![Thelephora lamellata, B.
Hirneola auricula-judæ, Fr.
Lycoperdon gemmatum, Fr.
Bovista sp. . . (uncertain).
Wynnea macrotis, Berk.
The Flotation of Fruits in Sea-Water.—I made a few experiments on the fruits of
this region, the results of which I here append. The fruits were all ripe and not
dried.
(1.) Fruits that float in sea-water.[435]
Cocos nucifera
Areca catechu (Betel-nut).
Cycas circinalis.[436]
Pandanus (three littoral species).
Nipa fruticans.
Barringtonia speciosa.
Calophyllum inophyllum.
Calophyllum sp. (katari).
Ochrosia parviflora.
Heritiera littoralis.
Cerbera odollam.
Harpullia cupanioides.
Myristica sp. (ito-ito).
Riedelia curviflora.?
Thespesia populnea.
Gomphandra sp. (ningilo).
[435] The following fruits and seeds, taken from my dried collection of
plants, float in sea-water. I did not experiment on them in the green
condition. . . . Pongamia glabra: Coix Lachryma: Scævola Kœnigii:
Tournefortia argentea.
[436] Out of ten fruits experimented on, only one floated.
(2.) Fruits that sink in sea-water.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-24-320.jpg)
![Parinarium laurinum.[437]
Licuala sp. (firo).
Areca sp. (torulo).
Areca sp. (momo).
Caryota sp. (eala).
[437] This tree is widely distributed throughout the group, which may be
due to the circumstance of its resin being generally employed in caulking
canoes.
The weeds, rubbish-plants, and shrubs, commonly found in old clearings and in
the waste-ground of the cultivated patches in Bougainville Straits.
One of the commonest plants in the islands of Bougainville Straits is the
Eranthemum variabile, which is frequently found growing at the sides of the paths.
The spurges, Euphorbia pilulifera and E. Atoto, are usually found in the waste-
ground around villages. In the cultivated patches clumps of the handsome
flowering reed, Pennisetum macrostachys (“orsopa”), which grows to a height of
nine or ten feet, are often conspicuous. In one place may be seen the tall shrub,
Kleinhovia Hospita (“lafai”), the inflated fruits of which are eaten by the cockatoos.
In another place the botanist may recognise the Canna indica (Indian Shot: “sati”),
and near by perhaps Coix Lachryma (Job’s tears: “ken-ken”), both of which plants
have been probably introduced originally from the Malay Archipelago. Solomon
Islanders occasionally wear the seeds of Coix Lachryma as a personal ornament.
They are also used for this purpose by the Admiralty Islanders, and by the natives
of some parts of New Guinea. Scented labiate plants are very frequent in the
waste-ground of the plantations, and the natives are fond of wearing them in their
armlets. Amongst them I may mention Moschosma polystachyum (“pipituan”) and
Ocymum sanctum (“kiramma”). The “luk-a-luk” (Evodia hortensis), which is a
favourite scented plant, is commonly found in the same situations. The tiny plant,
Oxalis corniculata, may clothe a bare patch of ground; whilst in another part of the
plantation, Commelyna nudiflora may similarly be observed. Numerous composite
plants, such as Vernonia cinerea, Adenostemma viscosum, etc., form a
conspicuous feature among the rubbish-plants in these cultivated patches. The
Codiæum variegatum (“tiatakush”), with its very singularly-shaped leaves, is also
to be seen: and, amongst other plants, I should refer to Solanum vitiense and
Crotalaria quinquefolia. Tall sedges, such as Cyperus canescens and Mariscus
phleoides, are to be commonly observed. Lastly, I should notice two small
scitamineous plants, the “nakia,” a wild ginger, and the “temuli,” the root of which
has medicinal properties, whilst its yellow juice is used for staining purposes.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-25-320.jpg)
![A species of Pachyma ? ?
Whilst at the island of Santa Anna in October, 1882, my attention was directed by
Mr. William Macdonald and Mr. Heughan to a curious vegetable substance, not
unlike a yam in appearance, which is found lying loose on the soil. The specimens
I obtained varied between one and five pounds in weight, but much larger
examples have been obtained. The interior of the substance is white in colour, and
sometimes has a waxy look. A large slab which had been whittled out by a native
resembled a cake of compressed flour. There were many curious speculations as to
the nature of these growths. In the estimation of the inhabitants of the island,
they are poisonous, and they have received from them the name of “testes
diaboli;” but I could gather but little information from the natives on the subject
except to the effect that they are also commonly found on St. Christoval.[438]
However, some time later I was informed by Mr. Stephens of Ugi that some
mushroom-like growths were borne by a specimen that he kept, which after a few
weeks fell away. I subsequently gave some of these singular masses to Mr. Charles
Moore, the Director of the Sydney Botanic Gardens.
[438] In the event of it proving edible, Mr. Heughan cooked a specimen,
but only a tasteless substance resulted.
Three years passed away and I had almost forgotten about the matter, when I
accidentally came upon some substances, closely resembling these masses, which
are exhibited in the Botanical Department of the British Museum. They are labelled
Pachyma Cocos (Fries) from China. On my asking Mr. George Murray concerning
their nature, I was pleased to learn that he had been taking a special interest in
these growths; and he showed me a specimen obtained by the Rev. Mr. Whitmee
in Samoa, from which a funnel-shaped fungus, about six inches high, was
growing. This specimen was very similar to those of the Solomon Islands.
Very recently, Mr. G. Murray has embodied the results of his investigations of these
growths in a short paper read before the Linnean Society, in which Mr. Whitmee’s
specimen is figured (Trans. Linn. Soc., 2nd ser. Bot., vol. ii., part 11). From this
source I learn that Rumphius was the first to describe these tuberous masses and
their associated fungi from Amboina. The former, which he named Tuber regium,
were stated to afford remedies useful in diarrhœa, fevers, &c. The fungi were said
to shoot out from them during showers of warm rain on a fine day, or when there
was thunder in the air. From the description and illustration given by Rumphius,
Mr. Fries regarded the growth as a fungus belonging to the genus Lentinus,
springing from a Pachyma (of which the Indian Bread of North America, Pachyma
cocos, is an example). Strange to say, however, these tubers, which are found also
in China and other parts of the world, have never been found with a fungus
attached since the time of Rumphius. Mr. Whitmee’s specimen, therefore, had
considerable interest. It is shown by Mr. Murray to correspond strikingly with Tuber](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-26-320.jpg)
![I
CHAPTER XIV.
Reptiles and Batrachians.
n a memoir on the Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands, which
was read before the Zoological Society, on May 6th, 1884,[439] Mr. Boulenger
remarked that very little was known about the herpetology of these islands
until two important collections, which I sent to the British Museum in 1883
and 1884, brought to light several new and interesting forms, such as could
hardly have been expected from this region. “The position of this group of islands
on the limits of two great zoological districts,”—this author proceeded to observe
—“renders the study of its fauna of special interest, as it is the point where many
of the Papuasian and Polynesian forms intermingle. Curiously, all the Batrachians
belong to species not hitherto found elsewhere, and one of them is even so
strongly modified as to be the type of a distinct family.”
[439] Published in the Transactions of the Society; vol. xii., part i., 1886. The diagnoses
of most of the new species in my collections were given in the Proceedings for 1884: p.
210. Vide also “Annals and Magazine of Natural History” (5) xii., 1883.
According to Mr. Boulenger, the Reptiles may be grouped under four headings,
viz.:—
1. Species belonging to both the Papuasian and Polynesian districts.
2. Indo-Malayan or Papuasian species, not extending further east or south-east.
3. Polynesian species, not extending further north and west than New Ireland.
4. Species not hitherto found elsewhere than in the Solomons (and New Ireland.)
1
Gymnodactylus pelagicus
Gehyra oceanica
Mabuia cyanura
Platurus fasciatus.
2
Crocodilus porosus](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-29-320.jpg)
![and it was always in the sea that they found a refuge when my little craft
intruded itself within their haunts. They came under my notice in the fresh-water
lakes of Santa Anna and Stirling Island, and in the lower courses of the streams
in several localities. They are apparently in no uncongenial conditions in the salt-
water lagoon of Eddystone Island, although its waters receive the hot
sulphureous vapours of submerged fumaroles.
These crocodiles do not apparently attain a greater length than 12 or 13 feet. Mr.
Sproul shot one at Santa Anna which measured 91⁄2 feet. A female that I shot in
the Shortland Islands, measured 11 feet. One of the seamen of the “Lark,”
named Prior, obtained from the natives the skull of a rather larger specimen. Out
of half-a-dozen individuals seen on the Three Sisters, not one measured more
than 7 or 8 feet.[440] Mr. Bateman, a trader resident at Ugi, told me that at Wano
on the St. Christoval coast he saw a very large crocodile which, from his
description, appears to have been twice as long as any that I saw. It was,
however, dusk at the time; and in connection with this circumstance I should add
that I have found actual measurement to reduce the apparent length of a
crocodile from 14 to 11 feet.
[440] A skull given to me by Mr. Nisbet, the government-agent of the “Redcoat,” at Ugi,
was 12 inches long. It was obtained from the natives of Guadalcanar.
Natives are rarely attacked by these reptiles, and they show little or no fear of
them. I have seen a full-grown crocodile dart under a line of swimmers without
causing any dismay. Of the numbers I saw, all were but too anxious to get out of
my way; and their cowardly nature is well shown in the account of my capture of
a specimen which is given below. However, I came upon a man of Santa Anna
who had had his leg broken by one of these reptiles. The natives of Rubiana hold
the crocodile in veneration and work without fear in the places which it
frequents. They believe that only faithless wives are seized and carried off by the
monster. Pigs are occasionally the prey of the crocodile; but its usual diet appears
to be opossums (Cusci), large lacertilians, and fish.
The following account of the capture of a crocodile may interest some of my
readers. It was effected by no more formidable weapons than by a number of
long staves and a small “bull-dog” revolver. Accompanied by six natives I was
making the ascent of a large stream on the north-west side of Alu, when some of
my companions espied a large crocodile at the bottom of a deep pool about 200
yards from the mouth of the stream. In setting to work to effect its capture my
men proceeded very methodically to work, and evidently knew the tactics which
the creature would employ. Standing in the water just below the pool, we stood
awaiting the descent of the crocodile down the stream, whilst one of the natives
was rousing it up with a long pole to make it leave its hiding-place. After a little
time it began to get uneasy, and leaving the pool began to descend the stream.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-31-320.jpg)
![Where we were standing, the stream was only knee-deep, and as the reptile
passed us in the shallow water some natives hit it on the head with their poles,
whilst others hurled their poles sharpened at the ends, striking it in several
places, and I planted a bullet behind its neck. The creature showed no fight and
immediately hid itself in the pools near the mouth of the stream. During two
hours, after we had been driving it from one pool to another by means of our
pointed poles and staves, we seemed no nearer to its capture. At length there
was a loud out-cry from the natives. The crocodile was making a final rush for life
to cross the bar at the mouth of the stream and escape into the sea. We all
followed, some in the canoe and some through the water; and for a short time I
thought that the creature would escape. But being a little disabled by our
previous attacks, its progress across the bar was somewhat checked; and the
foremost of my men caught hold of its tail just as it was getting into deep water.
Very quickly we all came up, and assisted in drawing it high and dry on the
beach; and whilst two of our number kept hold of its tail, the remainder
belaboured its neck with rocks and sticks until it died.[441] Its length proved to be
11 feet. Throughout the whole chase the reptile made no outcry, and even when
we were belabouring it to death it only gave a kind of growl. In its stomach I
found a large quantity of partially digested food with the remains of an opossum
(Cuscus) and a large lizard 11⁄2 feet long (probably Corucia zebrata). It was a
female, and, in the oviduct I came upon an egg, which my natives appropriated,
saying that it was very good food; but they do not usually eat the flesh. I was
unable from want of space to keep more than the head of the animal, which I cut
off and carried back in my canoe to the ship. The skull is now in the British
Museum.
[441] An illustration in Mr. Bates’ “Naturalist on the Amazons” represents a very similar
scene.
Lizards. The Lacertilians are well represented in these islands. Those at present
described are given in the subjoined list.
Geckonidæ
Gymnodactylus pelagicus
Gehyra oceanica
Lepidodactylus guppyi. n. sp.
Gecko vittatus
„ var. bivittatus.
Agamidæ
Gonyocephalus godeffroyi.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-32-320.jpg)
![Varanidæ
Varanus indicus.
Scincidæ
Mabuia carteretii
„ cyanura
„ nigra
Keneuxia smaragdina
Lipinia anolis n. sp.
Corucia zebrata.
The lizards, which most frequently meet the eyes of the visitors in the vicinity of
the beaches, are the two skinks, Mabuia nigra and cyanura. As a rule those
species that are common at the coast have a wide range, extending either into
Polynesia or Papuasia or into both these regions (vide page 307). The species
peculiar to these islands came less frequently under my observation. Thus, that
of Lepidodactylus guppyi, is founded on a single (female) specimen I found in
Faro or Fauro Island in Bougainville Straits. Corucia zebrata never came under my
notice alive; it is said at Ugi to find its home in the foliage of the higher trees.
Doubtless if I could have penetrated to the higher regions of the large islands, I
should have obtained a large number of new species. My collections refer for the
most part to the sea-border and its vicinity. In the elevated interior of such an
island as Guadalcanar there is a region of great promise for the collector; but I
shall have a further occasion to refer to this topic.
The Monitor, Varanus indicus, may be often seen at the coast, basking in the
glare of the mid-day sun on the trunks of prostrate trees or on the bare rocks. It
is considered edible by the natives of Bougainville Straits. Whilst we were
anchored at Oima Atoll, Lieutenant Leeper captured a very large specimen (5 feet
73⁄4 inches long)[442] on the rocks close to the sea, and towed it off alive to the
ship. After we had tried in vain to strangle it by a cord, a lead was fastened to it
and it was sunk overboard, but an hour passed before we could say that the
reptile was really dead. This Monitor is probably able to swim considerable
distances. It very likely owes its wide range (from Celebes to the Solomon Group
including Cape York) to the agency of floating trees. On examining the stomach
and intestines, I found them empty. An enormous quantity of fat, developed in
two large lobes in connection with the omentum or some other part of the
peritoneum, almost filled the abdominal cavity. With this store of sustenance and
heat, these reptiles must be able to live without food for a long time.[443]
[442] A specimen shot in the Florida Islands measured 3 feet 8 inches.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-33-320.jpg)
![[443] As an instance of the tenacity of life that some reptiles possess, I may refer to the
case of a young terrapin which I kept inadvertently for nearly five months on the coast
of China without any sustenance except the dry rust of a tin can.
Snakes. Hitherto, the following six species of Ophidians have been found in the
Solomon Group. All of them were included in my collection and one of them has
been described by Mr. Boulenger as a new species.
Boidæ
Enygrus carinatus
„ bibronii
Colubridæ
Dendrophis solomonis
Dipsas irregularis
Elapidæ
Hoplocephalus par n. sp.
Hydrophiidæ (Water-snakes)
Platurus fasciatus[444]
[444] I was indebted to Lieutenant Symonds of H.M.S. “Diamond” for this snake.
One of the commonest of snakes throughout these islands is Enygrus carinatus, a
harmless species of the Boa family. It often possesses considerable bulk in
proportion to its length. One specimen which I obtained in Treasury Island
measured 31⁄2 feet in length and 6 inches in girth. I handled a good many living
snakes whilst in these islands, since the natives used to bring them in numbers
to me both on board and on shore. The statements of the natives and of the
white men resident in this region and the general appearance of the snakes had
led me to believe that there were no poisonous species in the group. I was
therefore somewhat surprised when, on my arrival in England, I learned from Dr.
