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1
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Essentials of Database Management (Hoffer et al.)
Chapter 6 Introduction to SQL
1) Which of the following is a purpose of the SQL standard?
A) To specify syntax and semantics of SQL data definition and manipulation
B) To specify minimal and complete standards, which permit different degrees of adoption in
products
C) To define the data structures and basic operations for SQL databases
D) All of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 193
Topic: Origins of the SQL Standard
AACSB: Use of Information Technology
2) The benefits of a standardized relational language include:
A) application longevity.
B) reduced training costs.
C) cross-system communication.
D) all of the above.
Answer: D
3) The ________ is the structure that contains descriptions of objects such as tables and views
created by users.
A) SQL
B) schema
C) catalog
D) master view
Answer: B
Topic: The SQL Environment
AACSB: Analytic Skills, Use of Information Technology
4) ________ is a set of commands used to control a database, which includes security.
A) DML
B) DDL
C) DCL
D) DPL
Answer: C

2
5) ________ is a set of commands used to update and query a database.
A) DML
B) DDL
C) DCL
D) DPL
Answer: A
6) DDL is typically used during which phases of the development process?
A) Implementation
B) Physical design
C) Analysis
D) All of the above
Answer: B
7) The command for creating a database is:
A) create table.
B) create view.
C) create schema.
D) create authorization.
Answer: C
Topic: Defining a Database in SQL
8) The SQL command ________ defines a logical table from one or more tables or views.
A) create table
B) alter table
C) create view
D) create relationship
Answer: C
Subtopic: Generating SQL Database Definitions

3
9) Any create command may be reversed by using a ________ command.
A) truncate
B) drop
C) delete
D) unpack
Answer: B
10) The first in a series of steps to follow when creating a table is to:
A) identify columns that must be unique.
B) identify each attribute and its characteristics.
C) create an index.
D) identify columns that must be null.
Answer: B
Subtopic: Creating Tables
11) The SQL command ________ adds one or more new columns to a table.
A) create table
B) alter table
C) create view
D) create relationship
Answer: B
Subtopic: Changing Table Definitions
12) What does the following SQL statement do?
Alter Table Customer_T
Add (Type Varchar (2));
A) Alters the Customer_T table to accept Type 2 Varchars
B) Alters the Customer_T table to be a Type 2 Varchar
C) Alters the Customer_T table, and adds a field called "Type"
D) Alters the Customer_T table by adding a 2-byte field called "Varchar"
Answer: C

4
13) What does the following SQL command do?
insert into Customer_T values (001,'John Smith','231 West St','Boston','MA','02115');
A) Adds a new record to the Customer_T
B) Creates the Customer_T table
C) Deletes the Customer_T table
D) Updates the Customer_T table
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 203,204
Topic: Inserting, Updating, and Deleting Data
AACSB: Analytic Skills
14) Given a table named store with 5 fields: store_id, address, city, state, zipcode, why would the
following insert command not work?
insert into store values ('234 Park Street')
A) It would work just fine.
B) You must specify the fields to insert if you are only inserting some of the fields.
C) There is no table keyword.
D) None of the above.
Answer: B
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Delete from Customer_T
where state = 'HI';
A) Deletes all records from customer_t where the state is equal to HI
B) Removes the Customer_T table from the database
C) Deletes all records from the Customer_T table
D) None of the above
Answer: A
Subtopic: Deleting Database Contents

5
Update Product_T
Set Unit_Price = 775
Where Product_ID = 7
A) Changes the price of a unit called Product_T to 7
B) Changes the unit price of Product 7 to 775
C) Changes the length of the Unit_Price field to 775
D) Updates the Product_T table to have a unit price of 775
Answer: B
Subtopic: Updating Database Contents
17) Which of the following is a technique for optimizing the internal performance of the
relational data model?
A) Avoiding indexes on secondary keys
B) Clustering data
C) Not reporting statistics to save machine resources
D) Using random index organizations
Answer: B
Topic: Internal Schema Definitions in RDBMSs
18) Indexes are created in most RDBMSs to:
A) provide a quicker way to store data.
B) decrease the amount of disk space utilized.
C) provide rapid random and sequential access to base-table data.
D) increase the cost of implementation.
Answer: C
Topic: Internal Schema Definitions in RDBMSs
Subtopic: Creating Indexes

6
19) In an SQL statement, which of the following parts states the conditions for row selection?
A) Select
B) From
C) Where
D) Group By
Answer: C
Topic: Processing Single Tables
Subtopic: Clauses of the SELECT Statement
Select * From Customer Where Cust_Type = "Best"
A) Selects all the fields from the Customer table for each row with a customer labeled "Best"
B) Selects the "*" field from the Customer table for each row with a customer labeled "Best"
C) Selects fields with a "*" in them from the Customer table
D) Selects all the fields from the Customer table for each row with a customer labeled "*"
Answer: A
Subtopic: Clauses of the SELECT Statement
21) What result will the following SQL statement produce?
Select Avg(standard_price) as average from Product_V;
A) The average of all products in Product_V
B) The average Standard_Price of all products in Product_V
C) The average price of all products
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 209-210
Subtopic: Using Expressions

