riding the posts were at some places very poor creatures, and in certain cases the postmasters appear not to have had any horses of their own. On the 1st December 1674, the postmaster of Berwick was complained of for not having a horse and boy to carry the mail for Edinburgh, and for having sent it forward to Cockburnspath by carriers, thus causing great delay. On the 15th January 1675, the following letter on this subject was written to Mr. Glover, postmaster of Dartford:—"This day your boy brought the mail on his back to the office, about one o'clock in the afternoon. His horse, as he says, died on the way; which was, as I understand, one that was hired, and very unfit for His Majesty's service, your boy having been often forced to drive him before him. I am also informed that you keep your own horses for posters, and hire one
- 60. for the mail, though never so bad." The Post Office certainly did not get the best of the animals. During the time of Whitley's control of the posts, the Foreign mails were closed not only by means of a seal, but also by a chain which in some way rendered them more secure. Great care was taken to avoid complaints from Members of Parliament. On occasions when Parliament was about to assemble, or to break up, the postmasters were put upon their guard by means of a circular-letter addressed to them. On 11th March 1675, the following letter was sent out on the subject:—"These are to advise you that the Parliament being speedily to assemble, it is probable that many members may come up by Post, wherefore I desire your especial care for the speedy and well accommodating of them for their satisfaction, and the honour of your employment. Also to receive and deliver their letters free during their time of privilege." On the 30th July 1675, the agent at Dover was instructed to facilitate the bringing over from the Continent of certain tradesmen, as follows:—"His Majesty being informed that there are several weavers and other handy craftsmen that are desirous of transporting themselves for England, to whom His Majesty (being desirous to give encouragement) has commanded me to order you to give directions to your masters of the packet boats to give passage to such of these weavers and handy craftsmen as shall bring passes with them from Mr. Linch, Consul of Ostend, or His Majesty's Minister at Brussels, and are desirous to come and inhabit here in England." Whitley had a long and troublesome correspondence with Mr. Mein, the postmaster at Edinburgh, on the subject of settling the remuneration to be made to the latter as agent for the English correspondence. Mein held an independent appointment from the king as head of the Letter Office in Edinburgh, and Whitley was not his master. The terms on which the business was arranged are set forth in a letter to Mein of the 8th August 1674, to this effect:—"I am content to allow you your full 1/8th of unpaid letters from hence, with your £20 salary from the commencement of my time till our late
- 61. agreement of £100 per annum takes place; and upon examination you will find that it exceeds what you have now contracted for and are content to accept of." At this time two boys were employed in Edinburgh to deliver the letters; and the rate of postage for one ounce weight from London to Edinburgh was 2s. 2d. Whenever the king went to reside at Newmarket, Windsor, or elsewhere, daily posts were put on between London and the Court, the deputy postmasters being required to keep additional horses at call for the service. It is recorded that in the Midlands of England more irregularities happened with the post riders than elsewhere. This appears by a letter to the postmaster of Lichfield in 1675, wherein it is stated that "your riders are oftener lost in the night, and have more unfortunate accidents happen to them on your road, than half England besides." Undelivered letters were returned by the deputies to the head office in London once in three months. At this early period (1677), the term "Dead Letters" was already applied to these returns. Whitley had reason to suspect unfair dealing in connection with returned letters at the office of a certain deputy, to whom, in December 1672, he wrote the following letter, which explains itself:—"This day Mr. Lambe brought me a parcell of Returned Letters from you to ye damage of above eight pounds; ye losse being soe considerable and unusuall made me more inquisitive into the particulars; and opening 3 or 4 bundles, I found that almost all of them had bin apparently opened; which causes my greater admiration (wonder), comeing from soe discreete a person (and one of soe much integrity and reputation as Mr. Gloyne is esteemed to be). If they were opened by ye partyes to whom they were directed, they ought to have bin first payd for; when ye contents are read, most letters are of small use afterwards. Perhaps ye persons you imploy may buy such letters at easy rates, and so impose them on you. I cannot tell how to understand it, but under one of these notions, and soe must returne them to you; resolving not to submit to such a practise, whether it proceed from ye ignorance, corruption (or perhaps want of care and