Günther that I had found a new species as poisonous as the Cobra. On being
shown the specimen by Mr Boulenger, I at once recognised an old friend which
had been brought on board in a bamboo by the natives at Faro Island and had
got loose on the deck. Whilst the men standing round were preparing to kill it
with more regard for their own safety than for my feelings, I caught it quickly
around the neck and held it under water until it was dead. The natives certainly
were not aware of its venomous character, nor was Mr. Isabell, who was my
right-hand man in these matters, and used to manage the ticklish progress of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-34-320.jpg)
![removing the snakes from their bamboo-tubes in a manner only suitable in the
case of harmless species. I only obtained one specimen of this snake, which was
about 21⁄2 feet in length. It is named Hoplocephalus par and belongs to the
Elapidæ, a family of poisonous colubrine snakes which possess the physiognomy
of the harmless snakes of the same sub-order, and include the Indian and African
Cobras with other well known venomous species. In the footnote I have quoted
Mr. Boulenger’s description of its general appearance for the information of those
who visit the group.[445]
[445] The upper surface of the head is uniform blackish brown. The body is crossed
above by broad red-brown bands separated by narrow white interspaces. The lower
surface of the head and body are uniform white, except on the posterior extremity of
the body where the red and black extend as lines along the sutures of the ventral
shields. On the tail the red forms complete rings. Nearly every one of the dorsal scales
have a blackish brown border. The head is depressed, moderately large, and slightly
widened posteriorly. The eye has a vertical pupil.
Batrachians.—The Spanish discoverers in 1567 remarked that the natives of Isabel
worshipped the toad (vide page 203), and one of the officers of Surville’s
expedition in 1769, described in his journal a remarkable toad from the same
island;[446] yet it is only within recent years that any Batrachians have been
collected in this region. Before I arrived in the group only two species were
known to science, and to this number my collections, which were made in the
islands of Bougainville Straits, have added seven new species, including a type of
a new family. The following list represents the Batrachian fauna of the Solomon
Islands, as far as it is at present known:
[446] “Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769,” &c., by M. Fleurieu: London, 1791;
p. 134.
Ranidæ.
Rana buboniformis, n. sp.
Rana guppyi, n. sp.
Rana opisthodon, n. sp.
Rana krefftii.
Cornufer guppyi, n. sp.
Cornufer solomonis, n. sp.
Ceratobatrachidæ.
(New family characterised by both jaws being toothed, and by
the diapophyses of the sacral vertebra not being dilated.)
Ceratobatrachus guentheri, n. sp.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-35-320.jpg)
![Hylidæ (Tree-frogs.)
Hyla macrops, n. sp.
Hyla thesaurensis.
The natives of the islands of Bougainville Straits, where, as I have just remarked,
my batrachian collection was chiefly made, have given frogs the general name of
“appa-appa” in imitation of their noise, just as they have named the smaller
lizards “Kurru-rupu” for the same reason. Amongst the particular species of frogs,
I may refer to the large toad-like Rana buboniformis, which I found in Treasury
Island, and on the highest peak of the island of Faro. Rana guppyi, according to
Mr. Boulenger’s report, attains a larger size than any other species of the genus,
with the exception of the Bull-Frog of North America. Rana opisthodon affords an
instance of a Batrachian[447] which dispenses with the usual larval or tadpole
stage, “the metamorphoses being hurried through within the egg.” On this
subject I made the following notes. Whilst descending from one of the peaks of
Faro Island, I stopped at a stream some 400 feet above the sea, where my
native boys collected from the moist crevices of the rocks close to the water a
number of transparent gelatinous balls rather smaller than a marble.[448] Each of
these balls contained a young frog about 4 lines in length, apparently fully
developed, with very long hind legs and short fore legs, no tail, and bearing on
the sides of the body small tufts of what seemed to be branchiæ. On my
rupturing the ball or egg in which the little animal was doubled up, the tiny frog
took a marvellous leap into its existence and disappeared before I could catch it.
When I reached the ship an hour after, I found that some of the eggs which had
been carried in a tin had been ruptured on the way by the jolting, and the
liberated frogs were leaping about with great activity. On placing some of them in
an open bottle 8 inches high, I had to put the cover on as they kept leaping out.
Mr. Boulenger remarking on this observation says, that there are no gills, but that
on each side of the abdomen there are regular transverse folds (with an
arrangement like that of the gill-openings of Plagiostomous Fishes), the function
of which probably is that of breathing-organs. The tip of the snout is, he says,
furnished with a small conical protuberance, projecting slightly through the
delicate envelope of the egg, and evidently used to perforate that covering. In
the instance also of Cornufer solomonis, another new species included in my
collection, Mr. Boulenger remarks that there is every reason to believe that the
young undergo the metamorphoses within the egg.
[447] Hylodes martinicensis affords another instance. Mon. Berl. Ac., 1876, p. 714.
[448] According to Mr. Boulenger, they measure from 6 to 10 mm. in diameter.
With regard to the interesting species, Ceratobatrachus guentheri, which forms
the type of a new family, Ceratobatrachidæ, the same writer observes that it is](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-36-320.jpg)
![remarkable for the numerous appendages and symmetrical folds which ornate its
skin. It is, in fact, “all points and angles,” and may be truly termed a horned frog.
There is great variation both in the coloration and in the integuments. “Out of the
twenty specimens before me,” thus Mr. Boulenger writes, “no two are perfectly
alike.” The development is presumed to be of the type in which the
metamorphoses are hurried through within the egg. These horned frogs are very
numerous in the islands of Bougainville Straits, and so closely do they imitate
their surroundings, both in colour and pattern, that on one occasion I captured a
specimen by accidentally placing my hand upon it when clasping a tree.
It is particularly important to notice not only that the Batrachians of the Solomon
Islands, as far as we at present know, do not occur elsewhere, but also that in
this region a distinct family has been produced. These facts support the
conclusions deducible from the geological evidence that these islands are of
considerable geological age (vide page x.). The insular and isolated conditions
have been preserved during a period sufficiently extended for the development of
a peculiar Batrachian fauna.
The modes of dispersal of frogs and toads, and, in truth, of the whole Batrachian
class, are matters of which we are to a great extent ignorant. Frogs are usually
stated to be absent from oceanic islands, a peculiarity of distribution which
apparently accords with the circumstance that neither they nor their spawn can
sustain submersion in sea-water. The occurrence, however, of three species of
Cornufer in the Caroline and Fiji Islands, and of a species of Bato in the Sandwich
Islands,[449] affects the general application of this conclusion. It may be
suggested that these exceptions are due to human agency; but if so, it is difficult
to understand why they have not been found in such a well explored island as
New Caledonia.[450]
[449] Boulenger’s “Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia,” &c., 2nd edit., 1882.
[450] Perhaps the peculiar geographical distribution of the Batrachia may throw light on
this subject. Ibid.
In concluding this chapter I will refer to the circumstance that my collections of
the Reptiles and Batrachians of this large group have only in a manner broken
ground in a region which promises the richest results to the collector. It cannot
be doubted that in the elevated interiors of the large islands, such as those of
Bougainville and Guadalcanar, there will be found a peculiar Reptilian and
Batrachian fauna, the study of which will be of the highest importance for the
furtherance of our knowledge of these geologically ancient classes of animals. I
believe I am correct in stating that it was on account of the highly interesting
Batrachian collections I sent to the British Museum, that I received a grant for
further exploration from the Royal Society, which, however, I was unfortunately](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-37-320.jpg)
![A
CHAPTER XV.
GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
mongst the numerous strange acquaintances which I made in the Solomon
Islands, was that of the well known cocoa-nut crab, or Birgus latro; and I
take this opportunity of giving my evidence towards the establishment of
the fact of its cocoa-nut-eating propensity, for the following reason. When
I read my notes on the subject before the Linnean Society of New South
Wales on Dec. 27th, 1882,[451] I was surprised at the incredulity shown with
reference to this extraordinary habit; and on inquiry, I learned that the evidence
on the subject was deficient in one vital point, viz., the production of the writer
who had witnessed this habit of the Robber Crab. Accordingly I referred to the
various authors who have recorded this habit of the Birgus, and in no single
account could I find that the writer had witnessed what he described. Neither Mr.
Darwin, Dr. Seemann, Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet, Mr. T. H. Hood, the Rev.
Wyatt Gill, nor the numerous authors whose accounts I also examined, seem to
have actually witnessed the Birgus opening and eating a cocoa-nut. Herbst[452]
was among the first to refer to this habit; whilst, long ago, M. M. Quoy and
Gaimard[453] asserted, from their own observation, that the crab was fond of
cocoa-nuts, and could be supported on them alone for many months, but they
made no allusion to its capability of husking and opening them. The evidence on
this point appears to have been always tendered by natives, excepting the
account given to Mr. Darwin by Mr. Liesk, which is conclusive in itself.[454] Yet,
credulous persons had fair grounds to retain their doubts, although in various
works on natural history, popular and otherwise, this habit of the Birgus was
described as an undoubted fact. I therefore submit my evidence; leaving to my
reader to reply to the query—Can there be any reasonable doubt on the subject?
[451] Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W.
[452] Proc. Zool. Soc, 1832, p. 17.
[453] Freycinet’s “Voyage autour du Monde,” 1817-20: Zoologie, p. 536. (Paris, 1824.)
[454] “Journal of Researches,” p. 462.
The Birgus was to be found in most of the islands we visited. It is to be usually
observed at or near the coast; but on one occasion, in St. Christoval, I found an
individual at a height of 300 feet above the sea. Whilst traversing, in September,
1882, the belt of screw-pines, which borders the beach on the east coast of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-40-320.jpg)
![Malaupaina, the southern island of the Three Sisters, I came upon one of these
large crabs, ensconced in the angle between the buttressed roots of a tree, with
a full sized cocoa-nut within the reach of its pair of big claws. From the fresh-
looking appearance of the shell, it had been evidently, but recently, husked,
which operation had been performed more cleanly than if a native had done it.
There was an opening at the eye-hole end of the shell of a somewhat regular
oblong form, which measured 2 by 11⁄2 inches, and was large enough to admit
the powerful claws of the crab.[455] The white kernel, which had the firm
consistence of that of the mature nut, had been scooped out to the extent of
from 1 to 11⁄2 inches around the aperture; small pieces of the kernel lay on the
ground outside the nut, and others were floating about in the milk inside, of
which the shell was about a fourth-part full.
[455] This shell was presented to the Australian Museum, Sydney.
I had, without a doubt, disturbed the Birgus in the middle of its meal; but,
curiously enough, there were no cocoa-nut palms to be seen within fifty paces of
the spot where the crab was found in its retreat. Not only had the shell been very
recently husked, but it was evident, from the fresh condition of the milk and
kernel, that an interval of less than a couple of hours had elapsed since the
opening had been made. There was no possible explanation of the crab having
got at the edible portion of the cocoa-nut, except through its own agency. The
island is uninhabited, being only occasionally visited by fishing-parties of natives
from St. Christoval, none of whom were on the island during the ship’s stay.
There was, therefore, the strongest presumptive evidence that the Birgus had
not only husked the cocoa-nut, but had also broken the hole at the end, in order
to get at the kernel.
I kept the crab alive on board on a diet of cocoa-nuts for three weeks, when, one
morning, to my great disappointment, I found it dead. Other foods, such as
bananas, were offered to it but were left untouched, and its appetite for cocoa-
nuts continued unimpaired to the last day of its life. Being desirous of observing
the manner in which the husk was removed, I had a cocoa-nut with its husk
placed in the coop in which the crab was kept. On one occasion the Birgus was
surprised with the nut between its large claws; but, notwithstanding that no
other food was offered to it for a day and a half, it did not attempt to strip off the
husk. So the operation was done for it, and a small hole was knocked in the top
of the shell. On the following day I found the shell—a young and somewhat thin
one—broken irregularly across the middle, with the soft white kernel already
removed and eaten. It was afterwards found necessary to break the nuts for its
daily food.
In 1884, when the “Lark” was in Bougainville Straits, three of these crabs were
kept on board with the intention of taking them down to Sydney. Mr. W. Isabell,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-41-320.jpg)
![ward off a sudden thrust directed against the abdomen, although it may
afterwards inflict severe injuries on the aggressor.
There seems to be some doubt whether the Birgus ascends the tree to get the
cocoa-nuts or whether it contents itself with those that have fallen. Almost every
author who refers to this crab alludes to its climbing the tree, and it is also said
to climb the pandanus. The testimony in support of its climbing powers is almost
conclusive, yet Mr. Darwin was informed by Mr. Liesk that in Keeling Atoll the
Birgus lives only on the fallen cocoa-nuts, and Mr. H. O. Forbes,[456] who has
recently visited this island, confirms this statement.
[456] “A Naturalist’s Wanderings,” etc.: London, 1885, p. 27.
My readers, after perusing the foregoing remarks, will agree with me that from
the lack of actual observation on the part of the authors, who describe the
cocoa-nut eating habit of this crab, there has been fair grounds for scepticism.
Even now, we are but imperfectly acquainted with the mode of life of the Birgus,
which is a subject I would commend to the attention of residents in the Indian
and Pacific Oceans.
I may add that the Birgus is partial to other kinds of fruits beside cocoa-nuts.
Different writers mention candle-nuts, nutmegs, figs, and other rich and oily nuts
and fruits. In some islands it would seem that the Pandanus fruit is its only diet;
and for breaking open these tough fruits, its heavy claws are well adapted,
though from personal experience, I should remark that the crab would have its
strength and ingenuity taxed almost as much as in the case of the cocoa-nut.
The handsome ground-pigeon, known as the Nicobar pigeon (Geophilus
nicobaricus), is commonly observed in the wooded islets on the coral reefs of the
Solomon Group. As I have remarked on page 293, this bird is probably](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-43-320.jpg)
![instrumental in transporting from one locality to another the small hard seeds
and fruits which the common fruit-pigeon (Carpophaga) refuses. That it is able to
crack such hard seeds as those of the leguminous plant Adenanthera pavonina,
[457] is shown by the fact that I have found these seeds cracked in the cavity of
the gizzard, which is in its structure and mechanism a veritable pair of
nutcrackers. In this bird the muscular stomach or gizzard is of a surprising
thickness, and is provided with a very singular mechanical contrivance to assist
its crushing power. As shown in the accompanying diagram, it is composed of
two muscular halves, each having a maximum thickness of five-eighths of an inch
and united with each other in front and behind by a stout distensible membrane,
which is the proper wall of the organ. Developed in the horny epithelial lining
membrane there are two cartilaginous bodies of hemispherical shape, one in
each muscular segment of the gizzard, which measure about one-third of an inch
in thickness and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The outer or convex surface
of each cartilaginous body fits into a cup-shaped cavity which is lined by a semi-
cartilaginous membrane, the whole constituting a “ball-and-socket” joint with
well lubricated surfaces. The two surfaces of this pseudo-articulation are capable
of easy movement on each other, being retained in close apposition by the
attachment to the subjacent tissues of the horny epithelial lining membrane in
which the cartilaginous body is developed. The inner or free surface of each
hemispherical body, that which looks into the gizzard cavity, is somewhat
concave, and projects a little above the surface of the lining membrane; it is
much harder than the opposite convex side of the cartilage and has almost the
consistence of bone, the arrangement of the cells into densely packed rows with
but little intervening matrix indicating an approach towards ossification.
[457] The Kuara tree of India, of whose hard seeds necklaces are made.
The firm consistence of these hemispherical cartilages combined with the
mechanism of a moveable articulation must greatly assist the already powerful
muscular walls of the gizzard; but there is an additional factor in the crushing
power in the constant presence of a small quartz pebble, usually about half-an-
inch across. With such a apparatus, I can well conceive that very hard seeds and
nuts may be broken, as in the case of the seeds of Adenanthera pavonina
already alluded to. The Nicobar pigeon is in fact possessed of a nut-cracking
mechanism in its gizzard, by which nuts like those of our hazel tree would be
cracked with comparative ease.