7
22) Which of the following questions is answered by the SQL statement?
Select Count (Product_Description) from Product_T;
A) How many products are in the table Product_T?
B) How many products have product descriptions in the Product Table?
C) How many characters are in the field name "Product_Description"?
D) How many different columns named "Product_Description" are there in table Product_T?
Answer: B
Subtopic: Using Functions
23) What results will be produced by the following SQL query?
Select sum(standard_price) as Total_Price
from Product_V
where Product_Type = 'WOOD';
A) The total price of all products that are of type wood
B) The total price of all products
C) The Standard_Price of the first wood product in the table
D) The Standard_Price of any wood product in the table
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 209-210
Subtopic: Using Expressions
24) Which of the following counts ONLY rows that contain a value?
A) Count
B) Count(*)
C) Tally(*)
D) Checknum
Answer: A

8
25) Which of the following will produce the minimum of all standard prices?
A) Select standard_price from Product_V where Standard_Price = min;
B) Select min(standard_price) from Product_V;
C) Select Standard_Price from min(Product_V);
D) Select min(Standard_Price) from Product_V where Standard_Price = min(Standard_Price);
Answer: B
26) What will result from the following SQL Select statement?
Select min(Product_Description)
from Product_V;
A) The minimum value of Product_Description will be displayed.
B) An error message will be generated.
C) The first product description alphabetically in Product_V will be shown.
D) None of the above.
Answer: C
27) Which of the following is the wildcard operator in SQL statements?
A) < >
B) *
C) =
D) &
Answer: B
Subtopic: Using Wildcards

9
28) What result set will the following query return?
Select Item_No
from Order_V
where quantity > 10;
A) The Item_No of all orders that had more than 10 items
B) The Order_Id of all orders that had more than one item
C) The Order_Id of all orders that had more than 10 items
D) The Item_No of all orders that had 10 or more items
Answer: A
Subtopic: Using Comparison Operators
29) What result set will the following query return?
Select Item_No, description
from item
where weight > 100 and weight < 200;
A) The Item_No and description for all items weighing less than 100
B) The Item_No for all items weighing between 101 and 199
C) The Item_No and description for all items weighing between 101 and 199
D) The Item_No for all items weighing more than 200
Answer: C
Subtopic: Using Ranges for Qualification
30) To eliminate duplicate rows in a query, the ________ qualifier is used in the SQL Select
command.
A) alter
B) distinct
C) check
D) specific
Answer: B
Subtopic: Using Distinct Values

10
31) What result set is returned from the following query?
Select Customer_Name, telephone
from customers
where city in ('Boston','New York','Denver');
A) The Customer_Name and telephone of all customers
B) The Customer_Name and telephone of all customers living in either Boston, New York or
Denver
C) The Customer_Name and telephone of all customers living in Boston and New York and
Denver
D) The Customer_Name of all customers living in Boston, New York or Denver
Answer: B
Subtopic: IN and NOT IN with Lists
32) To get all the customers from Hawaii sorted together, which of the following would be used?
A) ORDER BY
B) GROUP BY
C) HAVING
D) SORT
Answer: A
Subtopic: Sorting Results: The ORDER BY Clause
33) A single value returned from an SQL query that includes an aggregate function is called a(n):
A) agate.
B) scalar aggregate.
C) vector aggregate.
D) summation.
Answer: B
Subtopic: Categorizing Results: The GROUP BY Clause

11
34) Multiple values returned from an SQL query that includes an aggregate function are called:
A) vector aggregates.
B) scalar aggregates.
C) agates.
D) summations.
Answer: A
35) Which of the following can produce scalar and vector aggregates?
A) ORDER BY
B) GROUP BY
C) HAVING
D) SORT
Answer: B
36) What will be returned when the following SQL statement is executed?
Select driver_no,count(*) as num_deliveries
from deliveries
group by driver_no;
A) A listing of all drivers, sorted by driver number
B) A listing of each driver as well as the number of deliveries that he or she has made
C) A count of all of the deliveries made by all drivers
Answer: B

12
37) What will be returned when the following SQL statement is executed?
Select driver_no, count(*) as num_deliveries
from deliveries
where state = 'MA'
group by driver_no;
A) A listing of all drivers who made deliveries to state = 'MA', sorted by driver number
B) A listing of each driver who made deliveries to state = 'MA' as well as the number of
deliveries that each driver has made to that state
C) A count of all of the deliveries made to state = 'MA' by all drivers
Answer: B
38) Which of the following finds all groups meeting stated conditions?
A) Select
B) Where
C) Having
D) Find
Answer: C
Subtopic: Qualifying Results by Categories: The HAVING Clause
39) What will be returned when the following SQL query is executed?
Select driver_no, count(*) as num_deliveries
from deliveries
group by driver_no
having count(*) > 2;
A) A listing of all drivers who made more than 2 deliveries as well as a count of the number of
deliveries
B) A listing of all drivers
C) A listing of the number of deliveries greater than 2
D) A listing of all drivers who made more than 2 deliveries
Answer: A
Subtopic: Qualifying Results by Categories: The HAVING Clause

