![of their unstatesmanlike acts we may adduce their employment of
foreign generals; for they sent for Alexander,2414
king of the Molossi,
to come and assist them against the Messapii and Leucani. They had
before that employed Archidamus, the son of Agesilaus;2415
afterwards they called in Cleonymus2416
and Agathocles,2417
and
later, when they rose against the Romans, Pyrrhus.2418
They were
not able even to retain the respect of those whom they had invited,
but rather merited their disgust. Alexander [of Epirus] was so
displeased with them that he endeavoured to remove the seat of the
general council of the Greek states in Italy, which was accustomed
to assemble at Heraclea, a city of the Tarentines, to a city of the
Thurii; and he commanded that some place on the river
Acalandrus,2419
commodious for their meetings, should be properly
fortified for their reception.—And indeed they say that the
misfortune2420
of that prince was chiefly due to a want of good
feeling on their part. They were deprived of their liberty during the
wars2421
of Hannibal, but have since received a Roman colony,2422
and now live in peace and are in a more prosperous state than ever.
They also engaged in war with the Messapii concerning Heraclea,
when they counted the kings of the Daunii and of the Peucetii as
allies.2423
5. The remainder of the country of the Iapygii is very fair,
notwithstanding unfavourable appearances; for although, for the
most part, it appears rugged, yet when it is broken up the soil is
found to be deep; and although it lacks water, yet it appears well-
suited for pasture, and is furnished with trees. At one time it was
thickly inhabited throughout its whole extent, and possessed thirteen
cities, but now it is so depopulated that, with the exception of
Tarentum and Brentesium,2424
they only deserve the name of
hamlets. They say that the Salentini are a colony of Cretans. Here is
the temple of Minerva,2425
which formerly was rich, and the rock
called Acra Iapygia,2426
which juts out far into the sea towards the
rising of the sun in winter,2427
and turning, as it were, towards Cape
Lacinium, which lies opposite to it on the west, it closes the entrance](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-27-320.jpg)
![of the Gulf of Tarentum, as on the other side, the Ceraunian
Mountains, together with the said Cape, close the entrance of the
Ionian Gulf, the run across is about 700 stadia from that,2428
both to
the Ceraunian Mountains and to Cape Lacinium.2429
In coasting
along the shore from Tarentum to Brentesium there are 600 stadia
as far as the little city of Baris, which is at the present time called
Veretum,2430
and is situated on the extremities of the Salentine
territory; the approach to it from Tarentum is much easier on
foot2431
than by sea. Thence to Leuca are 80 stadia; this too is but a
small village, in which there is shown a well of fetid water, and the
legend runs, that when Hercules drove out the last of the giants
from Phlegra in Campania, who were called Leuternians, some fled
and were buried here, and that from their blood a spring issues to
supply the well; on this account likewise the coast is called the
Leuternian coast.2432
From Leuca to Hydrus,2433
a small town, 150
stadia. From thence to Brentesium 400, and the like distance also
[from Hydrus] to the island Saso,2434
which is situated almost in the
midst of the course from Epirus to Brentesium; and therefore when
vessels are unable to obtain a direct passage they run to the left
from Saso to Hydrus, and thence watching for a favourable wind
they steer towards the haven of Brentesium, or the passengers
disembarking proceed on foot by a shorter way through Rudiæ, a
Grecian city, where the poet Ennius was born.2435
The district which
we have followed by sea from Tarentum to Brentesium is like a
peninsula. The road by land from Brentesium to Tarentum is but a
day’s journey for a light person on foot, it constitutes the isthmus of
the said peninsula, which people in general call Messapia, Iapygia,
Calabria, or Salentinum, without being at all particular; but some, as
we have said before, do make a distinction. Thus have we described
the towns on the sea-coast.