With reference to the small quartz pebbles found in the gizzards of these birds, I
should remark that there is usually only one present, and that it varies in weight
between 30 and 60 grains. I was sometimes able to say where the pigeon had
obtained its pebble. Thus, in Faro Island the bird often selects one of the
bipyramidal quartz crystals, which occur in quantities in the beds of the streams](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-44-320.jpg)
![in the northern part of the island, where they have been washed out of the
quartz-porphyry of the district. In other instances the pebble seems to have been
originally a small fragment of chalcedonic quartz, such as composes some of the
flakes and worked flints that are found in the soil which has been disturbed for
cultivation. Sometimes the pebble is of greasy quartz; and now and then in the
absence of quartz the bird has chosen a pebble of some hard volcanic rock. It is
a singular circumstance that although these pigeons frequent coral islets where
they can easily find hard pebbles of coral-rock, they prefer the quartz pebbles
which are of comparatively rare occurrence. I never found any calcareous pebble
in their gizzards, and was often at a loss to explain how the bird was able to
ascertain for itself the different degree of hardness between the two pebbles,
when the quartz was of the dull white variety. . . . I learn from a recent work on
New Guinea by the missionaries, Messrs. Chalmers and Gill, that inside the
gizzard of each Goura pigeon there is a good-sized pebble much prized by the
natives as a charm against spear-thrusts and club blows.[458] The Goura pigeon
resembles the Nicobar pigeon in habits; and I think it probable that its gizzard
will be found to present a similar structure and mechanism for cracking nuts and
hard seeds. The common fruit pigeons (Carpophaga) of the Solomon Islands,
living as they do on soft fleshy fruits, and rejecting the hard seeds and kernels,
have no peculiar structure of the gizzard, the walls of which are comparatively
thin, and are thrown into permanent rugæ somewhat warty oh the surface.
[458] “Work and Adventure in New Guinea” (p. 317): London, 1885.
One of the most familiar birds in these islands is the “bush-hen,” which belongs
to the family of the mound-builders (Megapodiidæ). They bury their eggs in the
sand at a depth of between three and four feet. On one occasion in the island of
Faro, Lieutenant Heming and his party found eight eggs, in different stages of
hatching, thus buried: they were scattered about in the sand; and according to
the account of the natives only one egg was laid by each bird. The eggs are
sometimes found on the surface of the sand. The young birds are able to fly
short distances soon after they are hatched. One that was brought on board
astonished us all by flying some thirty or forty yards from the ship and then
returning to the rigging.
The account recently published by Mr. H. Pryer of his visit to the birds’ nest caves
of Borneo[459] has opened up the discussion as to the nature of the substance of
which the edible bird’s nest is composed. Many and varied have been the
surmises as to the source of this material; but nearly all of them have been
based on mere speculation, and have been relegated to the limbo of sea-tales.
Amongst the earlier explanations, I may allude to those which have been given
by early writers. The swiftlets (Collocalia), which build their nests in this
extraordinary fashion, were considered to gather a gelatinous material from the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-45-320.jpg)
![ocean-foam, or from the bodies of holothurians, or from the skin of the sun-fish.
The Chinese fishermen assured Kæmpfer that their nests were composed of the
flesh of the great poulpe. A more probable explanation, however, was found by
Rumphius in the occurrence on the sea-coasts of a soft almost cartilaginous plant
which he with confidence asserted was the material from which these swiftlets
constructed their nests; but subsequently this naturalist inclined to the opinion
that the substance of which the edible birds’ nests are composed is merely a
secretionary product. In these two views of Rumphius we have the two sides of
the controversy very much as it at present stands. On the one hand, there are
those who hold that this substance is a secretionary product: on the other hand,
the opinion is held that the nest is constructed of a vegetable matter, usually
resulting from the growth of a microscopic alga, which is found in the caves and
on the faces of the cliffs where the nests occur. All the weight of experiment and
of actual observation tends to negative the view of the vegetable origin of this
substance. Sir Everard Home in 1817 declared his opinion that certain peculiar
gastric glands, which he found in one of these birds, secreted the mucus of
which the nest was formed. In 1859, Dr. Bernstein[460], after having carefully
studied the habits of the birds in question, came to the conclusion that their
nests are formed from the secretion of certain salivary glands which are
abnormally developed during the nest-building season. M. Trécul, who held the
same opinion, showed that the bird constructs its nest by means of a mucus
which flows abundantly from its beak at the pairing time.[461] This last view is
strongly supported by Mr. Layard, who unhesitatingly pronounces his opinion that
these swiftlets build their nests from the secretionary products of their own
salivary glands.[462] However, when Mr. Pryer visited in March, 1884, the birds’
nest caves in British North Borneo, he considered that he had found the source
of the material of which the nests were composed in the occurrence of a “fungoid
growth,” which incrusted the rock in damp places, and which, when fresh,
resembled half-melted gum tragacanth. Without at present expressing an opinion
as to the validity of the inference Mr. Pryer drew from his observations in these
caves, I may observe that the “fungoid growth” has been determined by Mr.
George Murray,[463] of the Botanical Department of the British Museum, to be the
result of the growth of a microscopic alga, a species, probably new, of
Glœocapsa; whilst the edible nests from these caves, according to a chemical
and microscopical examination made by Mr. J. R. Green,[464] have been shown to
be formed in the great mass of mucin, which is the chief constituent of the
mucous secretions of animals. After examining various specimens of edible nests
from other localities, Mr. Green subsequently confirmed the results of his first
experiments. The nest-substance, as he unhesitatingly states, is composed of
mucin, or of a body closely related to it.[465] So far, therefore, there would appear
to be but little evidence to support the view of Mr. Pryer that the species of alga,
which he found incrusting the rock in the vicinity of the Borneo caves, supplied](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-46-320.jpg)
![the material for the construction of the nests of the swiftlets. However, before
proceeding to state my own opinion on the matter, I will refer briefly to my
observations in the Solomon Islands relating to this question.
[459] Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1884: p. 532.
[460] Journ. für Ornithologie, 1859, pp. 112-115; also Proceed. Zoolog. Soc., 1885, p.
610.
[461] “A General System of Botany,” by Le Maout and Decaisne: London, 1873, p. 983.
[462] “Nature,” Nov. 27th, 1884.
[463] Proc. Zoolog. Soc., 1884: p. 532.
[464] Proc. Zool. Soc., 1884, p. 532.
[465] “Nature,” Dec. 11th, 1884 and May 27th, 1886.
A species of Collocalia, which usually frequents inaccessible sea-caves and cliffs,
is frequently to be observed on the coasts of the islands of this group. The
natives of Treasury Island call this bird “kin-kin;” but they have no knowledge of
the nutrient qualities of the substance of which it builds its nest, and they were
much amused when I told them of its being a Chinese luxury. I only came upon
the nests of this bird on one occasion, and that was in some caves on Oima Atoll
in Bougainville Straits. A description of these caves will be here unnecessary. As
in the instance of the birds of the Borneo caverns, these swiftlets shared their
retreats with a number of large bats, the accumulation of whose droppings had
produced a thick reddish-brown deposit on the floors of the caves. The nests,
which were formed for the most part of fibres derived evidently from the
vegetable drift[466] at the mouths of the caves, were thickly incrusted with the
gelatinous incrustation which projected as winglets from the sides and fastened
them to the rock.
[466] The husks of pandanus seeds more particularly.
A reddish soft gelatinous incrustation occurred on the faces of some of the cliffs
in the vicinity of the caves. It was composed of an aggregation of the cells of a
microscopic unicellular alga which measure 1⁄2500 of an inch in diameter.
Unfortunately the specimens of this growth which I collected have been mislaid,
but there can be little doubt that it is similar to the “fungoid growth” which Mr.
Pryer describes in connection with the Borneo caves, and which, through the
kindness of Mr. George Murray, I had the opportunity of seeing at the British
Museum. On the faces of the coral limestone cliffs of some islands, such as on
the east coast of Santa Anna, a like growth occurs in considerable quantity. In its
freshest condition, it may be described as a reddish-yellow, gum-like substance
forming a layer 1⁄4 to 1⁄8 of an inch in thickness. Where it incrusts the
overhanging face of a cliff, it is more fluid in consistence and sometimes hangs in](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-47-320.jpg)
![little pendulous masses, one to two inches in length, the extremities of which are
often distended with water. This alga decomposes the hard coral limestone,
making the surface of the rock soft and powdery. All stages in the growth of this
substance may be observed. The older portions are very dark in colour and have
a tough consistence; and in the final stage it occurs as a black powder covering
the rock surface. On examining this alga with the microscope, I found it to be
formed almost entirely of granular matter apparently resulting from the death of
the cells; whilst the presence of a few cellular bodies alone gave me an indication
of its true nature.
From my observations relating to the subject of the edible bird’s nest, it may be
therefore inferred that in the Solomon Islands, as in Borneo, the occurrence of
these nests is associated with the presence of a protophytic alga, which incrusts
the rocks of the locality as a gelatinous or gum-like substance. Whether or not
the birds employ this material in forming their nests, is a question which would
appear to have been already answered in the negative; but it seems to me that
those who hold that this material is used for this purpose might justly claim that
the final judgment should be suspended, until a chemical examination of this
vegetable substance has been made with the object of determining whether it
might not yield a material closely resembling mucin. Amongst the nitrogenous
constituents of plants occurs the so-called vegetable albumen, which in its
chemical composition and in its behaviour with re-agents does not differ
materially from the blood-albumen of the animal organism, of which in fact it is
the source. In suggesting, therefore, that a vegetable mucin may be found in this
low plant-growth, I do not pass beyond the bounds of probability.[467]
[467] Vide a letter by the writer in “Nature,” June 3rd, 1886.
Small scorpions came under my notice in Faro Island. They are not usually more
than 11⁄2 in length and occur in narrow clefts of rocks and in the crevices of
trees. I was stung by one on the thumb, but the pain was trifling and soon
passed away.[468]
[468] Specimens of these scorpions were given by me to the Australian Museum,
Sydney.
A species of Iulus or Millipede, which attains a length of from 6 to 7 inches, is
commonly found in the eastern islands of the Solomon Group on the trunks of
fallen trees and amongst decaying vegetable débris. It is often to be seen
amongst the rotting leaves that have gathered inside the bases of the fronds of
the Bird’s-nest Fern (Asplenium nidus). These Myriapods seem to be less
frequent in the islands of Bougainville Straits towards the opposite end of the
group, as I do not remember seeing any large Iuli in that locality: their place
appears to be taken by another Myriapod, apparently a Polydesmus, growing to a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-48-320.jpg)
![length of 21⁄2 inches, which I found amongst decaying vegetation at all
elevations up to 1900 feet above the sea, as on the summit of Faro Island. But to
return to the Iuli, I should remark that this genus of Myriapods evidently
possesses some means of transportal across wide tracts of sea, since, amongst
other islands similarly situated, it is found in Tristan da Cunha,[469] in the South
Atlantic Ocean, and I have found it in the Seychelles, in the Indian Ocean. The
habits of these Millipedes would render it highly probable that they have reached
the oceanic islands on vegetable drift, such as floating logs. It is, however, a
noteworthy circumstance that they do not seem to be able to withstand
immersion in sea-water for any length of time. In experimenting on the Solomon
Island species, I found that they were able to survive an hour-and-a-half’s
complete immersion in sea-water, but that an immersion of three hours killed
them. One individual, out of several experimented on, survived for twelve hours
after it was taken out, but only in a half lifeless condition.[470] It may, therefore,
have been that the Iulus has been transported to oceanic islands by such
agencies as canoes and ships, rather than by means of floating trees.[471]
[469] Moseley’s “Naturalist on the Challenger,” p. 134.
[470] This species of Iulus was able to sustain a longer submersion in fresh-water,
without apparently any injurious effects. Those experimented on recovered after being
kept under water for four hours, but died after a submersion of six hours.
[471] As bearing on this point, it might be interesting to determine whether these large
Iuli occur on islands far from land which are believed never to have been inhabited.
Like other species of the genus, the Solomon Island Iulus exhales a very pungent
and disagreeable odour, which is caused by an acrid fluid secreted by small
vesicles, of which each segment of the body contains a pair.[472] On holding my
nose for a moment over the mouth of a bottle, containing two of these large
Millipedes, I experienced a strong sensation in the nasal passages, reminding me
much of the effects of an inhalation of chlorine gas. I had previously learned
from resident traders that these Millipedes have a habit of ejecting an acrid fluid
when disturbed, which, if it entered the eye, was liable to cause acute
inflammation; and the instance was related to me of the captain of some ship,
trading in these islands, who lost the sight of one of his eyes from this cause. Mr.
C. F. Wood learned from the natives of St. Christoval, in 1873, that these
Myriapods “could squirt out a poisonous juice, which was dangerous if it
happened to touch one’s eye;” but he adds, “there seemed no great probability
of their doing this.”[473] However, I usually found that native testimony, in such
matters, was very reliable; and in the instance of this reputed habit of the Iulus,
my personal experience has convinced me of its reality. Whilst handling one of
these Millipedes as it lay on the trunk of a fallen tree in Ugi Island, I felt a
sudden smarting sensation in the right eye, caused apparently by some fluid
ejected into it. Remembering the injurious effect attributed to this habit of the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-49-320.jpg)
![Iulus, I at once plunged my head under the water of a stream, in which I
happened to be standing up to my waist, and I kept my eye open to wash away
the offending fluid. During the remainder of the day, there was an uncomfortable
feeling in the eye and somewhat increased lachrymation; but on the following
morning these effects had disappeared. At the time of this occurrence, my face
was removed about a foot from the Millipede; and, although I was uncertain from
what part of the body the fluid was ejected, I did not care, under the
circumstances, to continue the inquiry.
[472] Hoeven’s Zoology. (Eng. edit.) Vol. I., p. 291.
[473] “A Yachting Cruise in the South Seas,” p. 131. (London, 1875.)
Amongst the first living creatures to greet the visitor as he lands on the beach of
a coral island in the Pacific, is a small species of Hermit-Crab, belonging to the
genus Coenobita, which frequents the beach in great numbers. The crab
withdraws itself just within the mouth of the shell, where it forms a perfect
operculum, by means mainly of the large flattened chelæ of the left great claw
which is arched over by the left leg of the third pair, whilst the right claw and the
right leg of the second pair serve to complete the shield The most plucky and
pugnacious of these little crabs are those which occupy cast-off Nerita shells, a
character which probably arises from their consciousness of the solid strength of
the home they have chosen: and, strange to say, the tiny bosses on the surfaces
of the large pincers, which are outermost in the improvised operculum, resemble
similar markings on the outer side of the operculum of the Nerita (N. marmorata,
Hombr and Jacq), whose shell they often inhabit. Mr. Darwin[474] observed that
the different species of hermit-crabs, which he found on the Keeling Islands in
the Indian Ocean, used always certain kind of shells; but I could not satisfy
myself that such was the case in the instance of the Solomon Island hermit-
crabs. In the case of the common beach species of Coenobita, I found, after
carefully examining a number of individuals to satisfy myself of their being of the
same species, that shells of the genera Turbo, Nerita, Strombus, Natica,
Distorsio, Truncatella, Terebra, Melania, &c., &c., contained the same species of
Coenobita, whether the individual was large enough to occupy a Turbo shell of
the size of a walnut or sufficiently small to select the tiny shell of the Truncatella
for its home. Another species of the same genus prefers usually the vicinity of
the beach; but it may occur at heights up to 200 feet above the sea. It is rather
larger than the beach species, and differs amongst other characters in the more
globose form of the large claws and in the greater relative size of the left one. It
occupies shells of different kinds, such as those of Nerita, Turbo, &c. A still larger
species, which frequents the vicinity of the beach, usually selects Turbo shells,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-50-320.jpg)
![apparently because of their larger size. All the other species of Coenobita, which
I met with, used, when I touched them, to withdraw themselves within their
shells and close them up at once with their claws; but this kind, when I caught
hold of the Turbo shell that it carried, left the shell behind in my fingers with
apparent unconcern and crawled leisurely away, displaying, somewhat
indecorously, the rudimentary plates on the back of its abdomen. These are the
plates that attain their greatest development in the Cocoa-nut Crab (Birgus
latro), which is thus able to dispense with a shell altogether. The greatest heights
at which I found hermit-crabs were in the island of Faro on the two highest
peaks, which are elevated respectively 1600 and 1900 feet above the sea. In
both these localities, the crab had reached the very summit and could not have
climbed higher. The species was apparently different from, though closely allied
to, the common beach species, and frequented the shells of a land-snail (Helix). I
was indebted to Lieutenant Heming for directing my attention to the hermit-crab,
found 1900 feet above the sea. It appears to me likely that these hermit-crabs
will be found at much greater heights in this group, since, in this island, their
ambition to rise had carried them up as far as they could go.