13
40) Which of the following is true of the order in which SQL statements are evaluated?
A) The SELECT clause is always processed first.
B) The SELECT clause is always processed last.
C) The SELECT clause is processed before the ORDER BY clause.
D) The GROUP BY clause is processed before the WHERE clause.
Answer: C
41) A ________ view is materialized when referenced.
A) virtual
B) dynamic
C) materialized
D) base
Answer: B
Topic: Using and Defining Views
42) SQL is both an American and international standard for database access.
Answer: TRUE
Topic: Introduction
43) SQL has been implemented only in the mainframe and midrange environments.
Answer: FALSE
Topic: Introduction
44) SQL originated from a project called System-S.
Answer: FALSE
Topic: History of the SQL Standard
45) One of the original purposes of the SQL standard was to provide a vehicle for portability of
database definition and application modules between conforming DBMSs.
Answer: TRUE

14
46) A major benefit of SQL as a standard is reduced training costs.
Answer: TRUE
47) Implementation of a standard can never stifle creativity and innovation.
Answer: FALSE
48) Applications can be moved from one machine to another when each machine uses SQL.
Answer: TRUE
49) A catalog is the structure that contains object descriptions created by a user.
Answer: FALSE
50) Some DBMS can handle graphic data types as well as text and numbers.
Answer: TRUE
51) DCL is used to update the database with new records.
Answer: FALSE
52) A database table is defined using the data definition language (DDL).
Answer: TRUE
53) A database is maintained and queried using the data mapping language (DML).
Answer: FALSE

15
54) The CREATE SCHEMA DDL command is used to create a table.
Answer: FALSE
55) When creating tables, it's important to decide which columns will allow null values before
the table is created.
Answer: TRUE
56) When creating a table, it is not important to consider foreign key—primary key mates.
Answer: FALSE
57) A referential integrity constraint specifies that the existence of an attribute in one table
depends upon the existence of a foreign key in the same or another table.
Answer: FALSE
Subtopic: Creating Data Integrity Controls
58) The DELETE TABLE DDL command is used to remove a table from the database.
Answer: FALSE
Subtopic: Removing Tables
59) The ALTER TABLE command is used to change a table definition.
Answer: TRUE

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vitreous substance, and carbonate of copper, mixed with wax, and a
fragrant gum. This analysis proves that the surface of the shafts of
the columns of the Theseum and other parts of the edifices from
which these coatings were taken, were covered with a coloured
coating. The glass eyes also of the Ionic capitals of the tetrastyle
portico of the Acropolis, at Athens, prove, that various materials
were employed by the Athenians in the decoration of the exterior of
their marble buildings.
“But although the statues and bas-reliefs of the Parthenon, at
least those portions of them preserved in the Elgin Collection, do not
afford any evidence of the use of colour, yet there is a constant
repetition of small circular holes in the horses’ heads and manes,
and in one hand of each rider, showing that there had been
originally bridles and straps to the horses, either of metal, leather, or
some other similar substance. Similar holes are perceptible in the
statue, No. 94 (in red), of Proserpine, one of the two female figures
of the eastern tympanum of the Parthenon, called also the Seasons
or the Hours; they are in the arm, just above the wrist, apparently
for the purpose of attaching bracelets, and in the shoulders at the
junction of the drapery, as though a metal rosette had been affixed
there. On the neck of one of the Fates, No. 97 (in red), are also two
holes, which seem to have been for a necklace. In the back of the
torso of Victory, No. 96 (in red), are large holes, in which it is
supposed bronze wings were fastened. No. 101 (in red) is a
fragment of the upper part of the head[6]
of Minerva; the sockets of
the eyes are hollow, and were evidently filled with metal or with
coloured stones, and holes remain in the upper part of the head,
affording a presumption that there was originally a bronze helmet
attached to the marble. The angles of the ægis of No. 102 (in red),
which is a fragment of the statue of Minerva, one of the principal
figures of the western pediment, are drilled with holes, by which the
metallic serpents were attached, and in the centre a head of the
Gorgon.”
6. “This fragment alone may perhaps be considered as an exception to the
previous statement, that there are no evidences of colour on the statues or figures

of the Parthenon. The hair appears to have a red tint, which becomes distinctly
apparent upon the application of water.”—Note of the Committee.
(Signed)
“Thos. L. Donaldson, Hon. Sec.”
The following is the report which was laid before the committee,
from Dr. Faraday, upon some portions of coatings of marble taken
from several buildings, at Athens, by Professor Donaldson.
“My dear Sir,
“I return you the box, with the remains of the samples.
“A. Portion of coating taken from the antæ of the Propylaeum.
“The blue produced by carbonate of copper: wax being mingled with the
colour.
“B. Portion of coating taken from the soffits of the mutules of the Theseum.
“The blue is a frit or vitreous substance coloured by copper. Wax is present
here.
“C. Portion of coating taken from the columns of the Theseum.
“I am doubtful about this surface. I do not find wax or a mineral colour,
unless it be one due to a small portion of iron. A fragrant gum appears to be
present in some pieces, and a combustible substance in all. Perhaps some
vegetable substance has been used.
“D. Portions of coatings from the caissons or lacunaria of the Theseum.
“The blue is a copper frit, or glass, with wax.
“E. Portions of coating from the northern wing of the Propylaea.
“The colour a carbonate of copper. Wax is present.
“F. Ditto, ditto (north wing of the Propylaea) as E.
“I also return you the drawings and letter.
“Every truly yours,
(Signed) “M. Faraday.
“T. L. Donaldson, Esq., &c.”