6. In the inland are Rudiæ and Lupiæ, and at a short distance from
the sea Aletia;2436
about the middle of the isthmus is Uria,2437
in
which is still shown the palace of a certain famous nobleman.2438
As
Hyria2439
is described by Herodotus as situated in Iapygia, and as](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-28-320.jpg)
![founded by the Cretans who strayed from the fleet of Minos while
sailing to Sicily;2440
we must suppose that he meant either this place
[Uria] or Veretum. It is said that a colony of Cretans settled in
Brentesium,2441
but the tradition varies; some say they were those
who came with Theseus from Cnossus;2442
others, that they were
some out of Sicily who had come with Iapyx; they agree however in
saying that they did not abide there, but went thence to Bottiæa. At
a later period, when the state was under the government of a
monarch, it lost a large portion of its territories, which was taken by
the Lacedæmonians who came over under Phalanthus;
notwithstanding this the Brundusians received him when he was
expelled from Tarentum, and honoured him with a splendid tomb at
his death. They possess a district of superior fertility to that of the
Tarentines; for its soil is light, still it is fruitful, and its honey and
wools are amongst the most esteemed; further, the harbour of
Brentesium is superior to that of Tarentum, for many havens are
protected by the single entrance,2443
and rendered perfectly smooth,
many bays [or reaches] being formed within it, so that it resembles
in fashion the antlers of a stag, whence its name, for the place,
together with the city, is exceedingly like the head of a stag, and in
the Messapian language the stag’s head is called Brentesium; while
the port of Tarentum is not entirely safe, both on account of its lying
very open, and of certain shallows near its head.
7. Further, the course for passengers from Greece and Asia is most
direct to Brentesium, and in fact all who are journeying to Rome
disembark here. Hence there are two ways to Rome; one, which is
only walked by mules, through the Peucetii, who are called Pœdicli,
the Daunii, and the Samnites, as far as Beneventum, on which road
is the city Egnatia,2444
then Celia,2445
Netium,2446
Canusium,2447
and
Herdonia.2448
That through Tarentum is a little to the left, it runs
about a day’s journey round for one traversing the whole distance; it
is called the Appian Way, and is more of a carriage road than the
other. On it stands the city Uria,2449
and Venusia;2450
the one [Uria]
between Tarentum and Brentesium, the other on the confines of the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-29-320.jpg)
![Samnites and Lucani. Both the roads from Brentesium run into one
near Beneventum and Campania, and thence to Rome it receives the
name of Appian, and runs through Caudium,2451
Calatia,2452
Capua,2453
and Casilinum,2454
to Sinuessa.2455
The way from thence
to Rome has been already described.—The whole length of the
Appian Way from Rome to Brentesium is 360 miles.
There is a third way from Rhegium, through the Bruttii, Lucani, and
Samnites, along the chain of the Apennines, into Campania, where it
joins the Appian Way;2456
it is longer than those from Brentesium by
about three or four days’ journey.
8. From Brentesium the sea is traversed by two passages to the
opposite coast, one crossing to the Ceraunian2457
Mountains and the
adjacent coasts of the Epirus and Greece, the other to
Epidamnus,2458
which is the longer2459
of the two, being 18002460
stadia. Still this is habitually traversed, on account of the situation of
the city [Epidamnus] being convenient for the nations of Illyria and
Macedonia. As we coast along the shore of the Adriatic from
Brentesium we come to the city Egnatia,2461
it is the general place to
stop at for those travelling to Barium,2462
as well by land as by sea.
The run is made when the wind blows from the south. The territory
of the Peucetii extends as far as this along the coast, in the interior
of the land it reaches as far as Silvium.2463
It is throughout rugged
and mountainous, and chiefly occupied by the Apennine mountains.