[474] “Journal of the Beagle,” p. 457.
Other species of hermit-crabs, that are common in these islands, belong to the
genus Pagurus. They are conspicuously distinguished from the species of
Coenobita, above described, by their first pair of claws, which are small and weak
and ill-adapted for defensive purposes. For this reason, these species are less
able to look after themselves; and since they cannot form the operculum-like
shield with their claws at the mouth of the shell, they always choose shells which
will permit of their retiring well within it, so as to be out of the reach of their
enemies. Some species are found in the stream-courses and in the brackish
water near their mouths, when they often frequent cast-off Melania shells. Other
species (?) prefer the sea-water on the reef-flats. I noticed one individual that
displayed its eccentricity of disposition, in selecting, as its abode, the hollow tube
of a small water-logged stick, about six inches long, which it dragged about after
it during its peregrinations, and into which it retreated when alarmed. On one
occasion, I observed a large Dolium shell, moving briskly about in a pool of salt-
water, which, on picking up, I found to be tenanted by a Pagurus, so ridiculously
small, in comparison with the size of the shell, that when frightened it retreated
to the very uppermost whorl, and, notwithstanding the wide mouth of the shell,
could not be seen. So light was the weight of the crab, that, on account of the
buoyancy of its shell, it floated lightly on the surface of the water, on which I had
placed it with the mouth of the shell uppermost, and was blown by a slight
breeze across a pool of water, some twenty yards in width. While it was afloat,
the shrewd little occupant retired to the innermost recess of its home; but as](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/4021-250306162950-6299b600/85/Test-Bank-for-Systems-Analysis-and-Design-8th-Edition-Shelly-51-320.jpg)
Test Bank for Systems Analysis and Design, 8th Edition: Shelly
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- 5. Test Bank for Systems Analysis and Design, 8th Edition: Shelly Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-systems-analysis-and- design-8th-edition-shelly/ Chapter 1 – Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. In launching a new information system, the greatest risk occurs when a company ____. a. begins by outlining its business models and identifying possible IT solutions b. tries to decide how the system will be implemented before determining what the system is supposed to do c. considers implementation options after having a clear set of objectives d. all of the above ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 5 2. ____ software controls the flow of data, provides data security, and manages network operations. a. Enterprise c. Application b. System d. Legacy ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 6 3. Examples of company-wide applications, called ____, include order processing systems, payroll systems, and company communications networks. a. enterprise applications c. operating applications b. network operating systems (NOS) d. legacy systems ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 6 4. Over 40 years ago, a concept called Moore's Law accurately predicted that computer processing power would double about every ____. a. 2 months c. 24 months b. 12 months d. 48 months ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 6 5. When planning an information system, a company must consider how a new system will interface with older systems, which are called ____. a. enterprise applications c. operating applications b. network operating systems (NOS) d. legacy systems ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 7 6. When companies attempt to simplify operations or reduce costs, a popular strategy is to have managers and systems analysts perform ____. a. electronic data interchange (EDI) c. business process reengineering (BPR) b. joint application development (JAD) d. rapid application development (RAD) ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 8
- 6. 7. Systems analysts use a process called ____ to represent a company’s operations and information needs. a. JAD c. RAD b. Scrum d. business process modeling ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 8 8. A business ____ is an overview that describes a company’s overall functions, processes, organization, products, services, customers, suppliers, competitors, constraints, and future direction. a. matrix c. index b. profile d. glossary ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 8 9. A business ____ is a graphical representation of one or more business processes that a company performs, such as accepting airline reservations, selling a ticket, or crediting a customer account. a. iteration c. method b. model d. process ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 8 10. ____ enabled computer-to-computer transfer of data between companies, usually over private telecommunications networks. a. EDI c. TCH b. ACH d. O-O ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 10 11. Transaction processing (TP) systems ____. a. provide job-related information to users at all levels of a company b. simulate human reasoning by combining a knowledge base and inference rules that determine how the knowledge is applied c. process data generated by day-to-day business operations d. include e-mail, voice mail, fax, video conferencing, word processing, automated calendars, database management, spreadsheets, and high-speed Internet access ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 12 12. Business support systems ____. a. provide job-related information support to users at all levels of a company b. simulate human reasoning by combining a knowledge base and inference rules that determine how the knowledge is applied c. process data generated by day-to-day business operations d. include e-mail, voice mail, fax, video conferencing, word processing, automated calendars, database management, spreadsheets, and high-speed Internet access ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 13 13. Knowledge management systems are called expert systems because they ____. a. provide job-related information to users at all levels of a company b. simulate human reasoning by combining a knowledge base and inference rules that determine how the knowledge is applied c. process data generated by day-to-day business operations d. include e-mail, voice mail, fax, video conferencing, word processing, automated calendars, database management, spreadsheets, and high-speed Internet access
- 7. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 14 14. User productivity systems ____. a. provide job-related information to users at all levels of a company b. simulate human reasoning by combining a knowledge base and inference rules that determine how the knowledge is applied c. process data generated by day-to-day business operations d. include e-mail, voice mail, fax, video conferencing, word processing, automated calendars, database management, spreadsheets, and high-speed Internet access ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 14 15. In a typical company organizational model, top managers ____. a. develop long-range plans, called strategic plans, which define the company’s overall mission and goals b. provide direction, necessary resources, and performance feedback to supervisors and team leaders c. oversee operation employees and carry out day-to-day functions, coordinating operational tasks and people d. include users who rely on TP systems to enter and receive the data they need to perform their jobs ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 15 16. In a typical company organizational model, middle managers ____. a. develop long-range plans, called strategic plans, which define the company’s overall mission and goals b. provide direction, necessary resources, and performance feedback to supervisors and team leaders c. oversee operation employees and carry out day-to-day functions, coordinating operational tasks and people d. include users who rely on TP systems to enter and receive the data they need to perform their jobs ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 15 17. A ____, or requirements model, describes the information that a system must provide. a. process model c. business model b. data model d. network model ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 16 18. A(n) ____ describes the logic that programmers use to write code modules. a. process model c. business model b. object model d. network model ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 16 19. ____ is a systems development technique that produces a graphical representation of a concept or process that systems developers can analyze, test, and modify. a. Prototyping c. Scrum b. Rapid application development d. Modeling ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 16
- 8. 20. ____ is a systems development technique that tests system concepts and provides an opportunity to examine input, output, and user interfaces before final decisions are made. a. Scrum c. Modeling b. Prototyping d. Rapid application development ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 17 21. ____ methods include the latest trends in software development. a. Object-oriented analysis c. Structured analysis b. Agile/Adaptive d. Rapid application development ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 18 22. The ____ method of developing systems is well-suited to project management tools and techniques. a. object-oriented analysis c. structured analysis b. adaptive d. rapid application development ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 18 23. The ____ method of developing systems produces code that is modular and reusable. a. object-oriented analysis c. structured analysis b. adaptive d. rapid application development ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 18 24. The ____ method of developing systems stresses team interaction and reflects a set of community- based values. a. object-oriented analysis c. structured analysis b. adaptive d. rapid application development ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 18 25. Structured analysis is a traditional systems development technique that uses a series of phases, called the ____, to plan, analyze, design, implement, and support an information system. a. O-O c. MSF b. SDLC d. RUP ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 19 26. Because it focuses on processes that transform data into useful information, structured analysis is called a(n) ____ technique. a. iterative c. inferred b. process-centered d. empowered ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 19
- 9. 27. Traditionally, the SDLC is pictured as a(n) ____, like that shown in the accompanying figure, where the result of each phase, which is called a deliverable or end product, flows sequentially into the next phase. a. interactive model c. waterfall model b. requirements model d. object model ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 19 28. In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, the ____ usually begins with a formal request to the IT department, called a systems request, which describes problems or desired changes in an information system or a business process. a. systems design phase c. systems support and security phase b. systems planning phase d. systems analysis phase
- 10. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 19 29. In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, the purpose of the ____ is to build a logical model of the new system. a. systems analysis phase c. systems design phase b. systems implementation phase d. systems support and security phase ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 20 30. In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, the purpose of the ____ is to create a blueprint that will satisfy all documented requirements for the system. a. systems implementation phase c. systems analysis phase b. systems planning phase d. systems design phase ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 21 31. In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, during ____, the new system is constructed. a. systems planning c. systems design b. systems support and security d. systems implementation ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 21 32. In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, during ____, the IT staff maintains, enhances, and protects the system. a. systems support and security c. systems analysis b. systems implementation d. systems planning ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 21 33. Whereas structured analysis treats processes and data as separate components, ____ combines data and the processes that act on the data into things called objects. a. the MSF c. RUP b. the SDLC d. O-O ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 21 34. In object-oriented programming, an object is a member of a(n) ____, which is a collection of similar objects. a. property c. message b. class d. instance ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 21 35. In object-oriented design, built-in processes called ____ can change an object’s properties. a. methods c. attributes b. functions d. features ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 22 36. Agile methods typically use a(n) ____model, which represents a series of iterations based on user feedback. a. gradual c. spiral b. extreme d. evaluative ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 23
- 11. 37. When building an information system, all of the following basic guidelines should be considered except ____. a. stick to an overall development plan b. identify major milestones for project review and assessment c. provide accurate and reliable cost and benefit information d. ensure that users are not involved in the development process ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 25|26 38. Traditionally, IT departments had a(n) ____ group composed of systems analysts and programmers who handled information system design, development, and implementation. a. Web support c. systems support b. application development d. database administration ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 26 39. ____ provides vital protection and maintenance services for system software and hardware, including enterprise computing systems, networks, transaction processing systems, and corporate IT infrastructure. a. User support c. Systems support and security b. Database administration d. Network administration ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 27 40. A systems analyst needs ____. a. solid technical knowledge and good analytical ability b. strong oral and written communication skills c. an understanding of business operations and processes d. all of the above ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 29 MULTIPLE RESPONSE Modified Multiple Choice 1. An example of a vertical system is a(n) ____. a. inventory application c. payroll application b. medical practice application d. database for a video chain ANS: B, D PTS: 1 REF: 7 2. An example of a horizontal system is a(n) ____. a. inventory application c. payroll application b. application for a Web-based retailer d. medical practice application ANS: A, C PTS: 1 REF: 7 3. A business process describes a specific set of ____. a. transactions c. events b. tasks d. results ANS: A, B, C, D PTS: 1 REF: 8
- 12. 4. Product-oriented companies produce ____. a. retail services c. computers b. routers d. microchips ANS: B, C, D PTS: 1 REF: 9 5. Database administration involves ____. a. network administration c. database design b. user access d. backup ANS: B, C, D PTS: 1 REF: 27 MODIFIED TRUE/FALSE 1. System software consists of programs that support day-to-day business functions and provide users with the information they require. _________________________ ANS: F, Application PTS: 1 REF: 6 2. Product-oriented companies primarily offer information or services or sell goods produced by others. _________________________ ANS: F, Service PTS: 1 REF: 9 3. Extreme Programming is a popular process with agile developers and refers to a powerful effort to achieve short-term goals. _________________________ ANS: F, Scrum PTS: 1 REF: 23 4. Rapid application development focuses on team-based fact-finding. _________________________ ANS: F Joint application development Joint application development (JAD) JAD JAD (joint application development) PTS: 1 REF: 24 5. User support provides users with technical information, training, and productivity support. _________________________ ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 27 TRUE/FALSE
- 13. 1. Traditionally, a company either developed its own information systems, called in-house applications, or purchased systems called software packages from outside vendors. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 5 2. A mission-critical system is one that is unimportant to a company’s operations. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 5 3. In an information system, data is information that has been transformed into output that is valuable to users. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 5 4. In an information system, information consists of basic facts that are the system’s raw material. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 5 5. The success or failure of an information system usually is unrelated to whether users are satisfied with the system’s output and operations. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 7 6. Although the business-to-business (B2B) sector is more familiar to retail customers, the volume of business-to-consumer (B2C) transactions is many times greater. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 10 7. TP systems are inefficient because they process a set of transaction-related commands individually rather than as a group. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 13 8. In a knowledge management system, a knowledge base consists of logical rules that identify data patterns and relationships. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 14 9. A knowledge management system uses inference rules, which consist of a large database that allows users to find information by entering keywords or questions in normal English phrases. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 14 10. Most large companies require systems that combine transaction processing, business support, knowledge management, and user productivity features. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 14 11. Because they focus on a longer time frame, middle managers need less detailed information than top managers, but somewhat more than supervisors who oversee day-to-day operations. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 16
- 14. 12. Many companies find that a trend called empowerment, which gives employees more responsibility and accountability, improves employee motivation and increases customer satisfaction. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 16 13. CASE tools provide an overall framework for systems development and support a wide variety of design methodologies, including structured analysis and object-oriented analysis. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 17 14. It is unusual for system developers to mix and match system development methods to gain a better perspective. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 19 15. In the systems planning phase, a key part of the preliminary investigation is a feasibility study that reviews anticipated costs and benefits and recommends a course of action based on operational, technical, economic, and time factors. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 20 16. In the systems analysis phase, the first step is requirements modeling, where business processes are investigated and what the new system must do is documented. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 20 17. In object-oriented design, objects possess characteristics called properties, which the object inherits from its class or possesses on its own. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 21 18. A scalable design can expand to meet new business requirements and volumes. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 21 19. In object-oriented design, a message requests specific behavior or information from another object. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 22 20. Microsoft offers a development approach called Microsoft Solutions Framework (MSF), which documents the experience of its own software development teams. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 24 21. An IT group provides technical support, which includes application development, systems support and security, user support, database administration, network administration, and Web support. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 26 22. Network administration, which is a function of the IT group, includes hardware and software maintenance, support, and security. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 28
- 15. 23. Companies typically require that systems analysts have a college degree in information systems, computer science, business, or a closely related field, and some IT experience usually is required. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 29 24. The responsibilities of a systems analyst at a small firm are exactly the same as those at a large corporation. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 30 25. A corporate culture is the set of beliefs, rules, traditions, values, and attitudes that define a company and influence its way of doing business. ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 30 COMPLETION 1. _________________________ refers to the combination of hardware and software products and services that companies use to manage, access, communicate, and share information. ANS: Information technology (IT) IT PTS: 1 REF: 4 2. _________________________ is a step-by-step process for developing high-quality information systems. ANS: Systems analysis and design PTS: 1 REF: 4 3. A(n) _________________________ combines information technology, people, and data to support business requirements. ANS: information system PTS: 1 REF: 4 4. An IT department team includes _________________________ who plan, develop, and maintain information systems. ANS: systems analysts PTS: 1 REF: 4 5. A(n) _________________________ is a set of related components that produces specific results, such as routing Internet traffic, manufacturing microchips, and controlling complex entities like the International Space Station. ANS: system
- 16. PTS: 1 REF: 5 6. In the accompanying figure showing the components of an information system, _________________________ consist(s) of everything in the physical layer of the information system. ANS: hardware PTS: 1 REF: 6 7. In the accompanying figure showing the components of an information system, _________________________ refer(s) to the programs that control the hardware and produce the desired information or results. ANS: software PTS: 1 REF: 6 8. In the accompanying figure showing the components of an information system, _________________________ is/are the raw material that an information system transforms into useful information. ANS: data PTS: 1 REF: 7
- 17. 9. In the accompanying figure showing the components of an information system, _________________________ describe(s) the tasks and business functions that users, managers, and IT staff members perform to achieve specific results. ANS: processes PTS: 1 REF: 7 10. In the accompanying figure showing the components of an information system, the people, called _________________________, interact with an information system, both inside and outside the company. ANS: users end users PTS: 1 REF: 7 11. The newest category of company is the _________________________ whose primary business depends on the Internet rather than a traditional business channel. ANS: Internet-dependent firm dot-com company .com company PTS: 1 REF: 9 12. Traditional companies sometimes are called _________________________ companies because they conduct business primarily from physical locations. ANS: brick-and-mortar PTS: 1 REF: 9 13. Internet-based commerce is called _________________________ and includes two main sectors: B2C (business-to-consumer) and B2B (business-to-business). ANS: e-commerce electronic commerce I-commerce Internet commerce PTS: 1 REF: 9 14. _________________________ programs run on a company intranet and enable users to share data, collaborate on projects, and work in teams. ANS: Groupware PTS: 1 REF: 14
- 18. 15. Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) is a technique that uses powerful software, called _________________________, to help systems analysts develop and maintain information systems. ANS: CASE tools PTS: 1 REF: 17 16. The end product for the systems analysis phase of the SDLC is the _________________________, which describes management and user requirements, costs and benefits, and outlines alternative development strategies. ANS: system requirements document PTS: 1 REF: 20 17. The systems implementation phase of the SDLC includes an assessment, called a(n) _________________________, to determine whether the system operates properly and if costs and benefits are within expectation. ANS: systems evaluation PTS: 1 REF: 21 18. Because it stresses a team-based culture, the agile community has published a set of principles called the _________________________. ANS: Agile Manifesto PTS: 1 REF: 22 19. Web support specialists, often called _________________________, support a company’s Internet and intranet operations. ANS: webmasters PTS: 1 REF: 28 20. Many hardware and software companies offer _________________________ for IT professionals, which verifies that an individual demonstrated a certain level of knowledge and skill on a standardized test. ANS: certification PTS: 1 REF: 29 MATCHING Identify the letter of the choice that best matches the phrase or definition. a. MIS f. team leaders b. network model g. operational employees c. object model h. business support system d. fuzzy logic i. data model e. ERP j. prototype
- 19. 1. In many large companies, these kinds of systems provide cost-effective support for users and managers throughout the company. 2. The name for new business support systems that produced valuable information, in addition to performing manual tasks; their primary users were managers. 3. The decision support capability of this can help users make decisions. 4. Many knowledge management systems use this technique, which allows inferences to be drawn from imprecise relationships. 5. People who oversee operational employees and carry out day-to-day functions. 6. People who rely on TP systems to enter and receive data they need to perform their jobs. 7. Describes the design and protocols of telecommunications links. 8. Describes objects, which combine data and processes. 9. Describes data structures and design. 10. An early working version of an information system. 1. ANS: E PTS: 1 REF: 12 2. ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 13 3. ANS: H PTS: 1 REF: 13 4. ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: 14 5. ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: 16 6. ANS: G PTS: 1 REF: 16 7. ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 16 8. ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 16 9. ANS: I PTS: 1 REF: 16 10. ANS: J PTS: 1 REF: 17 ESSAY 1. Explain what a knowledge worker is, and why this kind of worker is required by successful companies. ANS: Knowledge workers include professional staff members such as systems analysts, programmers, accountants, researchers, trainers, and human resource specialists. Knowledge workers also use business support systems, knowledge management systems, and user productivity systems. Knowledge workers provide support for the organization's basic functions. Just as a military unit requires logistical support, a successful company needs knowledge workers to carry out its mission. PTS: 1 REF: 16 TOP: Critical Thinking 2. What are the disadvantages of each of the three system development methods? ANS: With structured analysis, changes can be costly, especially in later phases. Requirements are defined early, and can change during development. Users might not be able to describe their needs until they can see examples of features and functions. With object-oriented analysis, this somewhat newer method of development might be less familiar to development team members. Also, the interaction of objects and classes can be complex in larger systems. With agile/adaptive methods, team members need a high level of technical and communications skills. Lack of structure and documentation can introduce risk factors. Finally, the overall project might be subject to scope change as user requirements change.