- 62. diligence) of your officers; the respect I have for you keeps me from any reflection on your selfe; onely I must oblige you to more circumspection hereafter, for if the like were done in other stages, wee should not be able to support ye charge of ye office." Notwithstanding the sharp and severe terms of many of Whitley's admonitions to the postmasters, his letters contain repeated offers to serve and oblige them, if only they would do their duty to the office; and the same spirit of kindly disposition is shown towards persons outside the service. In reply to an application from the agent at Harwich, in the matter of finding employment for a relative, Whitley writes:—"By yours of the 13th, I understand that a relative of yours will be in London this summer, with a design to get some employment, wherein I should think myself happy could I be serviceable to him; but the world is so altered of late to the disadvantage of young gentlemen in point of education, that there is little encouragement to be had. In times past (before the wicked rebellion), a nobleman, or great officer of State or Court, would have half a score or a dozen gentlemen to attend him, but now all is shrunk into a valet de chambre, a page, and 5 or 6 footmen; and this is part of our cursed Reformation. If I can serve you in this or anything else, you shall always find me to be," etc. In the matter of a lost horse, belonging to a private friend, Whitley engages the services of a postmaster in the West of England, with a view to its recovery. He writes thus to the postmaster:—"Sir John Hanmer (a worthy gentleman) hath lately lost a large white gelding, about 15 hand fulls high, with a blew velvett saddle, silke and silver fringe, silver nailes, etc.; the horse trots and gallops, but not pace. Me was stole from Chester, and heares is seised on at Bristoll. I pray enquire after it; and if it be there, secure it, and give me speedy notice, whereby you will oblige," etc. This kindly spirit was not altogether on the side of the Deputy Postmaster-General, for repeated instances are given of good offices performed for Whitley, and of presents made to him by the postmasters. In many cases Whitley's letters commence with an acknowledgment in brief terms, thus: "With thanks for your kind
- 63. present." It may be ungenerous to put a meaning upon these presents apart from mere feelings of kindness on the side of the postmasters; but there is reason to suspect that the presents often took the shape of money, and were the complement of expectation on the part of the Deputy Postmaster-General. In one acknowledgment Whitley says: "I have received your token, and thank you for it, as coming from an honest man for whom I have a great respect and kindness." The "honest man" was the postmaster of Manchester. Replying to a letter of the postmaster of Doncaster, he remarks: "I thought the seven guineas you sent by Mr. Butcher had been in recompence for the damage done me last year in your stage in the matter of By-Letters; or a present upon some other account; but it seems you intend it to clear what you owed to the office at midsummer." Reference has been made to the exaction of fines upon the postmasters at the time of Lord Arlington's assuming the position of Postmaster-General. The deputations received by the postmasters were generally for a term of a few years; and on their renewal, the practice appears to have been to make a present to the Head of the Post Office, or at anyrate a present was expected. This seems very clear by some letters of instruction sent by Whitley to his confidential servant, Saladine, when on a visit of inspection in the West of England. In one letter he says: "Haste the settling all my business (but on safe terms), that you may haste homewards; get the £10, and what you can for the expense of this journey, and get what you can for me from the several Postmasters by way of Fine, or Gratuity, for renewing their Deputations." The meaning here is plain enough, but in a further letter Saladine is given more particular instructions how to proceed in the matter:—"I think," says Whitley, "I shall renew (the deputations) but for a year, because Lord Arlington hath no more time in the farm, but doubtless the Postmasters will be continued if they deserve it. Get what Gratuities you can from them, without lessening their salaries; or if any will increase their salaries, they must fine proportionably—this to yourself." "At Sarum nothing is to be done. Let him know I am so sensible of his civilities that he
- 64. shall be continued as long as I have to do in the office. If he offers of his own accord to make me a present, receive it; or you may drop some words as if others did it, and is usual upon renewing Deputations; but not propose it; and make him sensible that I have a greater kindness for him than any of the rest. If you can prevail fairly with Mr. Westcombe to make a Present, I pray do it; but he is a touchy person, and must be gently handled." Some of the presents and civilities were, however, of a less questionable character. From Beccles he receives a red-painted box containing a turkey; from Shrewsbury, a cheese; from Newcastle, a salmon; and he sends his humble thanks to the gentlemen of Amsterdam for their kind present. To Captain Langley, the agent at Harwich, Whitley writes: "I have received a single barrel of oysters by a Colchester waggon, for which I thank you." The carriage of the barrel is stated to have been 9d. At another time he acknowledges to have received from Harwich ten lobsters; and to the agent at Edinburgh he writes: "I thank you heartily for your kind present of herring. I will send to look after them, and they shall be disposed of as you desire." To the postmaster of Colchester, Mr Hollister, the following request is made:—"I desire you to send me every week two barrels of Oysters, and keep an account of them, and you shall be allowed for them in your account. But let them be the best; or when you cannot get the best, send none." The best were not always forthcoming; for some months later, 20th March 1677, Mr Hollister is informed that: "The last oysters you sent me were so bad they could not be eaten, and one of the last was but half full; if you cannot help me with better, and better ordered, I desire to have no more; but if you could get such as are very good, and contrive some way to seal the barrels, that they may not be abused, you would oblige me to send me 4 barrels a week for a month to come." To the postmaster of Hull, Mr Mawson, Colonel Whitley makes the following request:—"I pray do me the kindness to bespeak two barrels of Ale (as good as you can get), and send it with as much speed as you can to Monsieur Muilman, at the Post Office in Amsterdam. Let it be sent by an honest, careful (man), that will not suffer it to be