It is thought to have been colonized by a party of Arcadians. The
distance from Brentesium to Barium is about 700 stadia. [Tarentum]
is about equally distant from both.2464
The Daunii inhabit the
adjoining district, then the Apuli as far as the Phrentani. As the
inhabitants of the district, except in ancient times, have never been
particular in speaking of the Peucetii or Daunii precisely, and as the
whole of this country is now called Apulia, the boundaries of these
nations are necessarily but ill defined: wherefore we ourselves shall
not be very exact in treating of them.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-30-320.jpg)
![9. From Barium to the river Ofanto,2465
on which the Canusitæ have
established an emporium, there are 4002466
stadia. The course up
the river to the emporium is 90 [stadia]. Near it is Salapia,2467
the
port of the Argyrippeni. For the two cities, Canusium and Argyrippa,
are situated at no great distance from the sea, and in the midst of a
plain; at one time they were the most important cities of the Greeks
of Italy, as is manifest from the circumference of their walls, but now
they have fallen off. One of them was originally called Argos
Hippium, then Argyrippa, and then again Arpi. They are said to have
been both founded by Diomed, and both the plain of Diomed and
many other things are shown in these districts as evidence of his
having possessed them. Such were the ancient offerings in the
temple of Minerva, at Luceria.2468
That was an ancient city of the
Daunii, but now it is of no account. Again, in the neighbouring sea
there are two islands called the Diomedean islands, one of which is
inhabited, but the other, they say, is desert: in the latter it is fabled
that Diomed disappeared from the earth, and that his companions
were transformed into birds,2469
and indeed the fable goes so far as
to prolong their race to the present time, saying that they are tame,
and lead a sort of human life, both in respect of food, and their
readiness to approach men of gentle manners, and to shun the evil
and wanton. We have already noticed2470
what is currently reported
amongst the Heneti concerning this hero [Diomed] and the honours
decreed to him by custom. It is thought also that Sipus2471
was a
settlement founded by Diomed, it is distant from Salapia about 140
stadia, and was called by the Greeks Sepius, from the numbers of
cuttle fish2472
thrown up by the sea along its shore. Between Salapia
and Sipus is a navigable river, and a considerable estuary; by both of
these channels the merchandise, and wheat especially, of Sipus is
conveyed to the sea. Two heroa or shrines are shown on a hill of
Daunia, called Drium, one on the very brow of the hill sacred to
Calchas, those who are about to inquire of the oracle offer a black
ram to him, and sleep upon the fleece, the other below near the foot
of the hill is dedicated to Podalirius, it is about a hundred stadia
distant from the sea; from this hill also flows a stream,2473
which is a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-31-320.jpg)
![potent cure for all manner of diseases among cattle.2474
The
promontory of Garganum2475
running into the sea, juts out from this
bay about 300 stadia.2476
As you turn the point you perceive the
town of Urium,2477
while off the headland are seen the Diomedean
islands. All this coast produces everything in great abundance, it is
exceedingly well adapted for horses and sheep, and the wool is finer
than that of Tarentum, but less glossy. The district is mild on account
of the cup-like situation of the plains. There are some who report
that Diomed attempted to cut a canal to the sea, but being sent for
to return home, where he died, left it incomplete, as well as other
undertakings. This is one account of him: another makes him abide
here till the end of his days; a third is the fable I have already
noticed, that he vanished in the island [of Teutria], and one might
reckon as a fourth that of the Heneti,2478
for they somehow make
out that he finished his career among them, as they assert his
apotheosis. The distances I have thus given are laid down in
accordance with those of Artemidorus.
10. The chorographer indeed gives only 165 miles from
Brentesium2479
to Garganum, but Artemidorus makes them
more.2480
Thence to Ancona, the first says there are 254 miles,
whilst Artemidorus has given but 1250 stadia to the Fiumesino,2481
near to Ancona, which is much shorter. Polybius says that from
Iapygia the distance has been laid down in miles, and that there are
562 miles thence to the town of Sila,2482
thence to Aquileia 178.