- 20. PTS: 1 REF: 18 TOP: Critical Thinking 3. Describe two agile methods. ANS: Two examples are Scrum and Extreme Programming (XP). Scrum is a popular process with agile developers, and refers to a powerful effort to achieve short-term goals. In Scrum, team members play specific roles and interact in intense sessions. In this method, phases overlap and the entire process is performed by one cross-functional team. Extreme Programming is another adaptive process that focuses on forceful interaction between developers and users to define and achieve project goals. XP stresses certain key values, such as communication, simplicity, feedback, courage, and respect among team members. When properly implemented, its proponents believe that Extreme Programming can speed up development, reduce costs, and improve software quality. Time will tell whether this innovative approach will be widely accepted. PTS: 1 REF: 23|24 TOP: Critical Thinking CASE Critical Thinking Questions Case 1 Roark has just joined the company and in his role as lead analyst, he will be responsible for determining which systems development method the team uses to create the new application for a major medical supplier. 1. After Roark has spent a week getting to know the members of the team, including their strengths and weaknesses, and what has worked well (and not so well) for this particular team in the past, one theme keeps recurring: the team has particularly weak communications skills. Which of the following methods, then, is he least likely to use, given what he knows about the disadvantages of each method? a. structured analysis b. agile/adaptive methods c. object-oriented analysis d. rapid application development ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 18 TOP: Critical Thinking 2. It is a new day at the firm. Roark has been in place for a few weeks, strengthening the communications skills of his employees, getting them to work much better together. Now, the challenge that he faces is not an internal one; it lies with the client, which is increasingly showing itself to be incapable of sticking with decisions. Roark, based on his past experience with other clients like this, is afraid that the client will throw them a curveball and want to make changes late in the game — but that they also will be unwilling to absorb the costs of those changes. For this reason, Roark eliminates which of the following methods of development? a. structured analysis b. agile/adaptive methods c. object-oriented analysis d. rapid application development ANS:
- 21. A PTS: 1 REF: 18 TOP: Critical Thinking Critical Thinking Questions Case 2 Maddy has been performing at a very high level at the firm, and so when two colleagues of hers who are currently leading other development efforts get sick or leave the company, she is asked to step in and help manage these two other efforts. 3. When Maddy sits down at the first meeting that she is able to attend at which the first group is gathering, she hears them discussing the feasibility study in which they are currently engaged. She knows, then, in which phase of the SDLC this team currently is. Which phase is it? a. systems analysis b. systems design c. systems planning d. systems implementation ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: 20 TOP: Critical Thinking 4. After leaving the first meeting, Maddy goes down the hall to meet with the outgoing manager of the second team. In that meeting, he shares with her the latest draft of the systems requirement document, which is nearly complete. In which phase is the second team currently? a. systems analysis b. systems design c. systems planning d. systems implementation ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: 20 TOP: Critical Thinking
- 22. Another Random Scribd Document with Unrelated Content
- 23. Pennisetum macrostachys, Trin. (fide F. v. Mueller): vulgo “Orsopa.” Growing in waste ground of plantations to a height of eight or nine feet. Coix Lachryma, L.: vulgo “Ken-ken.” The natives do not appear to make use of the seeds as beads. Growing in the waste ground of plantations. Pollinia obtusa, Munro? Schizostachyum?? A bamboo usually found at elevations of 1000 or 1100 feet above the sea. The canes grow to a length of thirty-five to forty feet, and are used as fishing-rods. MUSCI. Octoblepharum (Leucophanes) squarrosum, Brid. HEPATICÆ. Marchantia linearis, L. and L.? FUNGI. Agaricus (perhaps mollic, Schff.). „ (Inocybe) maritimus, Fr. Hygrophorus metapodius, Fr. prox. Lentinus submembranaceus, B. „ dactyliophorus, Lev. „ velutinus, Fr. Polyporus (Mes.) xanthopus, Fr. „ (Pleur.) affinis, Nees. „ (Pleur.) luteus, Nees. „ (Pleur.) lucidus, Fr. „ (Placo.) australis Fr. Hexagona apiaria, Fr. „ similis, B. Cladoderris dendritica, Fr.
- 24. Thelephora lamellata, B. Hirneola auricula-judæ, Fr. Lycoperdon gemmatum, Fr. Bovista sp. . . (uncertain). Wynnea macrotis, Berk. The Flotation of Fruits in Sea-Water.—I made a few experiments on the fruits of this region, the results of which I here append. The fruits were all ripe and not dried. (1.) Fruits that float in sea-water.[435] Cocos nucifera Areca catechu (Betel-nut). Cycas circinalis.[436] Pandanus (three littoral species). Nipa fruticans. Barringtonia speciosa. Calophyllum inophyllum. Calophyllum sp. (katari). Ochrosia parviflora. Heritiera littoralis. Cerbera odollam. Harpullia cupanioides. Myristica sp. (ito-ito). Riedelia curviflora.? Thespesia populnea. Gomphandra sp. (ningilo). [435] The following fruits and seeds, taken from my dried collection of plants, float in sea-water. I did not experiment on them in the green condition. . . . Pongamia glabra: Coix Lachryma: Scævola Kœnigii: Tournefortia argentea. [436] Out of ten fruits experimented on, only one floated. (2.) Fruits that sink in sea-water.
- 25. Parinarium laurinum.[437] Licuala sp. (firo). Areca sp. (torulo). Areca sp. (momo). Caryota sp. (eala). [437] This tree is widely distributed throughout the group, which may be due to the circumstance of its resin being generally employed in caulking canoes. The weeds, rubbish-plants, and shrubs, commonly found in old clearings and in the waste-ground of the cultivated patches in Bougainville Straits. One of the commonest plants in the islands of Bougainville Straits is the Eranthemum variabile, which is frequently found growing at the sides of the paths. The spurges, Euphorbia pilulifera and E. Atoto, are usually found in the waste- ground around villages. In the cultivated patches clumps of the handsome flowering reed, Pennisetum macrostachys (“orsopa”), which grows to a height of nine or ten feet, are often conspicuous. In one place may be seen the tall shrub, Kleinhovia Hospita (“lafai”), the inflated fruits of which are eaten by the cockatoos. In another place the botanist may recognise the Canna indica (Indian Shot: “sati”), and near by perhaps Coix Lachryma (Job’s tears: “ken-ken”), both of which plants have been probably introduced originally from the Malay Archipelago. Solomon Islanders occasionally wear the seeds of Coix Lachryma as a personal ornament. They are also used for this purpose by the Admiralty Islanders, and by the natives of some parts of New Guinea. Scented labiate plants are very frequent in the waste-ground of the plantations, and the natives are fond of wearing them in their armlets. Amongst them I may mention Moschosma polystachyum (“pipituan”) and Ocymum sanctum (“kiramma”). The “luk-a-luk” (Evodia hortensis), which is a favourite scented plant, is commonly found in the same situations. The tiny plant, Oxalis corniculata, may clothe a bare patch of ground; whilst in another part of the plantation, Commelyna nudiflora may similarly be observed. Numerous composite plants, such as Vernonia cinerea, Adenostemma viscosum, etc., form a conspicuous feature among the rubbish-plants in these cultivated patches. The Codiæum variegatum (“tiatakush”), with its very singularly-shaped leaves, is also to be seen: and, amongst other plants, I should refer to Solanum vitiense and Crotalaria quinquefolia. Tall sedges, such as Cyperus canescens and Mariscus phleoides, are to be commonly observed. Lastly, I should notice two small scitamineous plants, the “nakia,” a wild ginger, and the “temuli,” the root of which has medicinal properties, whilst its yellow juice is used for staining purposes.
- 26. A species of Pachyma ? ? Whilst at the island of Santa Anna in October, 1882, my attention was directed by Mr. William Macdonald and Mr. Heughan to a curious vegetable substance, not unlike a yam in appearance, which is found lying loose on the soil. The specimens I obtained varied between one and five pounds in weight, but much larger examples have been obtained. The interior of the substance is white in colour, and sometimes has a waxy look. A large slab which had been whittled out by a native resembled a cake of compressed flour. There were many curious speculations as to the nature of these growths. In the estimation of the inhabitants of the island, they are poisonous, and they have received from them the name of “testes diaboli;” but I could gather but little information from the natives on the subject except to the effect that they are also commonly found on St. Christoval.[438] However, some time later I was informed by Mr. Stephens of Ugi that some mushroom-like growths were borne by a specimen that he kept, which after a few weeks fell away. I subsequently gave some of these singular masses to Mr. Charles Moore, the Director of the Sydney Botanic Gardens. [438] In the event of it proving edible, Mr. Heughan cooked a specimen, but only a tasteless substance resulted. Three years passed away and I had almost forgotten about the matter, when I accidentally came upon some substances, closely resembling these masses, which are exhibited in the Botanical Department of the British Museum. They are labelled Pachyma Cocos (Fries) from China. On my asking Mr. George Murray concerning their nature, I was pleased to learn that he had been taking a special interest in these growths; and he showed me a specimen obtained by the Rev. Mr. Whitmee in Samoa, from which a funnel-shaped fungus, about six inches high, was growing. This specimen was very similar to those of the Solomon Islands. Very recently, Mr. G. Murray has embodied the results of his investigations of these growths in a short paper read before the Linnean Society, in which Mr. Whitmee’s specimen is figured (Trans. Linn. Soc., 2nd ser. Bot., vol. ii., part 11). From this source I learn that Rumphius was the first to describe these tuberous masses and their associated fungi from Amboina. The former, which he named Tuber regium, were stated to afford remedies useful in diarrhœa, fevers, &c. The fungi were said to shoot out from them during showers of warm rain on a fine day, or when there was thunder in the air. From the description and illustration given by Rumphius, Mr. Fries regarded the growth as a fungus belonging to the genus Lentinus, springing from a Pachyma (of which the Indian Bread of North America, Pachyma cocos, is an example). Strange to say, however, these tubers, which are found also in China and other parts of the world, have never been found with a fungus attached since the time of Rumphius. Mr. Whitmee’s specimen, therefore, had considerable interest. It is shown by Mr. Murray to correspond strikingly with Tuber
- 27. regium and to have the structure of a true “sclerotium” (not of Pachyma), with a fungus of a species of Lentinus growing from it. All the facts go to prove that the fungus and the tuberous mass do not form part of the same growth, but are distinct organisms. A spore having germinated on the surface of the mass, its mycelium penetrates the interior, and becoming perennial, produces successive crops of fungi. Residents in the Indian Archipelago and in the Pacific Islands might throw considerable light on the subject of these growths by careful notes and collections. It is important to discover the origin of the tuberous mass which becomes, so to speak, a convenient nidus for the fungus. How do such masses perpetuate themselves? A considerable number should be kept under observation, and the mode of appearance of the fungus carefully noticed. Experiments might be made with the spores of the fungus by dusting them over the surface of the masses. Such notes and collections should be forwarded to Mr. Murray, at the British Museum of Natural History.
