Chapter 8 : Memory

CSE323 Memory Management 1
CSE323 Memory ManagementCSE323 Memory Management
These slides were compiled from the OSC textbook slides (Silberschatz, Galvin,
and Gagne) and the instructor’s class materials.

Base and Limit Registers
 A pair of base and limit registers define the logical address space
 CPU must check every memory access generated in user mode to be sure it is between base
and limit for that user

Hardware Address Protection with Base and Limit Registers

Address Binding
 Programs on disk, ready to be brought into memory to execute form an input queue
 Inconvenient to have first user process physical address always at 0000
 Addresses represented in different ways at different stages of a program’s life
 Source code addresses are usually symbolic
 A Compiler bind this symbolic address to relocatable addresses
 i.e. “14 bytes from beginning of this module”
 Linker or loader will bind relocatable addresses to absolute addresses

i.e. 74014
 Each binding maps one address space to another

From Source to Executable
Compiler
main()
sub1()
data
source
program
foo.c
main
sub1
data
object
modules
foo.o
printf
scanf
gets
fopen
exit
data
...
static
library
libc.a
Linkage
Editor
main
sub1
data
printf
exit
data
load
module
a.out
other
programs
...
main
sub1
data
printf
exit
data
other
...
...
kernel
Machine
memory
?
(system
calls)
Loader
(Run Time)
Dynamic library case not shown
“Load time”

Binding of Instructions and Data to
Memory Addresses
Compile time: If memory location known a priori, absolute code can be
generated; must recompile code if starting location changes.
Load time: If memory location is not known at compile time, compiler
must generate relocatable code.
Loader knows final location and binds addresses for that location
Execution time: If the process can be moved during its execution,
binding must be delayed until run time. Need hardware support for
address maps (e.g., base and limit registers).

Memory-Management Unit
(MMU)
 MMU is the Hardware device that maps virtual address to physical address at run time
 To start, consider simple scheme where the value in the relocation register is added to every
address generated by a user process at the time it is sent to memory
 Base register now called relocation register
 MS-DOS on Intel 80x86 used 4 relocation registers
 The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses
 Execution-time binding occurs when reference is made to location in memory

Logical vs. Physical Address
Space
 Physical address: The actual
hardware memory address.
 32-bit CPU’s physical
address 0 ~ 232
-1
(00000000 – FFFFFFFF)
 128MB’s memory
address 0 ~ 227
-1
(00000000 – 07FFFFFF)
 Logical address: Each
(relocatable) program
assumes the starting location
is always 0 and the memory
space is much larger than
actual memory
Dynamic relocation using a
relocation register

Memory Protection
 For each process
 Logical space is mapped to a contiguous portion of physical space
 A relocation and a limit register are prepared

Relocation register = the value of the smallest physical address

Limit register = the range of logical address space

Memory Protection
 When the CPU scheduler selects a process for
execution, the dispatcher loads the relocation and
limit registers with the correct values as part of the
context switch.
 Every address generated by the CPU is checked
against these registers.

Dynamic Loading
 Unused routine is never
loaded
 Useful when the code
size is large
 Unix execv can be
categorized:
 Overloading a necessary
program onto the current
program.
main( ) {
f1( );
}
f1( ) {
f2( );
}
f2( ) {
f3( );
}
memory
1. Loaded when called

Dynamic Linking
 Linking postponed until
execution time.
 Small piece of code,
stub, used to locate the
appropriate memory-
resident library routine.
 Stub replaces itself with
the address of the
routine, and executes
the routine.
 Operating system needs
to check if routine is in
processes’ memory
address
int x;
void main(){
stub = dlopen(“lib”):
f = dlsym(stub, “f1”);
f( );
}
extern int x;
f1( ) {
x = 5;
}
lib.so.a
memory
int x;
void main(){
stub = dlopen(“lib”):
f = dlsym(stub, “f1”);
f( );
}
extern int x;
f1( ) {
x = 5;
}

Overlays
 Code and data used at
any given time are
placed in memory.
 New code is overloaded
onto the code not used
any more.
 It is not so frequently
used now.

Swapping
 When a process p1 is
blocked so long (for
I/O), it is swapped out
to the backing store,
(swap area in Unix.)
 When a process p2 is
(served by I/O and )
back to a ready
queue, it is swapped
in the memory.
 Use the Unix top
command to see
which processes are
swapped out.