These geographers do not agree as to the length to be assigned to
the line of the sea-coast of Illyria, run from the Ceraunian
Mountains2483
to the head2484
of the Adriatic, some of them stating
it to be above 6000 [stadia], and making it longer than the opposite
coast [of Italy], while it is much shorter.2485
Indeed they all generally
differ among themselves in stating distances, as we often have
occasion to remark. Wherever it is possible to discriminate we set
forth what appears to us to be correct, but where it is impossible to
come to any safe conclusion we think it our duty to publish their
several assertions. However, when we have no data furnished by](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-32-320.jpg)
![2. If, in addition to our description of Italy, a few words should be
summarily added about the Romans who have possessed themselves
of it, and prepared it as a centre from whence to enforce their
universal dominion, we would offer the following.—The Romans,
after the foundation of their state, discreetly existed as a kingdom
for many years, till Tarquin, the last [Roman king], abused his power,
when they expelled him, and established a mixed form of
government, being a modification both of the monarchical and
aristocratical systems; they admitted both the Sabines2496
and
Latins2497
into their alliance, but as neither they nor the other
neighbouring states continued to act with good faith towards them
at all times, they were under the necessity of aggrandizing
themselves by the dismemberment of their neighbours.2498
Having
thus, by degrees, arrived at a state of considerable importance, it
chanced that they lost their city suddenly, contrary to the
expectation of all men, and again recovered the same contrary to all
expectation.2499
This took place, according to Polybius, in the
nineteenth year after the naval engagement of Ægos-potami,2500
about the time of the conclusion of the peace of Antalcidas.2501
Having escaped these misfortunes, the Romans first reduced all the
Latins2502
to complete obedience, they then subdued the
Tyrrheni,2503
and stayed the Kelts, who border the Po, from their too
frequent and licentious forays; then the Samnites, and after them
they conquered the Tarentines and Pyrrhus,2504
and presently after
the remainder of what is now considered as Italy, with the exception
of the districts on the Po. While these still remained a subject of
dispute they passed over into Sicily,2505
and having wrested that
island from the Carthaginians2506
they returned to complete the
conquest of the people dwelling along the Po. While this war was
still in hand Hannibal entered Italy,2507
thus the second war against
the Carthaginians ensued, and after a very short interval the third, in
which Carthage was demolished.2508
At the same time the Romans
became masters of Africa,2509
and of such portions of Spain as they
won from the Carthaginians. Both the Greeks and the Macedonians,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-35-320.jpg)
![and the nations of Asia who dwelt on the hither side of the river
Kizil-Irmak2510
and the Taurus, took part in these struggles with the
Carthaginians: over these Antiochus2511
was king, and Philip and
Perseus,2512
these therefore the Romans found themselves obliged
to subdue. The people likewise of Illyria and Thrace, who were next
neighbours to the Greeks and Macedonians, at this time commenced
the war with the Romans that never ceased, until the subjugation of
all the people who inhabit the countries on the hither side of the
Danube2513
and the Kizil-Irmak(4) had been effected. The Iberians,
and Kelts, and all the rest who are subject to the Romans, shared a
similar fate, for the Romans never rested in the subjugation of the
land to their sway until they had entirely overthrown it: in the first
instance they took Numantia,2514
and subdued Viriathus,2515
and
afterwards vanquished Sertorius,2516
and last of all the
Cantabrians,2517
who were brought to subjection by Augustus
Cæsar.2518
Likewise the whole of Gaul both within and beyond the
Alps with Liguria were annexed at first by a partial occupation, but
subsequently divus Cæsar and then Augustus subdued them
completely in open war, so that now2519
the Romans direct their
expeditions against the Germans from these countries as the most
convenient rendezvous, and have already adorned their own country
with several triumphs over them. Also in Africa all that did not
belong to the Carthaginians has been left to the charge of kings
owning dependence on the Roman state, while such as have
attempted to assert their independence have been overpowered. At
the present moment both Maurusia and much of the rest of Africa
have fallen to the portion of Juba2520
on account of his good will and
friendship towards the Romans. The like things have taken place in
Asia. At first it was governed by kings who were dependent on the
Romans, and afterwards when their several lines of succession
failed, as of that of the kings Attalus,2521