- 29. I CHAPTER XIV. Reptiles and Batrachians. n a memoir on the Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands, which was read before the Zoological Society, on May 6th, 1884,[439] Mr. Boulenger remarked that very little was known about the herpetology of these islands until two important collections, which I sent to the British Museum in 1883 and 1884, brought to light several new and interesting forms, such as could hardly have been expected from this region. “The position of this group of islands on the limits of two great zoological districts,”—this author proceeded to observe —“renders the study of its fauna of special interest, as it is the point where many of the Papuasian and Polynesian forms intermingle. Curiously, all the Batrachians belong to species not hitherto found elsewhere, and one of them is even so strongly modified as to be the type of a distinct family.” [439] Published in the Transactions of the Society; vol. xii., part i., 1886. The diagnoses of most of the new species in my collections were given in the Proceedings for 1884: p. 210. Vide also “Annals and Magazine of Natural History” (5) xii., 1883. According to Mr. Boulenger, the Reptiles may be grouped under four headings, viz.:— 1. Species belonging to both the Papuasian and Polynesian districts. 2. Indo-Malayan or Papuasian species, not extending further east or south-east. 3. Polynesian species, not extending further north and west than New Ireland. 4. Species not hitherto found elsewhere than in the Solomons (and New Ireland.) 1 Gymnodactylus pelagicus Gehyra oceanica Mabuia cyanura Platurus fasciatus. 2 Crocodilus porosus
- 30. Gecko vittatus Varanus indicus Keneuxia smaragdina Enygrus carinatus Dipsas irregularis. 3 Gonyocephalus godeffroyi Mabuia carteretii „ nigra Enygrus bibronii. 4 Lepidodactylus guppyi, n. sp. Lipinia anolis, n. sp. Corucia zebrata Dendrophis solomonis Hoplocephalus par, n. sp. All of these 19 Reptiles were included in my collection, with the exception of Corucia zebrata, which, however, came under my observation. I will now proceed to refer more particularly to the Reptile-fauna of this region. Crocodiles.—The species of Crocodile (Crocodilus porosus, Schneid), which is so common in the Solomon Group, ranges from India and South China through the Malay Archipelago and Papuan Islands to North Australia. In these islands crocodiles appear to frequent in greatest numbers the swamps and sandy shores of uninhabited coral islands, such as those of the Three Sisters, and the coasts of the larger islands in the vicinity of the mouths of the streams and rivers. I frequently surprised them basking on the sand under the shade of a tree. On one occasion I was standing on the spreading roots of a tree that were exposed on the beach, when one of these reptiles darted out from under my feet and dived into the sea. Of the marks that they make on the sand when lying at rest, an oblong shallow impression corresponding to the head, and a curved well-defined grove caused by the tail are alone specially recognisable. When they are not alarmed and move leisurely along, they leave a double row of footprints on the sand, with a narrow median furrow produced by the weight of the tail; but when they have been disturbed and make a rush to escape, they raise their tail and leave only the tracks of their feet on the sand. These crocodiles are equally at home in salt and fresh water. I have frequently passed them in my Rob Roy canoe when they have been floating as though asleep at the surface of the sea;
- 31. and it was always in the sea that they found a refuge when my little craft intruded itself within their haunts. They came under my notice in the fresh-water lakes of Santa Anna and Stirling Island, and in the lower courses of the streams in several localities. They are apparently in no uncongenial conditions in the salt- water lagoon of Eddystone Island, although its waters receive the hot sulphureous vapours of submerged fumaroles. These crocodiles do not apparently attain a greater length than 12 or 13 feet. Mr. Sproul shot one at Santa Anna which measured 91⁄2 feet. A female that I shot in the Shortland Islands, measured 11 feet. One of the seamen of the “Lark,” named Prior, obtained from the natives the skull of a rather larger specimen. Out of half-a-dozen individuals seen on the Three Sisters, not one measured more than 7 or 8 feet.[440] Mr. Bateman, a trader resident at Ugi, told me that at Wano on the St. Christoval coast he saw a very large crocodile which, from his description, appears to have been twice as long as any that I saw. It was, however, dusk at the time; and in connection with this circumstance I should add that I have found actual measurement to reduce the apparent length of a crocodile from 14 to 11 feet. [440] A skull given to me by Mr. Nisbet, the government-agent of the “Redcoat,” at Ugi, was 12 inches long. It was obtained from the natives of Guadalcanar. Natives are rarely attacked by these reptiles, and they show little or no fear of them. I have seen a full-grown crocodile dart under a line of swimmers without causing any dismay. Of the numbers I saw, all were but too anxious to get out of my way; and their cowardly nature is well shown in the account of my capture of a specimen which is given below. However, I came upon a man of Santa Anna who had had his leg broken by one of these reptiles. The natives of Rubiana hold the crocodile in veneration and work without fear in the places which it frequents. They believe that only faithless wives are seized and carried off by the monster. Pigs are occasionally the prey of the crocodile; but its usual diet appears to be opossums (Cusci), large lacertilians, and fish. The following account of the capture of a crocodile may interest some of my readers. It was effected by no more formidable weapons than by a number of long staves and a small “bull-dog” revolver. Accompanied by six natives I was making the ascent of a large stream on the north-west side of Alu, when some of my companions espied a large crocodile at the bottom of a deep pool about 200 yards from the mouth of the stream. In setting to work to effect its capture my men proceeded very methodically to work, and evidently knew the tactics which the creature would employ. Standing in the water just below the pool, we stood awaiting the descent of the crocodile down the stream, whilst one of the natives was rousing it up with a long pole to make it leave its hiding-place. After a little time it began to get uneasy, and leaving the pool began to descend the stream.
- 32. Where we were standing, the stream was only knee-deep, and as the reptile passed us in the shallow water some natives hit it on the head with their poles, whilst others hurled their poles sharpened at the ends, striking it in several places, and I planted a bullet behind its neck. The creature showed no fight and immediately hid itself in the pools near the mouth of the stream. During two hours, after we had been driving it from one pool to another by means of our pointed poles and staves, we seemed no nearer to its capture. At length there was a loud out-cry from the natives. The crocodile was making a final rush for life to cross the bar at the mouth of the stream and escape into the sea. We all followed, some in the canoe and some through the water; and for a short time I thought that the creature would escape. But being a little disabled by our previous attacks, its progress across the bar was somewhat checked; and the foremost of my men caught hold of its tail just as it was getting into deep water. Very quickly we all came up, and assisted in drawing it high and dry on the beach; and whilst two of our number kept hold of its tail, the remainder belaboured its neck with rocks and sticks until it died.[441] Its length proved to be 11 feet. Throughout the whole chase the reptile made no outcry, and even when we were belabouring it to death it only gave a kind of growl. In its stomach I found a large quantity of partially digested food with the remains of an opossum (Cuscus) and a large lizard 11⁄2 feet long (probably Corucia zebrata). It was a female, and, in the oviduct I came upon an egg, which my natives appropriated, saying that it was very good food; but they do not usually eat the flesh. I was unable from want of space to keep more than the head of the animal, which I cut off and carried back in my canoe to the ship. The skull is now in the British Museum. [441] An illustration in Mr. Bates’ “Naturalist on the Amazons” represents a very similar scene. Lizards. The Lacertilians are well represented in these islands. Those at present described are given in the subjoined list. Geckonidæ Gymnodactylus pelagicus Gehyra oceanica Lepidodactylus guppyi. n. sp. Gecko vittatus „ var. bivittatus. Agamidæ Gonyocephalus godeffroyi.
- 33. Varanidæ Varanus indicus. Scincidæ Mabuia carteretii „ cyanura „ nigra Keneuxia smaragdina Lipinia anolis n. sp. Corucia zebrata. The lizards, which most frequently meet the eyes of the visitors in the vicinity of the beaches, are the two skinks, Mabuia nigra and cyanura. As a rule those species that are common at the coast have a wide range, extending either into Polynesia or Papuasia or into both these regions (vide page 307). The species peculiar to these islands came less frequently under my observation. Thus, that of Lepidodactylus guppyi, is founded on a single (female) specimen I found in Faro or Fauro Island in Bougainville Straits. Corucia zebrata never came under my notice alive; it is said at Ugi to find its home in the foliage of the higher trees. Doubtless if I could have penetrated to the higher regions of the large islands, I should have obtained a large number of new species. My collections refer for the most part to the sea-border and its vicinity. In the elevated interior of such an island as Guadalcanar there is a region of great promise for the collector; but I shall have a further occasion to refer to this topic. The Monitor, Varanus indicus, may be often seen at the coast, basking in the glare of the mid-day sun on the trunks of prostrate trees or on the bare rocks. It is considered edible by the natives of Bougainville Straits. Whilst we were anchored at Oima Atoll, Lieutenant Leeper captured a very large specimen (5 feet 73⁄4 inches long)[442] on the rocks close to the sea, and towed it off alive to the ship. After we had tried in vain to strangle it by a cord, a lead was fastened to it and it was sunk overboard, but an hour passed before we could say that the reptile was really dead. This Monitor is probably able to swim considerable distances. It very likely owes its wide range (from Celebes to the Solomon Group including Cape York) to the agency of floating trees. On examining the stomach and intestines, I found them empty. An enormous quantity of fat, developed in two large lobes in connection with the omentum or some other part of the peritoneum, almost filled the abdominal cavity. With this store of sustenance and heat, these reptiles must be able to live without food for a long time.[443] [442] A specimen shot in the Florida Islands measured 3 feet 8 inches.
- 34. [443] As an instance of the tenacity of life that some reptiles possess, I may refer to the case of a young terrapin which I kept inadvertently for nearly five months on the coast of China without any sustenance except the dry rust of a tin can. Snakes. Hitherto, the following six species of Ophidians have been found in the Solomon Group. All of them were included in my collection and one of them has been described by Mr. Boulenger as a new species. Boidæ Enygrus carinatus „ bibronii Colubridæ Dendrophis solomonis Dipsas irregularis Elapidæ Hoplocephalus par n. sp. Hydrophiidæ (Water-snakes) Platurus fasciatus[444] [444] I was indebted to Lieutenant Symonds of H.M.S. “Diamond” for this snake. One of the commonest of snakes throughout these islands is Enygrus carinatus, a harmless species of the Boa family. It often possesses considerable bulk in proportion to its length. One specimen which I obtained in Treasury Island measured 31⁄2 feet in length and 6 inches in girth. I handled a good many living snakes whilst in these islands, since the natives used to bring them in numbers to me both on board and on shore. The statements of the natives and of the white men resident in this region and the general appearance of the snakes had led me to believe that there were no poisonous species in the group. I was therefore somewhat surprised when, on my arrival in England, I learned from Dr. Günther that I had found a new species as poisonous as the Cobra. On being shown the specimen by Mr Boulenger, I at once recognised an old friend which had been brought on board in a bamboo by the natives at Faro Island and had got loose on the deck. Whilst the men standing round were preparing to kill it with more regard for their own safety than for my feelings, I caught it quickly around the neck and held it under water until it was dead. The natives certainly were not aware of its venomous character, nor was Mr. Isabell, who was my right-hand man in these matters, and used to manage the ticklish progress of
- 35. removing the snakes from their bamboo-tubes in a manner only suitable in the case of harmless species. I only obtained one specimen of this snake, which was about 21⁄2 feet in length. It is named Hoplocephalus par and belongs to the Elapidæ, a family of poisonous colubrine snakes which possess the physiognomy of the harmless snakes of the same sub-order, and include the Indian and African Cobras with other well known venomous species. In the footnote I have quoted Mr. Boulenger’s description of its general appearance for the information of those who visit the group.[445] [445] The upper surface of the head is uniform blackish brown. The body is crossed above by broad red-brown bands separated by narrow white interspaces. The lower surface of the head and body are uniform white, except on the posterior extremity of the body where the red and black extend as lines along the sutures of the ventral shields. On the tail the red forms complete rings. Nearly every one of the dorsal scales have a blackish brown border. The head is depressed, moderately large, and slightly widened posteriorly. The eye has a vertical pupil. Batrachians.—The Spanish discoverers in 1567 remarked that the natives of Isabel worshipped the toad (vide page 203), and one of the officers of Surville’s expedition in 1769, described in his journal a remarkable toad from the same island;[446] yet it is only within recent years that any Batrachians have been collected in this region. Before I arrived in the group only two species were known to science, and to this number my collections, which were made in the islands of Bougainville Straits, have added seven new species, including a type of a new family. The following list represents the Batrachian fauna of the Solomon Islands, as far as it is at present known: [446] “Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769,” &c., by M. Fleurieu: London, 1791; p. 134. Ranidæ. Rana buboniformis, n. sp. Rana guppyi, n. sp. Rana opisthodon, n. sp. Rana krefftii. Cornufer guppyi, n. sp. Cornufer solomonis, n. sp. Ceratobatrachidæ. (New family characterised by both jaws being toothed, and by the diapophyses of the sacral vertebra not being dilated.) Ceratobatrachus guentheri, n. sp.
- 36. Hylidæ (Tree-frogs.) Hyla macrops, n. sp. Hyla thesaurensis. The natives of the islands of Bougainville Straits, where, as I have just remarked, my batrachian collection was chiefly made, have given frogs the general name of “appa-appa” in imitation of their noise, just as they have named the smaller lizards “Kurru-rupu” for the same reason. Amongst the particular species of frogs, I may refer to the large toad-like Rana buboniformis, which I found in Treasury Island, and on the highest peak of the island of Faro. Rana guppyi, according to Mr. Boulenger’s report, attains a larger size than any other species of the genus, with the exception of the Bull-Frog of North America. Rana opisthodon affords an instance of a Batrachian[447] which dispenses with the usual larval or tadpole stage, “the metamorphoses being hurried through within the egg.” On this subject I made the following notes. Whilst descending from one of the peaks of Faro Island, I stopped at a stream some 400 feet above the sea, where my native boys collected from the moist crevices of the rocks close to the water a number of transparent gelatinous balls rather smaller than a marble.[448] Each of these balls contained a young frog about 4 lines in length, apparently fully developed, with very long hind legs and short fore legs, no tail, and bearing on the sides of the body small tufts of what seemed to be branchiæ. On my rupturing the ball or egg in which the little animal was doubled up, the tiny frog took a marvellous leap into its existence and disappeared before I could catch it. When I reached the ship an hour after, I found that some of the eggs which had been carried in a tin had been ruptured on the way by the jolting, and the liberated frogs were leaping about with great activity. On placing some of them in an open bottle 8 inches high, I had to put the cover on as they kept leaping out. Mr. Boulenger remarking on this observation says, that there are no gills, but that on each side of the abdomen there are regular transverse folds (with an arrangement like that of the gill-openings of Plagiostomous Fishes), the function of which probably is that of breathing-organs. The tip of the snout is, he says, furnished with a small conical protuberance, projecting slightly through the delicate envelope of the egg, and evidently used to perforate that covering. In the instance also of Cornufer solomonis, another new species included in my collection, Mr. Boulenger remarks that there is every reason to believe that the young undergo the metamorphoses within the egg. [447] Hylodes martinicensis affords another instance. Mon. Berl. Ac., 1876, p. 714. [448] According to Mr. Boulenger, they measure from 6 to 10 mm. in diameter. With regard to the interesting species, Ceratobatrachus guentheri, which forms the type of a new family, Ceratobatrachidæ, the same writer observes that it is
- 37. remarkable for the numerous appendages and symmetrical folds which ornate its skin. It is, in fact, “all points and angles,” and may be truly termed a horned frog. There is great variation both in the coloration and in the integuments. “Out of the twenty specimens before me,” thus Mr. Boulenger writes, “no two are perfectly alike.” The development is presumed to be of the type in which the metamorphoses are hurried through within the egg. These horned frogs are very numerous in the islands of Bougainville Straits, and so closely do they imitate their surroundings, both in colour and pattern, that on one occasion I captured a specimen by accidentally placing my hand upon it when clasping a tree. It is particularly important to notice not only that the Batrachians of the Solomon Islands, as far as we at present know, do not occur elsewhere, but also that in this region a distinct family has been produced. These facts support the conclusions deducible from the geological evidence that these islands are of considerable geological age (vide page x.). The insular and isolated conditions have been preserved during a period sufficiently extended for the development of a peculiar Batrachian fauna. The modes of dispersal of frogs and toads, and, in truth, of the whole Batrachian class, are matters of which we are to a great extent ignorant. Frogs are usually stated to be absent from oceanic islands, a peculiarity of distribution which apparently accords with the circumstance that neither they nor their spawn can sustain submersion in sea-water. The occurrence, however, of three species of Cornufer in the Caroline and Fiji Islands, and of a species of Bato in the Sandwich Islands,[449] affects the general application of this conclusion. It may be suggested that these exceptions are due to human agency; but if so, it is difficult to understand why they have not been found in such a well explored island as New Caledonia.[450] [449] Boulenger’s “Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia,” &c., 2nd edit., 1882. [450] Perhaps the peculiar geographical distribution of the Batrachia may throw light on this subject. Ibid. In concluding this chapter I will refer to the circumstance that my collections of the Reptiles and Batrachians of this large group have only in a manner broken ground in a region which promises the richest results to the collector. It cannot be doubted that in the elevated interiors of the large islands, such as those of Bougainville and Guadalcanar, there will be found a peculiar Reptilian and Batrachian fauna, the study of which will be of the highest importance for the furtherance of our knowledge of these geologically ancient classes of animals. I believe I am correct in stating that it was on account of the highly interesting Batrachian collections I sent to the British Museum, that I received a grant for further exploration from the Royal Society, which, however, I was unfortunately
- 38. prevented from turning to account. The work has yet to be done, and there can be little doubt that the man who is first able to examine the lofty interior of such an island as Guadalcanar will bring back collections, the importance of which will amply recompense him for any hardship or personal risk he may have endured. My experience was confined to the sea-border and its vicinity. The future explorer will find his field in the mountainous interiors and on the highest peaks. Note (April 19th, 1887).—Since I penned the above, further collections of reptiles and batrachians, made in these islands by Mr. C. M. Woodford, have been described by Mr. Boulenger at a recent meeting of the Zoological Society. I had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Woodford before he left England, and I hope that he has been able to accomplish his purpose of penetrating into the interior of one of the larger islands of the group.