Contiguous Memory Allocation
 The main memory is usually divided into two parts :
one for the operating system and one for the user
processes.
 Where the OS will reside will decide upon the location
of interrupt vector.

Memory Allocation
(Fixed sized partition)
 Memory is divided to fixed-
sized partitions
 Each partition is allocated to a
process
 IBM OS/360
 Then, how about this
process?
OS
process1
process2
process3
process4
?

Variable-Sized Partitions
 Primarily used in Batch environment
 The OS keeps a table indicating which parts of
memory are available and which are occupied
 Initially all memory is available for the user processes
and is considered as one large block of available
memory, “HOLE”.
 When a process arrives and needs memory, we
search for a hole large enough for this process.
 If we find one, we allocate only as much memory as
is needed.

Variable-Sized Partitions
 Whenever one of running processes, (p8) is terminated
 Find a ready process whose size is best fit to the hole, (p9)
 Allocate it from the top of hole
 If there is still an available hole, repeat the above (for p10).
 Any size of processes, (up to the physical memory size) can be
allocated.
OS
process 5
process 8
process 2
OS
process 5
process 2
OS
process 5
process 2
OS
process 5
process 9
process 2
process 9
process 10

Dynamic Storage-Allocation
Problem
 First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough. (Fastest
search)
 Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must
search entire list, unless ordered by size. Produces the
smallest leftover hole. (Best memory usage)
 Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire
list. Produces the largest leftover hole (that could be used
effectively later.)
 http://thumbsup2life.blogspot.com/2011/02/best-fit-first-fit-and-wors
First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of
speed and storage utilization.

Example
List of Jobs Size Turnaround
Job 1 100k 3
Job 2 10k 1
Job 3 35k 2
Job 4 15k 1
Job 5 23k 2
Job 6 6k 1
Job 7 25k 1
Job 8 55k 2
Job 9 88k 3
Job 10 100k 3
            Memory Block            Size
                      Block 1                    50k
                      Block 2    200k
                      Block 3    70k
                      Block 4                  115k
                      Block 5    15k

Best Fit (Turn 1 and 2)
Block Size Process
1 50 P3
2 200 P5
3 70 P4
4 115 P1
5 15 P2
Block Size Process
1 50 P3
2 200 P5
3 70 P7
4 115 P1
5 15 P6

Block Size Process
1 50
2 200 P9
3 70 P8
4 115 P1
5 15
Block Size Process
1 50
2 200 P9
3 70 P8
4 115 P10
5 15

Block Size Process
1 50
2 200 P9
3 70
4 115 P10
5 15
Block Size Process
1 50
2 200
3 70
4 115 P10
5 15

External Fragmentation
 Problem
 50-percent rule (for first fit):
total memory space exists
to satisfy a request, but it is
not contiguous.
 Solution
 Compaction: shuffle the
memory contents to place
all free memory together in
one large block

Relocatable code

Expensive
 Paging: Allow non-
contiguous logical-to-
phyiscal space mapping.
process1
process2
process3
Can’t fit
Shift up

Internal Fragmentation
 With the scheme of breaking the physical memory
into fixed-sized blocks, and allocate memory in unit of
block size, results internal fragmentation.
 With this approach, the memory allocated to a
process may be slightly larger than the requested
memory. The difference between these two number
is internal fragmentation.

Segmentation
 Memory-management scheme that
supports user view of memory
 A program is a collection of segments
 A segment is a logical unit such as:
main program
procedure
function
method
object
local variables, global variables
common block
stack
symbol table
arrays

Logical View of Segmentation
Data
Code
Stack
Heap
user view of memory
Data
Heap
Stack
Code
logical memory space

Segmentation Architecture
 Logical address consists of a two tuple:
<segment-number, offset>,
 Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical addresses;
each table entry has:
 base – contains the starting physical address where the
segments reside in memory
 limit – specifies the length of the segment
 Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the
segment table’s location in memory
 Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number
of segments used by a program;
segment number s is legal if s < STLR

Segmentation Architecture
(Cont.)
 Protection
 With each entry in segment table associate:

validation bit = 0 ⇒ illegal segment

read/write/execute privileges
 Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing occurs
at segment level
 Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a dynamic
storage-allocation problem
 A segmentation example is shown in the following diagram

Segmentation Example
used
PC
used
SP
Stack top
Currently executed
offset d1 d1
offset d2
d2

Chapter 8 : Memory

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Chapter 8 : Memory

Editor's Notes