the kings of the
Syrians,2522
the Paphlagonians,2523
Cappadocians,2524
and
Egyptians,2525
[or] when they revolted and were subsequently
deposed, as it happened in the case of Mithridates Eupator, and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-36-320.jpg)
![Cleopatra of Egypt, the whole of their territories within the
Phasis2526
and the Euphrates,2527
with the exception of some tribes
of Arabs, were brought completely under the dominion of the
Romans and the dynasties set up by them. The Armenians and the
people who lie beyond Colchis, both the Albani and Iberians, require
nothing more than that Roman governors should be sent among
them, and they would be easily ruled; their attempted insurrections
are merely the consequence of the want of attention from the
Romans, who are so much occupied elsewhere: the like may be
asserted of those who dwell beyond the Danube,2528
and inhabit the
banks of the Euxine, excepting only those who dwell on the
Bosphorus2529
and the Nomades;2530
of these the former are in
subjection to the Romans, and the latter are unprofitable for
commerce on account of their wandering life, and only require to be
watched. The rest of the countries [of Asia] are chiefly inhabited by
Scenites2531
and Nomades who dwell at a great distance. The
Parthians indeed border on them and are very powerful, but they
have yielded so far to the superiority of the Romans and our
emperors, that they have not only sent back2532
to Rome the
trophies which they had at a still more distant period taken from the
Romans, but Phraates has even sent his sons and his sons’ sons to
Augustus Cæsar, as hostages, assiduously courting his
friendship:2533
indeed the [Parthians] of the present time frequently
send for a king from hence,2534
and are almost on the point of
relinquishing all power to the Romans. We now see Italy, which has
frequently been torn by civil war even since it came under the
dominion of the Romans, nay, even Rome herself, restrained from
rushing headlong into confusion and destruction by the excellence of
her form of government and the ability of her emperors. Indeed it
were hard to administer the affairs of so great an empire otherwise
than by committing them to one man as a father.2535
For it would
never have been in the power of the Romans and their allies to
attain to a state of such perfect peace, and the enjoyment of such
abundant prosperity, as Augustus Cæsar afforded them from the
time that he took upon himself the absolute authority; and which his](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-37-320.jpg)
![BOOK VII.
germany.—the cimbri, getæ, daci.—mouths of the danube.—the taurica chersonesus,
illyricum, hungary, epirus, dodona, macedonia, thrace.—the hellespont.
SUMMARY.
In the Seventh Book Strabo describes the remaining portions of Europe. That on
the east is the country beyond the Rhine, as far as the Don2537
and the mouth
of the Sea of Azof;2538
and on the south, that which the Danube2539
bounds,
lying between the Adriatic and the left shores of the Euxine, as far as Greece
and the Sea of Marmora,2540
including the whole of Macedonia.
CHAPTER I.
1. We have described Spain and the Keltic nations, together with
Italy and the islands adjacent, and must now speak of the remaining
portions of Europe, dividing it in the best way we can. That which
remains is, on the east, all the country beyond the Rhine, as far as
the Don and the mouth of the Sea of Azof; and, on the south, that
which the Danube bounds, lying between the Adriatic and the left
shores of the Euxine, as far as Greece and the Sea of Marmora, for
the Danube, which is the largest of the rivers of Europe, divides the
whole territory of which we have spoken, into two portions. This
river from its commencement flows southwards, then, making a
sudden turn, continues its course from west to east, which
[terminates] in the Euxine Sea. It takes its rise in the western
confines of Germany, not far from the head of the Adriatic, being
distant from it about 1000 stadia,2541
and falls into the Euxine near
the mouths of the Dniester2542
and the Dnieper,2543
inclining a little
towards the north. Thus the countries beyond the Rhine and Keltica](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-39-320.jpg)
![are situated to the north of the Danube, and are occupied by the
Galatic and German tribes, as far as the territory of the
Bastarnæ,2544
the Tyregetæ,2545
and the river Dnieper; so also is the
country situated between the Dnieper, the Don, and the mouth of
the Sea of Azof, which on one side stretches back as far as the
[Northern] Ocean,2546
and on another is washed by the Euxine. To
the south of the Danube are situated the people of Illyria and
Thrace, and mixed with them certain tribes of Kelts and other races,
extending as far as Greece.
We will first speak of those nations to the north of the Danube, for
their history is less involved than that of the tribes situated on the
other side of the river.