- 65. wronged by the way, and presented from me to him. Pray take care that it be excellent, and speedily sent, and let me know the cost; I will remit the money." The sums due to the country postmasters for conveying expresses on His Majesty's special service were claimed every six months by the deputies, whose accounts under this head had to be accompanied by an affidavit sworn before a Master in Chancery or other Magistrate. The amounts were afterwards obtained from the Exchequer; but it is mentioned that the claims for 1674 were only paid shortly before January 1677, while those for 1675 were still outstanding at that period (1677). Whitley's correspondence in 1677 discloses a very curious fact, and one that has been entirely overlooked or forgotten, namely, that the Duke of York, afterwards James II., had at one time the Post Office in his own hands; and he has a claim, therefore, to be ranked as one of the early Postmasters-General. On the 12th April of that year, Whitley wrote the following circular-letter to 155 postmasters, probably the whole number of postmasters at the time:— "The Farm of this office expiring at Midsummer, and his R.H. the Duke of York having declared his pleasure to take it then into his own management, commands me to give you notice of it, requiring you (if you intend to continue your employment as Postmaster of ——) to come yourself, or authorize some other to appear for you at this office, before the 10th of May next ensuing, in order to your future contract; and in the mean time to send me the names, quality, and abode of your security, that there may be time to enquire after their sufficiency. If you fail herein, care will be taken to provide another for your stage, that the Public may not suffer by your neglect. I expect your speedy answer, and remain," etc. Some of the postmasters thought the occasion favourable for asking an increase of pay; but Whitley gave them no hopes of success, to one of them writing that "his R. Highness will expect all Postmasters should serve him on their present terms." Three months after the first intimation of the proposed change, a further circular-letter was
- 66. issued to all the deputies as follows:—"This is to give you notice, that as money grows due to the office since Midsummer last, you are to order payment thereof, by bill or otherwise, to Sir Allen Absley, his R.Hs. the Duke of York's Treasurer and Receiver-General, making your bills payable to him or his order, enclosing them under cover directed to him; herein you are not to fail." These letters seem to leave no doubt that the Duke of York actually entered upon the management of the Post Office, and carried it on (it may be nominally) for a time in his own hands. In connection with this royal direction of the posts, however, the historical records produce a strange complication; because, according to the Patent Rolls of 29 Charles II., a grant of the office of Postmaster-General for life was made to the Earl of Arlington, dating from June 1677, the period when his previous grant for ten years expired. Lord Arlington died on the 28th July 1685. Whether it be that the Duke of York had entered upon the new situation in the belief that he could draw to himself the whole profits of the affair without bearing any serious personal burden of troubles and anxieties, and found it far otherwise; or whether the new duties interfered in an unexpected way with his pursuits of hunting, hawking, and love-making, and that he threw aside the more troublesome business in consequence, does not appear. We know from the correspondence that Whitley, after his term expired, was to continue the management of the office for the Duke of York; and as (according to Evelyn), Arlington was "now beginning to decline in favour (the Duke of York being no great friend of his)," it may be that the Duke was dissatisfied with the returns from the office, and entered into it in the position of Deputy Postmaster-General, aided by Whitley in the practical management. As regards Arlington's extended tenure of the position of Postmaster- General, it should be remembered that he had not only been intimately associated with the King as a Minister of State, but had become nearly connected in another way—through the marriage of his only daughter and heiress, when an infant, in 1672, to the natural son of Charles II. by the Duchess of Cleveland. The son-in-
- 67. law afterwards became the Duke of Grafton; and Arlington's continued connection with the Post Office may have been arranged by the king with a view to enhancing the Postmaster-General's fortune in the interests of the Duke and Duchess of Grafton. All this, however, will remain for elucidation when the history of the period is better known. MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH. THIRD EDITION. THE ROYAL MAIL: Its Curiosities and Romance. By JAMES WILSON HYDE, SUPERINTENDENT IN THE GENERAL POST-OFFICE, EDINBURGH. Crown 8vo. Price 5s. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. The Times.—"The author of 'The Royal Mail' has served five-and- twenty years in the Post-Office, and had it been his fortune to turn novelist, like his confrère Anthony Trollope, he would never have been so lavish of invaluable materials. The merest glance through his pages might suggest subjects or incidents for half a score of