ON
THE ORIGIN OF POLYCHROMY IN
ARCHITECTURE.[7]
By PROFESSOR SEMPER.
From the time of antiquity to our own day men have sought to
discover or invent the probable origin of the various systems of
architecture. Besides the well known hut of Vitruvius, and the no
less celebrated grotto of the Ichthyophagi or fish-eating races, (the
supposed type of the Egyptian temples), the tent of the Nomad, or
wandering races, occupies a very important place in our theories of
the origin of styles. In the catenary formed by the fall of the drapery
of a Mongol tent, has been recognised the type of Chinese and
Tartar architecture.
7. Extracted from an Essay written in 1852, and published in Germany under
the title of “The Four Elements of Architecture.” By Professor Gottfried Semper.
But no notice has been taken of the much more evident and less
doubtful influence, which drapery itself, in its quality of a vertical
wall, or partition, has exercised on certain architectural forms.
Nevertheless it is the motif which I venture to cite, as the one on
which ancient art has been principally founded.
It is well known that the nascent taste for the beautiful among
those races which are in a state of social infancy, is first exercised in
the manufacture of coarse tissues, which serve either as beds or as
partitions.
The art of dress is less ancient than that of the manufacture of
stuffs, as several examples of people to whom clothing is unknown,

and who nevertheless possess an industry, more or less developed,
in tissues and embroidery, may satisfy us.
The earliest woven work would seem to be the fence, that is,
branches of trees interlaced, serving the purpose of enclosure and of
partition. The most savage tribes are acquainted with this method of
construction. Thus the employment of coarse tissue or woven work
(which was a mere fence) as a means of securing privacy from the
world outside certainly far preceded the constructed wall of stone, or
of any other material; this last only became necessary at a much
later period, for requirements which in their nature bear no relation
whatever to space and its subdivision. The stone wall was made for
greater security, longer duration, and to serve as a support for heaps
of various materials and stores; in fine, for purposes foreign to the
original idea; viz., that of the separation of space, and it is most
important to remark, that wherever the secondary motives did not
exist, woven fabrics maintained, almost without exception, especially
in southern lands, their ancient office, that of the ostensible
separation of space; and even in cases where the construction of
solid walls became necessary, these last are but the internal and
unseen scaffolding of the true and legitimate representatives of
division, that is to say, of drapery richly varied with ornamental
work, interlacings, and colours.
The difference which exists between the ostensible and principal
separation, and the constructed separation, is expressed in ancient
and modern languages by terms more or less significative.
In the Latin tongue, a distinction is made between paries and
murus.
The Germans, in the word wand (of the same root with gewand,
which means texture) recal still more directly the ancient origin and
type of a wall.
New inventions soon led to different methods of replacing the
primitive drapery, and every art was successively called in to
contribute its part to these innovations, which may have been
brought about by various reasons; such, for example, as the desire

for longer endurance, for the sake of cleanliness, economy, comfort,
distinction, coolness, heat, &c.
One of the most ancient and most general methods of replacing
the use of drapery or tapestry is the coat of stucco or of plaster,
furnished by the masons who built the walls.
Another very ancient method of replacing the original tapestry is,
that of wooden panels, with which the wall was covered internally.
That which proves the antiquity of this custom is, that in several
ancient languages the expression which is only properly applicable to
panels of wood, serves indifferently to signify every kind of flat
surface (table) in wood, metal, ivory, or any other material.
It is thus we must explain the Greek expression πιναξ, (in Latin
tabula) as a painting on wood, or also on marble, baked clay, &c.
Plates of burnt clay, thin but of large circumference, were equally
called “πινακες.”
The style of mural painting at Pompeii is only to be understood by
the same ancient custom of covering and inlaying the walls which
they reproduced in appearance by divisions and painted draperies.
See Vitruvius, on this point, in the chapter on Plastering. Wiegmann
has erred in attributing the same system of ancient painting to
purely technic causes.
The Ceramic art was, in its turn, called on as a means of replacing
drapery. It is certain that potter’s clay painted, and even glazed,
served, at a very remote period, as a covering for walls. It may even
be admitted, that the employment of the potter’s art on the surface
of walls, preceded the manufacture of burnt bricks, and that the
invention of burning bricks was the result of the custom cited above.
The mural incrustations in baked clay were the precursors of brick
masonry; in the same manner as the Assyrian slabs may be
considered to be the forerunners of constructions in hewn stone. We
shall return again to this subject.
Among the various methods of replacing the use of drapery,
should be also mentioned those furnished by metallurgic processes.
Vestiges of metallic coverings on walls have been found on the

oldest existing monuments; and the most ancient annals of mankind
are filled with recitals of buildings resplendent with gold and silver,
bronze and tin respectively.
As an invention of relatively recent date, may be cited lastly, the
use of slabs of marble or stone, granite, alabaster, &c.,
notwithstanding that we find traces of this custom, but as it were
already effaced, on the most ancient monuments of the earth. (See
farther on).
In all the cases we have named, the character of the substitute
followed that of its original type, and the painting and sculpture, or
rather the two united, on wood, plaster, burnt clay, metal, stone, or
ivory, was—and traditionally continued to be—an imitation, more or
less faithful, of the embroideries or variegated interlacings which
ornamented the antique wall-coverings.
It may be asserted that the entire system of decoration, with the
art of painting and sculpture in relief, up to the period of its highest
application, which is that of the tympanums of the pediments in the
Greek temples, proceeded from the manufactures of the Assyrian
weavers and dyers; or rather from their predecessors in human
inventions. In any case, it was the Assyrians—next to the Chinese—
who appear to have preserved most faithfully the antique type, even
in its application to a different material. We will enter a little more
explicitly on this subject.