- 40. A CHAPTER XV. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. mongst the numerous strange acquaintances which I made in the Solomon Islands, was that of the well known cocoa-nut crab, or Birgus latro; and I take this opportunity of giving my evidence towards the establishment of the fact of its cocoa-nut-eating propensity, for the following reason. When I read my notes on the subject before the Linnean Society of New South Wales on Dec. 27th, 1882,[451] I was surprised at the incredulity shown with reference to this extraordinary habit; and on inquiry, I learned that the evidence on the subject was deficient in one vital point, viz., the production of the writer who had witnessed this habit of the Robber Crab. Accordingly I referred to the various authors who have recorded this habit of the Birgus, and in no single account could I find that the writer had witnessed what he described. Neither Mr. Darwin, Dr. Seemann, Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet, Mr. T. H. Hood, the Rev. Wyatt Gill, nor the numerous authors whose accounts I also examined, seem to have actually witnessed the Birgus opening and eating a cocoa-nut. Herbst[452] was among the first to refer to this habit; whilst, long ago, M. M. Quoy and Gaimard[453] asserted, from their own observation, that the crab was fond of cocoa-nuts, and could be supported on them alone for many months, but they made no allusion to its capability of husking and opening them. The evidence on this point appears to have been always tendered by natives, excepting the account given to Mr. Darwin by Mr. Liesk, which is conclusive in itself.[454] Yet, credulous persons had fair grounds to retain their doubts, although in various works on natural history, popular and otherwise, this habit of the Birgus was described as an undoubted fact. I therefore submit my evidence; leaving to my reader to reply to the query—Can there be any reasonable doubt on the subject? [451] Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. [452] Proc. Zool. Soc, 1832, p. 17. [453] Freycinet’s “Voyage autour du Monde,” 1817-20: Zoologie, p. 536. (Paris, 1824.) [454] “Journal of Researches,” p. 462. The Birgus was to be found in most of the islands we visited. It is to be usually observed at or near the coast; but on one occasion, in St. Christoval, I found an individual at a height of 300 feet above the sea. Whilst traversing, in September, 1882, the belt of screw-pines, which borders the beach on the east coast of
- 41. Malaupaina, the southern island of the Three Sisters, I came upon one of these large crabs, ensconced in the angle between the buttressed roots of a tree, with a full sized cocoa-nut within the reach of its pair of big claws. From the fresh- looking appearance of the shell, it had been evidently, but recently, husked, which operation had been performed more cleanly than if a native had done it. There was an opening at the eye-hole end of the shell of a somewhat regular oblong form, which measured 2 by 11⁄2 inches, and was large enough to admit the powerful claws of the crab.[455] The white kernel, which had the firm consistence of that of the mature nut, had been scooped out to the extent of from 1 to 11⁄2 inches around the aperture; small pieces of the kernel lay on the ground outside the nut, and others were floating about in the milk inside, of which the shell was about a fourth-part full. [455] This shell was presented to the Australian Museum, Sydney. I had, without a doubt, disturbed the Birgus in the middle of its meal; but, curiously enough, there were no cocoa-nut palms to be seen within fifty paces of the spot where the crab was found in its retreat. Not only had the shell been very recently husked, but it was evident, from the fresh condition of the milk and kernel, that an interval of less than a couple of hours had elapsed since the opening had been made. There was no possible explanation of the crab having got at the edible portion of the cocoa-nut, except through its own agency. The island is uninhabited, being only occasionally visited by fishing-parties of natives from St. Christoval, none of whom were on the island during the ship’s stay. There was, therefore, the strongest presumptive evidence that the Birgus had not only husked the cocoa-nut, but had also broken the hole at the end, in order to get at the kernel. I kept the crab alive on board on a diet of cocoa-nuts for three weeks, when, one morning, to my great disappointment, I found it dead. Other foods, such as bananas, were offered to it but were left untouched, and its appetite for cocoa- nuts continued unimpaired to the last day of its life. Being desirous of observing the manner in which the husk was removed, I had a cocoa-nut with its husk placed in the coop in which the crab was kept. On one occasion the Birgus was surprised with the nut between its large claws; but, notwithstanding that no other food was offered to it for a day and a half, it did not attempt to strip off the husk. So the operation was done for it, and a small hole was knocked in the top of the shell. On the following day I found the shell—a young and somewhat thin one—broken irregularly across the middle, with the soft white kernel already removed and eaten. It was afterwards found necessary to break the nuts for its daily food. In 1884, when the “Lark” was in Bougainville Straits, three of these crabs were kept on board with the intention of taking them down to Sydney. Mr. W. Isabell,
- 42. leading-stoker of the ship, looked well after them, as he had also done in the case of the previous crab, but within three or four weeks they had all died. The cocoa-nuts had to be husked and broken for them, as they were in vain tempted to do it for themselves. One crab, however, was frequently observed clasping between its claws a full-grown unhusked nut, the upper end of which showed deep grooves and dents from the blows of its claws; and Mr. Isabell and I came to the conclusion that the coop, in which these crabs were placed, was too low to allow of the free play of the great claws. My evidence alone would be sufficient to convict the Birgus of this offence: for an offender it would certainly be in the eyes of the owner of a plantation of cocoa- nut palms. I learned from Mr. Isabell that the first crab we had on board consumed, on the average, two cocoa-nuts in three days. A number of these crabs in a cocoa-nut plantation, might therefore prove a considerable pest: for, if this betokens the quantity of food which the Birgus consumes in a state of nature, a single crab in the course of twelve months would dispose of about 250 cocoa-nuts, which represent the annual production of three palms and between 20 and 30 quarts of oil. As these crabs disliked observation, I was unable to gain much knowledge of their habits by watching. During the day-time they were sluggish, did not eat, and kept themselves in the further corner of the coop, as far from the light as possible. At night they moved about very actively and fed vigorously on the cocoa-nuts. The natives of the Shortlands, who were well-acquainted with the cocoa-nut eating habit of the Birgus, described to me the mode of husking and breaking the nut, just as Mr. Liesk described it to Mr. Darwin. They esteem as an especial luxury the fat which gives the chief bulk to the abdomen of the crab. The habit of the Birgus, when surprised away from its burrow, is not to turn round and run away, but to retreat in an orderly manner with its front to the foe. Having reached some root or trunk of a tree which protects in the rear its less perfectly armoured abdomen, it makes a regular stand, waves one of the long second pair of claws in the air, and courageously awaits the attack. The attitude of defence is worthy of remark. The two large claws are held up close together to defend the mouth and eyes, but with the pincers pointing downward—the posture reminding me of the guard for the head and face in sword-exercise. One of the long second pair of claws is planted firmly on the ground to give the crab additional support; whilst the other claw is raised in the air and moved up and down in a sparring fashion. The whole attitude of the Birgus, when on the defensive, is one of dogged and determined resistance. The big pincers that point downward are ready to seize anything which touches the unprotected under surface of the abdomen; but on account of the position of these claws in front of the eyes, it can only foresee attacks from above, and it therefore cannot
- 43. ward off a sudden thrust directed against the abdomen, although it may afterwards inflict severe injuries on the aggressor. There seems to be some doubt whether the Birgus ascends the tree to get the cocoa-nuts or whether it contents itself with those that have fallen. Almost every author who refers to this crab alludes to its climbing the tree, and it is also said to climb the pandanus. The testimony in support of its climbing powers is almost conclusive, yet Mr. Darwin was informed by Mr. Liesk that in Keeling Atoll the Birgus lives only on the fallen cocoa-nuts, and Mr. H. O. Forbes,[456] who has recently visited this island, confirms this statement. [456] “A Naturalist’s Wanderings,” etc.: London, 1885, p. 27. My readers, after perusing the foregoing remarks, will agree with me that from the lack of actual observation on the part of the authors, who describe the cocoa-nut eating habit of this crab, there has been fair grounds for scepticism. Even now, we are but imperfectly acquainted with the mode of life of the Birgus, which is a subject I would commend to the attention of residents in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. I may add that the Birgus is partial to other kinds of fruits beside cocoa-nuts. Different writers mention candle-nuts, nutmegs, figs, and other rich and oily nuts and fruits. In some islands it would seem that the Pandanus fruit is its only diet; and for breaking open these tough fruits, its heavy claws are well adapted, though from personal experience, I should remark that the crab would have its strength and ingenuity taxed almost as much as in the case of the cocoa-nut. The handsome ground-pigeon, known as the Nicobar pigeon (Geophilus nicobaricus), is commonly observed in the wooded islets on the coral reefs of the Solomon Group. As I have remarked on page 293, this bird is probably
- 44. instrumental in transporting from one locality to another the small hard seeds and fruits which the common fruit-pigeon (Carpophaga) refuses. That it is able to crack such hard seeds as those of the leguminous plant Adenanthera pavonina, [457] is shown by the fact that I have found these seeds cracked in the cavity of the gizzard, which is in its structure and mechanism a veritable pair of nutcrackers. In this bird the muscular stomach or gizzard is of a surprising thickness, and is provided with a very singular mechanical contrivance to assist its crushing power. As shown in the accompanying diagram, it is composed of two muscular halves, each having a maximum thickness of five-eighths of an inch and united with each other in front and behind by a stout distensible membrane, which is the proper wall of the organ. Developed in the horny epithelial lining membrane there are two cartilaginous bodies of hemispherical shape, one in each muscular segment of the gizzard, which measure about one-third of an inch in thickness and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The outer or convex surface of each cartilaginous body fits into a cup-shaped cavity which is lined by a semi- cartilaginous membrane, the whole constituting a “ball-and-socket” joint with well lubricated surfaces. The two surfaces of this pseudo-articulation are capable of easy movement on each other, being retained in close apposition by the attachment to the subjacent tissues of the horny epithelial lining membrane in which the cartilaginous body is developed. The inner or free surface of each hemispherical body, that which looks into the gizzard cavity, is somewhat concave, and projects a little above the surface of the lining membrane; it is much harder than the opposite convex side of the cartilage and has almost the consistence of bone, the arrangement of the cells into densely packed rows with but little intervening matrix indicating an approach towards ossification. [457] The Kuara tree of India, of whose hard seeds necklaces are made. The firm consistence of these hemispherical cartilages combined with the mechanism of a moveable articulation must greatly assist the already powerful muscular walls of the gizzard; but there is an additional factor in the crushing power in the constant presence of a small quartz pebble, usually about half-an- inch across. With such a apparatus, I can well conceive that very hard seeds and nuts may be broken, as in the case of the seeds of Adenanthera pavonina already alluded to. The Nicobar pigeon is in fact possessed of a nut-cracking mechanism in its gizzard, by which nuts like those of our hazel tree would be cracked with comparative ease. With reference to the small quartz pebbles found in the gizzards of these birds, I should remark that there is usually only one present, and that it varies in weight between 30 and 60 grains. I was sometimes able to say where the pigeon had obtained its pebble. Thus, in Faro Island the bird often selects one of the bipyramidal quartz crystals, which occur in quantities in the beds of the streams
- 45. in the northern part of the island, where they have been washed out of the quartz-porphyry of the district. In other instances the pebble seems to have been originally a small fragment of chalcedonic quartz, such as composes some of the flakes and worked flints that are found in the soil which has been disturbed for cultivation. Sometimes the pebble is of greasy quartz; and now and then in the absence of quartz the bird has chosen a pebble of some hard volcanic rock. It is a singular circumstance that although these pigeons frequent coral islets where they can easily find hard pebbles of coral-rock, they prefer the quartz pebbles which are of comparatively rare occurrence. I never found any calcareous pebble in their gizzards, and was often at a loss to explain how the bird was able to ascertain for itself the different degree of hardness between the two pebbles, when the quartz was of the dull white variety. . . . I learn from a recent work on New Guinea by the missionaries, Messrs. Chalmers and Gill, that inside the gizzard of each Goura pigeon there is a good-sized pebble much prized by the natives as a charm against spear-thrusts and club blows.[458] The Goura pigeon resembles the Nicobar pigeon in habits; and I think it probable that its gizzard will be found to present a similar structure and mechanism for cracking nuts and hard seeds. The common fruit pigeons (Carpophaga) of the Solomon Islands, living as they do on soft fleshy fruits, and rejecting the hard seeds and kernels, have no peculiar structure of the gizzard, the walls of which are comparatively thin, and are thrown into permanent rugæ somewhat warty oh the surface. [458] “Work and Adventure in New Guinea” (p. 317): London, 1885. One of the most familiar birds in these islands is the “bush-hen,” which belongs to the family of the mound-builders (Megapodiidæ). They bury their eggs in the sand at a depth of between three and four feet. On one occasion in the island of Faro, Lieutenant Heming and his party found eight eggs, in different stages of hatching, thus buried: they were scattered about in the sand; and according to the account of the natives only one egg was laid by each bird. The eggs are sometimes found on the surface of the sand. The young birds are able to fly short distances soon after they are hatched. One that was brought on board astonished us all by flying some thirty or forty yards from the ship and then returning to the rigging. The account recently published by Mr. H. Pryer of his visit to the birds’ nest caves of Borneo[459] has opened up the discussion as to the nature of the substance of which the edible bird’s nest is composed. Many and varied have been the surmises as to the source of this material; but nearly all of them have been based on mere speculation, and have been relegated to the limbo of sea-tales. Amongst the earlier explanations, I may allude to those which have been given by early writers. The swiftlets (Collocalia), which build their nests in this extraordinary fashion, were considered to gather a gelatinous material from the
- 46. ocean-foam, or from the bodies of holothurians, or from the skin of the sun-fish. The Chinese fishermen assured Kæmpfer that their nests were composed of the flesh of the great poulpe. A more probable explanation, however, was found by Rumphius in the occurrence on the sea-coasts of a soft almost cartilaginous plant which he with confidence asserted was the material from which these swiftlets constructed their nests; but subsequently this naturalist inclined to the opinion that the substance of which the edible birds’ nests are composed is merely a secretionary product. In these two views of Rumphius we have the two sides of the controversy very much as it at present stands. On the one hand, there are those who hold that this substance is a secretionary product: on the other hand, the opinion is held that the nest is constructed of a vegetable matter, usually resulting from the growth of a microscopic alga, which is found in the caves and on the faces of the cliffs where the nests occur. All the weight of experiment and of actual observation tends to negative the view of the vegetable origin of this substance. Sir Everard Home in 1817 declared his opinion that certain peculiar gastric glands, which he found in one of these birds, secreted the mucus of which the nest was formed. In 1859, Dr. Bernstein[460], after having carefully studied the habits of the birds in question, came to the conclusion that their nests are formed from the secretion of certain salivary glands which are abnormally developed during the nest-building season. M. Trécul, who held the same opinion, showed that the bird constructs its nest by means of a mucus which flows abundantly from its beak at the pairing time.[461] This last view is strongly supported by Mr. Layard, who unhesitatingly pronounces his opinion that these swiftlets build their nests from the secretionary products of their own salivary glands.[462] However, when Mr. Pryer visited in March, 1884, the birds’ nest caves in British North Borneo, he considered that he had found the source of the material of which the nests were composed in the occurrence of a “fungoid growth,” which incrusted the rock in damp places, and which, when fresh, resembled half-melted gum tragacanth. Without at present expressing an opinion as to the validity of the inference Mr. Pryer drew from his observations in these caves, I may observe that the “fungoid growth” has been determined by Mr. George Murray,[463] of the Botanical Department of the British Museum, to be the result of the growth of a microscopic alga, a species, probably new, of Glœocapsa; whilst the edible nests from these caves, according to a chemical and microscopical examination made by Mr. J. R. Green,[464] have been shown to be formed in the great mass of mucin, which is the chief constituent of the mucous secretions of animals. After examining various specimens of edible nests from other localities, Mr. Green subsequently confirmed the results of his first experiments. The nest-substance, as he unhesitatingly states, is composed of mucin, or of a body closely related to it.[465] So far, therefore, there would appear to be but little evidence to support the view of Mr. Pryer that the species of alga, which he found incrusting the rock in the vicinity of the Borneo caves, supplied