- 68. sensational romances. But the whole of the volume is so full of fascination that once taken up it is difficult to lay it down." Saturday Review.—"Mr. Hyde's work certainly shows that, even at the present time, the business conducted by the Post-Office is not unfrequently enlivened by romantic incidents; while in antiquarian interest it is rich beyond the average." Pall Mall Gazette.—"This volume is a storehouse of amusing anecdotes." The Echo.—"The curiosities and romance of the Post-Office have furnished Mr. J. Wilson Hyde, Superintendent in the General Post- Office, Edinburgh, with a subject for one of the most entertaining books of the year. The book is well written, well arranged, and thoroughly deserves success." Graphic.—"Contains a vast number of well-arranged facts, some valuable, some curious, about what is pre-eminently 'the people's institution.'" LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT, & CO. LTD. A HUNDRED YEARS BY POST. By JAMES WILSON HYDE, SUPERINTENDENT IN THE GENERAL POST-OFFICE, EDINBURGH. Crown 8vo. Price 1s. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. Daily Chronicle.—"Within the covers of this bright little book, Mr. Hyde has managed to present a most interesting picture of our Post- Office system in its infant days.... Every page of his book is full of interest." Publisher's Circular.—"We anticipated being interested in this new little work, nor have we been disappointed.... Mr. Hyde's book comes
- 69. at an opportune moment, and we have no doubt will be widely read." Globe.—"This is no dry-as-dust compilation, but a brightly-written résumé, full of significant facts and picturesque incidents. The little brochure is neatly printed and usefully illustrated." Scottish Leader.—"It is a prettily got up little volume, containing abundance of interesting information, and a number of well- executed illustrations." Scotsman.—" ... his delightful book—gives a very interesting account of the more remarkable changes that have taken place in the Postal Service during the past century. The book is written with the same thorough knowledge of its subject, and the same anecdotal felicity as characterised its author's Royal Mail. It is well illustrated." Speaker.—"A chatty description, illustrated by reproductions of quaint contemporary prints, of the marvellous changes which have taken place in the collection and distribution of letters since the close of last century.... Mr. Hyde writes pleasantly, and there is not a page of his narrative which is open to the charge of dulness." Daily Graphic.—" ... A brightly-written narrative. Mr. Hyde gives many interesting figures in connection with the rise and growth of the various departments of Post-Office work." Glasgow Herald.—"Mr. J. Wilson Hyde possesses the faculty of throwing a halo of romance around the working of the Department with which he has been so long connected, and his present volume is fresh and vigorous in both matter and tone.... Will serve to show the entertaining way in which he treats the subject. His illustrations are equally humorous and meritorious." The North British Economist.—" ... the memories recalled are curious and amusing ... there are numerous quaint and interesting illustrations."
- 70. Queen.—"It gives an account of the work and development of the Postal system of Great Britain, and relates some curious details respecting the changes that have come about in the course of years. To persons interested in this subject, the little volume will be welcome." LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, & CO. LIMITED. NEW NOVELS. At all the Libraries. A ROMANCE OF DIJON By M. Betham-Edwards. POSTE RESTANTE By C.Y. Hargreaves. JOHN DARKER By Aubrey Lee. MARGARET DRUMMOND By Sophie F.F. Veitch. PAUL ROMER By C.Y. Hargreaves. MY INDIAN SUMMER By Princess Altieri. THE CURB OF HONOUR By M. Betham-Edwards. BORN IN EXILE By George Gissing. THE GREAT CHIN EPISODE By Paul Cushing. THE LAST TOUCHES By Mrs. W.K. Clifford. A TANGLED WEB By Lady Lindsay. THE PHILOSOPHER'S WINDOW By Lady Lindsay. CAP AND GOWN COMEDY By Ascott R. Hope. UNDER TWO SKIES By E.W. Hornung. LONDON: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. WORKS ON ECONOMICS. Historical Progress and Ideal Socialism. By J. Shield Nicholson, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Crown 8vo, cloth, 1s. 6d. Labour and the Popular Welfare. By W.H. Mallock. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, paper covers, 1s.; cloth, 1s. 6d.
- 71. Principles of Political Economy. By J. Shield Nicholson, M.A., D.Sc. To be completed in Two Vols. Vol. I., demy 8vo, price 15s. A Treatise on Money, and Essays on Monetary Problems. By J. Shield Nicholson, M.A., D.Sc. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Crown 8vo, price 7s. 6d. A History of Political Economy. By John Kells Ingram, LL.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Crown 8vo, cloth, price 6s. A History of Socialism. By Thomas Kirkup. Crown 8vo, price 6s. The Encyclopædia Britannica. A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature. Ninth Edition. Contains Articles by the following Economists:—W.S. Jevons, Thomas Kirkup, J. Shield Nicholson, T.B. Sprague, Right Hon. Leonard H. Courtney, Mrs. Fawcett, Henry Sidgwick, Robert Somers, J.E. Thorold Rogers, E.W. Brabrook, J.K. Ingram, F.A. Walker, C.F. Bastable, Prince Kropotkine. In Twenty-four Vols. and Index. Each Vol. is to be had in Four Parts, price 7s. 6d. each. LONDON: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.
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