THE ASSYRIANS.
The ancient writers often mention and praise the Assyrian tissues
for the art employed in their manufacture; for the splendour and
harmony of their colours, and the richness of the fanciful
compositions with which they were embroidered. The mystical
figures of bucentaurs, lions, dragons, unicorns, and other monsters,
which the authors describe, are absolutely identical with those which
we see on the bas-reliefs of Nimroud and Khorsabad. But this
identity was not in the subjects alone. There is no doubt that the
manner of treatment, the style of these subjects, was identical with
that of the objects embroidered on the tissues, which ancient
authors have described.
On examining somewhat attentively the Assyrian sculptures, it is
easy to satisfy oneself that the art of the Assyrian sculptor moved
within limits traceable from its origin, viz., embroidered work,
allowance being made for certain alterations of style, caused by the
requirements of a new material.
One perceives in these Assyrian sculptures, the desire on the
artist’s part of an attention to the truth of Nature, but that he has
been hindered in his task, not—as with the Egyptians—by a regular
hieroglyphic system and hieratical laws, but rather by the caprices of
a method difficult, and indeed foreign to sculpture, the influence of
which was still strongly felt. Thus the sculpture of this people kept
itself within the bounds of a very low and flat relief, exactly similar to
that of some productions of Chinese woven work, seen in the Great
Exhibition of 1851, which possessed peculiar interest in the history
of Art, inasmuch as they exhibited the transition of the high woof
into polychromic bas-relief.
The Assyrian figures, without being embalmed mummies like
those of Egypt, show, nevertheless, much stiffness and irregularity;
they appear as it were imprisoned and confined within an invisible

canvas. Their contours are, so to speak, tacked in with threads. One
recognises in them an awkwardness and hardness arising from the
contest of the artist with a material foreign to the style: whilst the
Egyptian bas-reliefs evince an original, canonical, and voluntary
stiffness. I am tempted to believe that all those slabs of alabaster
from Assyria, with their religious, warlike, and domestic scenes, are
nothing more than exact copies in stone, after originals in tissues, at
that time celebrated and executed by good native artists, who
worked on that material only, whilst they employed mere workmen
to transfer the originals on to stone, as well as the material would
allow, which explains the difference between the design and
execution which these works betray. This same character is also
found on the Assyrian paintings.
It is not to be doubted that the true tapestries were employed
with profusion, side by side with the stereotyped copies: and
probably these last were often covered with the originals, on the
occasion of solemn ceremonies, &c., and that they were only
exposed during the intervals between the fêtes, &c. We observe the
same thing at this day in the Catholic churches, where this ancient
custom, with many others, is strictly preserved. The inscriptions and
their application in bands, indicate the same origin. Does it not
appear as if the cuneiform characters were invented and designed
for execution in needlework? In fine, the simplicity of the system of
paving of the rooms, otherwise so richly ornamented, goes to prove
that they were originally covered with tapestry. It is only the slabs
which form the cills of the doors on which tapestry could not be
placed, which indeed form an exception, being ornamented with
engraved work, in imitation of tapestry. (See Layard.) It is thus that
these last became also the types of parquetry work in mosaic.
Up to the present point, we have only considered what relates to
the representations found on the Assyrian slabs. But these, in
themselves, give us still more cause for reflection, and singularly
justify our assertion of the importance, in an architectural point of
view, of the coverings of walls.

The principle of panelling constructed work shows itself here in all
its primitive simplicity. We know that almost all the lower portions of
walls, within and without, were covered with thin slabs of alabaster
or basalt. The same principle under another form, obtained in the
upper portions of the walls; here, the walls of unbaked brick were
inlaid with glazed bricks; but the plan pursued by the Assyrians in
executing this incrustation differs greatly from that which we
observe elsewhere, and from what we pursue at the present day.
The Assyrian bricks are only glazed on the external side, and the
ornaments and other subjects which were figured on them in the
glazing, bear no relation to the construction, so that the ornamental
lines cross the joints of the bricks irregularly.
The enamel is very fusible and the bricks but slightly burnt,
evidently with the sole intention of fixing the glazing on them, which
induces me to conjecture, that the use of glazed pottery preceded
and prepared the way for that of baked bricks, and that the art of
pottery was already far advanced before the introduction of burnt
brick work. Other indications which would take too long to specify
here, have proved to me, that the bricks received their coating
placed in a horizontal position: First, they were ranged in the order
which they would take when in their place, they then traced the
design formed on this arrangement of unburnt bricks; next, they
covered with these painted bricks—observing still the same order—
the interior of the room; and lastly, they placed a fire in the room to
fix the varnish which covered the walls.[8]
8. The same method is to be found in some old buildings in Scotland.
It results, from what I have observed, that the decoration of the
wall did not depend upon the construction of the same, even when
baked and glazed bricks were employed.
The constructive system—after the manner of mosaic—of
decoration in enamelled bricks is a later invention, probably a Roman
one. The enamelled Assyrian bricks, should be regarded as a mural
incrustation, as a covering absolutely independent of the wall itself,
and even of the terra-cotta slab or tile, on which it was directly fixed.