- 47. the material for the construction of the nests of the swiftlets. However, before proceeding to state my own opinion on the matter, I will refer briefly to my observations in the Solomon Islands relating to this question. [459] Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1884: p. 532. [460] Journ. für Ornithologie, 1859, pp. 112-115; also Proceed. Zoolog. Soc., 1885, p. 610. [461] “A General System of Botany,” by Le Maout and Decaisne: London, 1873, p. 983. [462] “Nature,” Nov. 27th, 1884. [463] Proc. Zoolog. Soc., 1884: p. 532. [464] Proc. Zool. Soc., 1884, p. 532. [465] “Nature,” Dec. 11th, 1884 and May 27th, 1886. A species of Collocalia, which usually frequents inaccessible sea-caves and cliffs, is frequently to be observed on the coasts of the islands of this group. The natives of Treasury Island call this bird “kin-kin;” but they have no knowledge of the nutrient qualities of the substance of which it builds its nest, and they were much amused when I told them of its being a Chinese luxury. I only came upon the nests of this bird on one occasion, and that was in some caves on Oima Atoll in Bougainville Straits. A description of these caves will be here unnecessary. As in the instance of the birds of the Borneo caverns, these swiftlets shared their retreats with a number of large bats, the accumulation of whose droppings had produced a thick reddish-brown deposit on the floors of the caves. The nests, which were formed for the most part of fibres derived evidently from the vegetable drift[466] at the mouths of the caves, were thickly incrusted with the gelatinous incrustation which projected as winglets from the sides and fastened them to the rock. [466] The husks of pandanus seeds more particularly. A reddish soft gelatinous incrustation occurred on the faces of some of the cliffs in the vicinity of the caves. It was composed of an aggregation of the cells of a microscopic unicellular alga which measure 1⁄2500 of an inch in diameter. Unfortunately the specimens of this growth which I collected have been mislaid, but there can be little doubt that it is similar to the “fungoid growth” which Mr. Pryer describes in connection with the Borneo caves, and which, through the kindness of Mr. George Murray, I had the opportunity of seeing at the British Museum. On the faces of the coral limestone cliffs of some islands, such as on the east coast of Santa Anna, a like growth occurs in considerable quantity. In its freshest condition, it may be described as a reddish-yellow, gum-like substance forming a layer 1⁄4 to 1⁄8 of an inch in thickness. Where it incrusts the overhanging face of a cliff, it is more fluid in consistence and sometimes hangs in
- 48. little pendulous masses, one to two inches in length, the extremities of which are often distended with water. This alga decomposes the hard coral limestone, making the surface of the rock soft and powdery. All stages in the growth of this substance may be observed. The older portions are very dark in colour and have a tough consistence; and in the final stage it occurs as a black powder covering the rock surface. On examining this alga with the microscope, I found it to be formed almost entirely of granular matter apparently resulting from the death of the cells; whilst the presence of a few cellular bodies alone gave me an indication of its true nature. From my observations relating to the subject of the edible bird’s nest, it may be therefore inferred that in the Solomon Islands, as in Borneo, the occurrence of these nests is associated with the presence of a protophytic alga, which incrusts the rocks of the locality as a gelatinous or gum-like substance. Whether or not the birds employ this material in forming their nests, is a question which would appear to have been already answered in the negative; but it seems to me that those who hold that this material is used for this purpose might justly claim that the final judgment should be suspended, until a chemical examination of this vegetable substance has been made with the object of determining whether it might not yield a material closely resembling mucin. Amongst the nitrogenous constituents of plants occurs the so-called vegetable albumen, which in its chemical composition and in its behaviour with re-agents does not differ materially from the blood-albumen of the animal organism, of which in fact it is the source. In suggesting, therefore, that a vegetable mucin may be found in this low plant-growth, I do not pass beyond the bounds of probability.[467] [467] Vide a letter by the writer in “Nature,” June 3rd, 1886. Small scorpions came under my notice in Faro Island. They are not usually more than 11⁄2 in length and occur in narrow clefts of rocks and in the crevices of trees. I was stung by one on the thumb, but the pain was trifling and soon passed away.[468] [468] Specimens of these scorpions were given by me to the Australian Museum, Sydney. A species of Iulus or Millipede, which attains a length of from 6 to 7 inches, is commonly found in the eastern islands of the Solomon Group on the trunks of fallen trees and amongst decaying vegetable débris. It is often to be seen amongst the rotting leaves that have gathered inside the bases of the fronds of the Bird’s-nest Fern (Asplenium nidus). These Myriapods seem to be less frequent in the islands of Bougainville Straits towards the opposite end of the group, as I do not remember seeing any large Iuli in that locality: their place appears to be taken by another Myriapod, apparently a Polydesmus, growing to a
- 49. length of 21⁄2 inches, which I found amongst decaying vegetation at all elevations up to 1900 feet above the sea, as on the summit of Faro Island. But to return to the Iuli, I should remark that this genus of Myriapods evidently possesses some means of transportal across wide tracts of sea, since, amongst other islands similarly situated, it is found in Tristan da Cunha,[469] in the South Atlantic Ocean, and I have found it in the Seychelles, in the Indian Ocean. The habits of these Millipedes would render it highly probable that they have reached the oceanic islands on vegetable drift, such as floating logs. It is, however, a noteworthy circumstance that they do not seem to be able to withstand immersion in sea-water for any length of time. In experimenting on the Solomon Island species, I found that they were able to survive an hour-and-a-half’s complete immersion in sea-water, but that an immersion of three hours killed them. One individual, out of several experimented on, survived for twelve hours after it was taken out, but only in a half lifeless condition.[470] It may, therefore, have been that the Iulus has been transported to oceanic islands by such agencies as canoes and ships, rather than by means of floating trees.[471] [469] Moseley’s “Naturalist on the Challenger,” p. 134. [470] This species of Iulus was able to sustain a longer submersion in fresh-water, without apparently any injurious effects. Those experimented on recovered after being kept under water for four hours, but died after a submersion of six hours. [471] As bearing on this point, it might be interesting to determine whether these large Iuli occur on islands far from land which are believed never to have been inhabited. Like other species of the genus, the Solomon Island Iulus exhales a very pungent and disagreeable odour, which is caused by an acrid fluid secreted by small vesicles, of which each segment of the body contains a pair.[472] On holding my nose for a moment over the mouth of a bottle, containing two of these large Millipedes, I experienced a strong sensation in the nasal passages, reminding me much of the effects of an inhalation of chlorine gas. I had previously learned from resident traders that these Millipedes have a habit of ejecting an acrid fluid when disturbed, which, if it entered the eye, was liable to cause acute inflammation; and the instance was related to me of the captain of some ship, trading in these islands, who lost the sight of one of his eyes from this cause. Mr. C. F. Wood learned from the natives of St. Christoval, in 1873, that these Myriapods “could squirt out a poisonous juice, which was dangerous if it happened to touch one’s eye;” but he adds, “there seemed no great probability of their doing this.”[473] However, I usually found that native testimony, in such matters, was very reliable; and in the instance of this reputed habit of the Iulus, my personal experience has convinced me of its reality. Whilst handling one of these Millipedes as it lay on the trunk of a fallen tree in Ugi Island, I felt a sudden smarting sensation in the right eye, caused apparently by some fluid ejected into it. Remembering the injurious effect attributed to this habit of the
- 50. Iulus, I at once plunged my head under the water of a stream, in which I happened to be standing up to my waist, and I kept my eye open to wash away the offending fluid. During the remainder of the day, there was an uncomfortable feeling in the eye and somewhat increased lachrymation; but on the following morning these effects had disappeared. At the time of this occurrence, my face was removed about a foot from the Millipede; and, although I was uncertain from what part of the body the fluid was ejected, I did not care, under the circumstances, to continue the inquiry. [472] Hoeven’s Zoology. (Eng. edit.) Vol. I., p. 291. [473] “A Yachting Cruise in the South Seas,” p. 131. (London, 1875.) Amongst the first living creatures to greet the visitor as he lands on the beach of a coral island in the Pacific, is a small species of Hermit-Crab, belonging to the genus Coenobita, which frequents the beach in great numbers. The crab withdraws itself just within the mouth of the shell, where it forms a perfect operculum, by means mainly of the large flattened chelæ of the left great claw which is arched over by the left leg of the third pair, whilst the right claw and the right leg of the second pair serve to complete the shield The most plucky and pugnacious of these little crabs are those which occupy cast-off Nerita shells, a character which probably arises from their consciousness of the solid strength of the home they have chosen: and, strange to say, the tiny bosses on the surfaces of the large pincers, which are outermost in the improvised operculum, resemble similar markings on the outer side of the operculum of the Nerita (N. marmorata, Hombr and Jacq), whose shell they often inhabit. Mr. Darwin[474] observed that the different species of hermit-crabs, which he found on the Keeling Islands in the Indian Ocean, used always certain kind of shells; but I could not satisfy myself that such was the case in the instance of the Solomon Island hermit- crabs. In the case of the common beach species of Coenobita, I found, after carefully examining a number of individuals to satisfy myself of their being of the same species, that shells of the genera Turbo, Nerita, Strombus, Natica, Distorsio, Truncatella, Terebra, Melania, &c., &c., contained the same species of Coenobita, whether the individual was large enough to occupy a Turbo shell of the size of a walnut or sufficiently small to select the tiny shell of the Truncatella for its home. Another species of the same genus prefers usually the vicinity of the beach; but it may occur at heights up to 200 feet above the sea. It is rather larger than the beach species, and differs amongst other characters in the more globose form of the large claws and in the greater relative size of the left one. It occupies shells of different kinds, such as those of Nerita, Turbo, &c. A still larger species, which frequents the vicinity of the beach, usually selects Turbo shells,
- 51. apparently because of their larger size. All the other species of Coenobita, which I met with, used, when I touched them, to withdraw themselves within their shells and close them up at once with their claws; but this kind, when I caught hold of the Turbo shell that it carried, left the shell behind in my fingers with apparent unconcern and crawled leisurely away, displaying, somewhat indecorously, the rudimentary plates on the back of its abdomen. These are the plates that attain their greatest development in the Cocoa-nut Crab (Birgus latro), which is thus able to dispense with a shell altogether. The greatest heights at which I found hermit-crabs were in the island of Faro on the two highest peaks, which are elevated respectively 1600 and 1900 feet above the sea. In both these localities, the crab had reached the very summit and could not have climbed higher. The species was apparently different from, though closely allied to, the common beach species, and frequented the shells of a land-snail (Helix). I was indebted to Lieutenant Heming for directing my attention to the hermit-crab, found 1900 feet above the sea. It appears to me likely that these hermit-crabs will be found at much greater heights in this group, since, in this island, their ambition to rise had carried them up as far as they could go. [474] “Journal of the Beagle,” p. 457. Other species of hermit-crabs, that are common in these islands, belong to the genus Pagurus. They are conspicuously distinguished from the species of Coenobita, above described, by their first pair of claws, which are small and weak and ill-adapted for defensive purposes. For this reason, these species are less able to look after themselves; and since they cannot form the operculum-like shield with their claws at the mouth of the shell, they always choose shells which will permit of their retiring well within it, so as to be out of the reach of their enemies. Some species are found in the stream-courses and in the brackish water near their mouths, when they often frequent cast-off Melania shells. Other species (?) prefer the sea-water on the reef-flats. I noticed one individual that displayed its eccentricity of disposition, in selecting, as its abode, the hollow tube of a small water-logged stick, about six inches long, which it dragged about after it during its peregrinations, and into which it retreated when alarmed. On one occasion, I observed a large Dolium shell, moving briskly about in a pool of salt- water, which, on picking up, I found to be tenanted by a Pagurus, so ridiculously small, in comparison with the size of the shell, that when frightened it retreated to the very uppermost whorl, and, notwithstanding the wide mouth of the shell, could not be seen. So light was the weight of the crab, that, on account of the buoyancy of its shell, it floated lightly on the surface of the water, on which I had placed it with the mouth of the shell uppermost, and was blown by a slight breeze across a pool of water, some twenty yards in width. While it was afloat, the shrewd little occupant retired to the innermost recess of its home; but as
- 52. soon as the shell had grounded, it protruded its head and pincers and endeavoured to overturn the shell, which it finally succeeded in accomplishing. In the case of these two genera of hermit-crabs, Coenobita and Pagurus, it was interesting to notice the relation existing between the defensive capabilities of the crab, and the relative size of the shell it selected as its home. The Pagurus, with its weak slender pincers, chooses large shells within which it can retire well out of reach when alarmed. The Coenobita, with its stout pincers, prefers shells much smaller, relatively speaking, and ensconces itself snugly in the body whorl, forming an operculum with its claws. As the hermit-crab, Coenobita, crawls along the dry sand of a beach, it leaves behind it characteristic pinnate tracks which may be often traced for several feet. The lateral markings are produced by the claws and legs working on each side of the shell; whilst a central groove is formed by the weight of the shell itself. As shown by the arrow in the diagram, the lateral markings point in the direction of the course which the hermit-crab has taken. Sometimes only a single row of lateral tracks accompanies the grooves produced by the shell. Such markings were produced by a hermit-crab when frightened by my approach. It turned its front towards me, and crawled backwards, by working most of his claws and legs on one side of the shell. In the case of the larger hermit-crabs, which are much less frequent on the beach, each limb produces a distinct print on the sand; but with the small species of Coenobita which infests the beach, each lateral marking, as shown in the diagram, is produced by a single movement of the claws situated on the same side of the shell. The hermit-crabs only leave their tracks on the dry loose sand. One individual, that I placed on sand, still wet from the retreating tide, crawled along without leaving any impression. I have described these impressions with some care, as they bear on the origin of the surface-markings of rocks of shallow-water formation, a subject recently discussed in the geological world. It is highly probable that some of the larger and heavier forms of the Anomura (and, in fact, of the Decapoda generally) would produce prints such as I have here described, both on mud-flats left dry by the tide, and on the soft bottom in shallow depths. A cast of the impressions thus produced would have an unmistakeable plant-like form. Whilst examining the island of Simbo, I noticed some singular Medusæ in a small mangrove-swamp, which is inclosed in the low point that forms the south shore
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