THE PERSIANS.
The Assyrian system of panelling the lower portions of their
buildings with slabs of alabaster, may be considered as the first step
towards construction in hewn stone, and towards the introduction of
the “coupe de pierre” into the number of architectural and
ornamental elements.
It is only in the terraces, and the sub-basements of buildings, in
the primitive ages of art, that hewn stone and its construction
appeared to the eye. These parts of the buildings were the mason’s
oldest domain.
The Persian monuments of Murgaub and Istakir, afford us the
means of observing the second step which decorative art made
towards the principle of construction. They were composed, like their
models in Assyria, of unbaked bricks, of which nothing remains,
whilst however, the direction of the walls is still indicated by marble
pillars, which originally served to strengthen the angles of the walls,
and by the jambs of doors and windows and by niches, with which
the walls were ornamented.
All these parts were ornamented in the Assyrian manner, and
testify to the principles of which we have been speaking. But here
we have no longer slabs, but hewn masses of stone of enormous
dimensions, frequently monoliths. Nevertheless, in spite of their
solidity, they betray their type, in a most remarkable manner,
inasmuch as they form a kind of framework hollowed out internally
to receive the mass of masonry in unbaked brick, which they were
designed to cover and to protect, and which, in the interspaces of
the pillars and jambs above-named, were covered with slabs of
marble, or more probably, with panels of cypress-wood, covered in
turn by plates of gold and silver, or it may be also with richly
embroidered stuffs.

THE EGYPTIANS.
The theocratic system of the Egyptians, although its origin extends
beyond the horizon of history and even of tradition, is not the less
based on the ruins of a social state more ancient still, and much
more natural. The founders of this system, have altered the primitive
style of architectural decoration in petrifying it; that is to say, in
making it a style eminently adapted for stone constructions and
monuments.
But amidst the hieroglyphical symbols may still be recognised the
traces of its origin, obscure it is true, but unmistakeable. It has been
observed by travellers in Egypt, that Egyptian art bears quite a
different character in the sepulchral tombs, to that which is observed
on the great temples and palace temples of the kings. It is that in
these sepulchral chambers, art could move somewhat more freely
than it was permitted to do in those grand monumental edifices,
which were raised under the immediate influence of the priesthood.
Now it has been proved that in all the tombs, the ancient method
of draping the walls, or rather of decorating them in the style of
tapestry, was apparent in its greatest simplicity. It is observable, first
in the character of the ornaments themselves, which consist of
interlacings and gracefully varied knots, whilst these decorations
borrowed from the weaver’s art, are almost banished from the
temples and are replaced by symbolic figures and ornament. It may
be recognised, in the second place, by the fact, that the paintings in
the sepulchral tombs are generally enclosed with borders, as if to
indicate that they represent suspended tapestry.
Although this primitive type shows itself less positively in the
temples, indications are nevertheless not wanting which remind us
of it.
The contemporary artists of the French expedition have already
observed—and their discovery has been since then verified—that the

monuments of Egypt, including even those executed in granite, have
been covered with a complete coating of colour and varnish, over
the entire surface. That indeed might be expected, for the hewn
stonework of the Egyptian constructions, in spite of the neatness of
its workmanship, is not laid in regular courses, which tends to prove
that this irregularity, which contrasts with the symmetrical system of
the decoration on it, was hidden beneath a coating which covered
the whole mass.
These monuments exhibit then the third transition step towards
regular construction in hewn stone.
The construction, though massive and real, is always hidden, and
does not enter yet as an ornamental motive in the compositions of
the architect.
It is worthy of observation, that one of the mouldings of Egyptian
architecture seems to be explained by the same ancient custom of
encrusting brick buildings with stone slabs, which we have remarked
on the Assyrian monuments. I allude to the torus moulding which
encloses the external walls of edifices. It served to hide the joints of
the slabs which covered the internal work.
It is certain that the most ancient monuments in Egypt were
constructed in unbaked bricks, which must have been covered with
stone slabs in the manner above indicated. The Pyramids afford us
very remarkable examples of this system of panelling, which is found
still perfect in the sepulchral chambers contained in them, and the
traces of which are still visible on the exterior. The same observation
applies to the Palace of Osirtesen at Karnak, the walls of which are
panelled with slabs of polished red granite, bearing the traces of a
transparent coating with which they were covered.

THE CHINESE.
China is a country where architecture has remained stationary
from its early birth, and, consequently, the elementary motives of it
are most distinctly preserved; they are placed side by side, without
being conjoined by a general ruling idea. The external surface of the
wall is still quite independent of the wall itself, and indeed is most
frequently movable. The wall bears its own burden alone, and has
only in view the filling up of the intervals between the wooden
columns which support the third elementary want, (i. e.) the roof.
The wall is only a screen, more or less solidly executed than others,
constructed in slight brick work, covered externally with painted
stucco decoration or interlaced cane work, and internally with
tapestry, or its substitute, painted paper. The internal divisions are
formed by screens of the same description, and by drapery hung
from the ceiling. The design of the ornament, painted and carved
upon them and throughout the building, is founded on the same
principle of interlacings and cane trellis-work, more or less intricate,
and hardly to be recognised through the oddities of successive
fashions. A polychromy, rich and brilliant, prevails, which has not
been considered with that attention which it deserves in its relation
with the ancient style of polychromy.

THE INDIANS.
The monuments of Oriental India, bear the impress of a settled
civilisation, at least of the tertiary period. They are comparatively
modern in principle and in date; but they furnish us, nevertheless,
with very important hints on the history of polychromy.
The frequent use of stucco, which is better made in India than
anywhere else, recals the system of the ancients, in covering their
fine hewn stonework with a very fine and hard incrustation of
stucco.
The Indian edifices constitute, as it were, but a scaffolding from
which to hang the drapery forming divisions of their spaces, as in
China, and as formerly in Assyria, Egypt, and Greece.

THE JEWS AND PHENICIANS.
At present we have only mentioned existing examples; but the
ancient writings furnish us with other no less important matter. The
description of the celebrated Ark of Moses, and of the Tabernacle,
taken with that of the Temple of David, contains a complete history
of polychromy. This curious recital of Jewish antiquities presents us
with a progressive development of that elementary principle of
architecture which I term “the Enclosure.”
The documents and chronicles of other nations furnish us with
parallels to what is contained in the holy writings. The Temple of the
Slaves at Mechlenburg, according to the description of Baron von
Rumohr, on the faith of ancient chroniclers; was constructed in the
Oriental fashion, and richly ornamented with tapestry and gilded
wood work.

THE GREEKS.
We now come to the Greeks. Hellenic art must have partaken of
the composite character which is manifested in Hellenism generally,
and which is so well expressed in the Grecian mythology.
As the beautiful marble, which forms the cliffs and coasts of
Greece, notwithstanding its homogeneous transformation, betrays by
veins, by fossils, and other indications, its sedimentary origin, so
Hellenism, although it may appear homogeneous, and cast—so to
speak—in one single jet, betrays, nevertheless, its secondary origin,
and the sediment which constitutes its material groundwork.
It would be important to follow up these vestiges of rudimentary
Hellenism, since they might enlighten us on certain phenomena in
Hellenic art, which have been up to the present time inexplicable
without them.
This applies especially to the polychromy of Greek edifices. Much
yet remains to be done in this department of Art History, which has
been generally discussed either by learned men but no artists, or
artists with little learning. The vestiges of rudimentary Hellenism of
which I speak, wherever visible, present the same features that we
meet with in Assyria, Egypt, and China, and even among savage
races; but it would appear that the Greeks, prior to treating in their
peculiar manner those principles of art which they inherited, had
partly forgotten their origin and their material or hieratical meaning.
Thus, only, could they have had the mind free, and ready to
commence them anew with an artistic and poetical feeling.
Exactly the same thing occurred in their mythology, which is only
poetic fiction based on traditions and fables, partly native, partly
foreign, the primitive meaning of which was no longer understood by
the poets, who formed them into the groundwork of their
cosmogony.

The system of Greek polychromy is the richest of all those of
antiquity; but it is, apparently, based neither on a principle of
construction or material as among the Assyrians, nor on a
hierarchical principle as among the Egyptians. The most striking
oppositions of principle are found united in it and harmonised, a
more artistic and elevated, but less positive conception.
Nevertheless, this applies only to the edifices of a period when art
was in a state of high development among them, since the ancient
Doric system appears to have had much in common with Egyptian
art before it was penetrated by Ionian influence, which depended
rather on Asiatic traditions.
I am convinced that the style of Doric polychromy was essentially
different to that of the Ionic, which was, notwithstanding, of equal
antiquity and originality.
Doric polychromy was based on the Egyptian system, whilst that
of Ionia was based on Asiatic models. The first named was lapidary;
the colours were detached on a whitish or yellowish ground; there
was no gilding, and the use of blue was common, that being the
holy colour of the Egyptians (a turquoise blue), the symbolic colour
of the priesthood and aristocracy.
The second was more primitive in its nature and recalled more
directly the elementary motive of tapestry and embroidery. The
ground was generally of a rather deep colour, blue or red, even in
the constructive portions, such as the shafts of columns, architraves,
&c., a good deal of gilding and sea-green (prasinum) was used; the
favourite colour of the Assyrians, the symbolic colour of absolutism
and of democracy. The green is still now the holy colour of the
successors of the Assyrians in Asia.
This difference of style, analogically observable in the music of
these two races, explains the divergent investigations made on the
temples of Sicily, and those of Athens. The monuments of Athens,
Doric in their general appearance partook, nevertheless, a good deal
of the Ionic character. The Ionic mind had penetrated Doric matter,
and colour being the least material was that which the Ionian
sentiment most easily mastered.

It would be a difficult but very interesting task to unravel the
religious and political signification of certain colours in ancient times.
We know that red, blue, turquoise, and sea-green, were the four
colours by which the factions of the circus distinguished themselves.
These were not capriciously chosen, each faction having adopted
that colour, the symbolic and traditional meaning of which agreed
with the political principles professed by it.
Traces of the antique system of covering construction with tables
of wood, plates of metal, or slabs of stone, representing tapestry-
work, may still be perceived in the Grecian monuments, for those
parts of them which were destined to be ornamented with historical
paintings or painted sculpture, are executed in the Assyrian fashion;
as, for example, the tympanums of the pediments, the metopes, the
friezes, the parts between the columns, and round the walls of the
“cella.” It is thus that Grecian monuments show us the fourth path
which architecture made towards stone style.
The constructive parts of the building, that is to say, those parts
which constituted the entablature of the roof, and its supports, the
columns, were painted with the colour of the Greek vases, viz., a
very transparent and vaporous brown-red. The walls, inclusive of the
“antæ,” which formed only projecting parts of the walls, were of a
blue, which was broken by black and a little yellow, and not very
dark. This colour formed also the ground for most of the sculptures,
except the metopes, which I believe had red grounds. The red in the
ornamented mouldings was a very bright vermilion, differing from
the red of the ground by colour and treatment.
The same is the case for the blue, which, in the ornamented
mouldings, is deeper than on the large surfaces, and tinted in
different shades. The oves, or eggs, for instance, were blue, with a
darker blue tint around.
The green is a colour which occurs frequently on the Athenian
temples, so on the leaves on the moulding which runs under the
frieze of the opisthodome of the temple of Theseus, and between
the red and blue leaves of the capitals of the antæ. The same sea-
green occurs on the draperies of some sculptured figures.

The enamels of wax were frequently covered with washes of
thinner colours. This has not been remarked by our restorers of
antique polychromy, but is nevertheless necessary for giving softness
to the general effect.
The ornaments, as I have just observed, are placed in pieces and
soldered together; the solderings forming fillets slightly elevated
from the surface and of another colour. I cannot say whether in
gold, black, or even in some parts white. I have, for my own part,
adopted the hypothesis that it was gold in the Athenian temples, but
not on those of Sicily where a strict Doric character prevailed.
I have not found many traces of colour on the Ionic temple of
Minerva Polias, and cannot say if the red, which I found on the
columns of the Northern Portico, belonged to the ancient colouring,
or was of more recent date. On the plate, in my work, which gives a
panel of the temple of Theseus, is seen the design of a row of
pearls, with a double range of disks.
I can guarantee the exactitude of my observations, although this
extreme richness and smallness of detail in an object destined to be
seen from a distance may well astonish us.
I have traced every mark on the stones themselves: and,
moreover, subjects of this kind are not capable of being invented;
indeed it would be a great compliment to suppose me capable of
inventing these designs, which I consider charming.
In the portion which I have found in the wall with the niche (see
my work), these details are not to be seen. I have also discovered
traces of colour, very much effaced, on the small choragic Monument
of Lysicrates, which I have carefully examined. It appears that on
the ornament which surmounts the roof, there was a variety of blue
and red, and that the acanthus leaves were coloured green. The
tripod was not placed upon this ornament, but round it, the feet
resting on the three volutes which descend from the roof,
analogously to the marble tripods which are often met with in
various museums of antiquities.

I will not speak of the colours of the Parthenon, which are not so
well preserved as those on the Temple of Theseus, but the traces of
ornament which decorated that temple are seen by the incisions still
remaining. It would appear that the system of ornament there
applied was similar to that on the Temple of Theseus.
Some years after my sojourn at Athens, portions of this building
have been excavated, with the colours very well preserved; as well
as other fragments of architecture which belong to the old
Hecatompedon (destroyed by the Persians) covered with painted
stucco.
I have not found very decided traces of the colours employed on
the Temple of Minerva Polias; the columns appear to have been red,
as at the Temple of Theseus. The ceiling of the Temple of the
Caryatides had painted frets and orvolos, which I have traced; but
the colour was no longer visible. Traces of painted ornaments are to
be found also on the Tower of the Winds. I have not been able to
get a close view of them.
As regards the sculptures, I have found some regularly encrusted
with colour. I have found green (prasinum) on the tunic of one of
the seated goddesses, on the frieze of the Temple of Theseus:
another figure was clad in a vestment of a deep rose colour. The
Caryatides of the Erectheum had blue tunics. We may see that, even
on the one in the British Museum.
Mr. Bracebridge has described statues which were excavated in his
presence near the Parthenon with flesh tints and painted eyes. The
figures of the pediment of the Temple at Egina still retain traces of
the colours with which they were decorated. The same observation
applies to the metopes of the temple at Selinuntum, now at Palermo.
Curious fragments of painted architecture may also be seen at the
museums of Syracuse and Girgenti.
The Romans painted their white marbles, like the Greeks. The
three columns of the Jupiter Stator in the Roman Forum are painted
red on that portion which has remained a long while buried.

The Trajan Column, which I have examined, retains traces of
colour and gilding: the entire column had been once covered with a
rather thick coating of colour, in which I recognised green, blue, and
yellow; but it is probable that this last was the remains of the
gilding.
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.

Essentials of Database Management 1st Edition Hoffer Test Bank

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in
spelling.
2. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained
as printed.

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