2. Next after the Keltic nations come the Germans who inhabit the
country to the east beyond the Rhine; and these differ but little from
the Keltic race, except in their being more fierce, of a larger stature,
and more ruddy in countenance; but in every other respect, their
figure, their customs and manners of life, are such as we have
related of the Kelts.2547
The Romans therefore, I think, have very
appositely applied to them the name “Germani,” as signifying
genuine; for in the Latin language Germani signifies genuine.2548
3. The first division of this country is the land extending along the
Rhine from its source to its embouchure. Indeed, the valley of that
river extends nearly as far as the whole breadth of Germany on the
west. Of the people who occupied this country, some have been
transplanted by the Romans into Keltica, the others have retired to
the interior, as the Marsi;2549
there are but few remaining, and some
portion of them are Sicambri;2550
next to the inhabitants of this
valley succeeds the tribe dwelling between the Rhine and the river
Elbe,2551
which river flows towards the ocean in a direction nearly
parallel with the Rhine, and traversing a country of no less extent.
There are also between these other navigable rivers, such as the
Ems,2552
on which Drusus defeated the Bructeri2553
in a naval
engagement; all likewise flowing from south to north, and falling into](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-40-320.jpg)
![Vindelici,2583
[the Norici come next after the Vindelici in an easterly
direction,]2584
and the desert of the Boii.2585
The nations as far as
the Pannonians,2586
but more especially the Helvetii and Vindelici,
inhabit high table lands. The Rhæti and the Norici,2587
verging
towards Italy, extend over the very summits of the Alps; the former
confining with the Insubri,2588
the latter the Carni,2589
and the
districts about Aquileia. There is likewise another great forest,
named Gabreta, on this side the territory of the Suevi, while beyond
them lies the Hercynian Wood, which also is in their possession.
CHAPTER II.
1. Some of the accounts which we receive respecting the Cimbri are
not worthy of credit, while others seem likely enough: for instance,
no one could accept the reason given for their wandering life and
piracy, that, dwelling on a peninsula, they were driven out of their
settlements by a very high tide;2590
for they still to this day possess
the country which they had in former times, and have sent as a
present to Augustus the caldron held most sacred by them,
supplicating his friendship, and an amnesty for past offences; and
having obtained their request, they returned home. Indeed, it would
have been ridiculous for them to have departed from their country in
a pet, on account of a natural and constant phenomenon, which
recurs twice every day. It is likewise evidently a fiction, that there
ever occurred an overwhelming flood-tide, for the ocean, in the
influences of this kind which it experiences, receives a certain settled
and periodical increase and decrease.2591
Neither is it true, as has
been related,2592
that the Cimbri take arms against the flood-tides,
or that the Kelts, as an exercise of their intrepidity, suffer their
houses to be washed away by them, and afterwards rebuild them;
and that a greater number of them perish by water than by war, as
Ephorus relates. For the regular order the flood-tides observe, and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-44-320.jpg)
![we say whether these nations extend as far as the [Northern]
Ocean, along the whole distance, or whether [between them and the
Ocean] there are countries rendered unfit for habitation by the cold
or by any other cause; or whether men of a different race are
situated between the sea and the most eastern of the Germans.
The same uncertainty prevails with regard to the other nations2601
of
the north, for we know neither the Bastarnæ nor the
Sauromatæ;2602
nor, in a word, any of those tribes situate above the
Euxine: we are ignorant as to what distance they lie from the
Atlantic,2603
or even whether they extend as far as that sea.
CHAPTER III.
1. As to the southern part of Germany beyond the Elbe, the country
which adjoins the bank of that river is now occupied by the Suevi.
Next lies the country of the Getæ, at first narrow, its southern side
extends along the Danube, and the opposite side along the
mountains of the Hercynian Forest, even including part of those
mountains, it then becomes broader towards the north, and extends
as far as the Tyregetæ; however, we are unable to declare its
boundaries with accuracy; and it is on account of our ignorance of
these places that those who relate fables of the Riphæan mountains
and the Hyperboreans have received credit; as also that which
Pytheas of Marseilles has forged concerning the countries bordering
on the Northern Ocean, making use of his acquaintance with
astronomy and mathematics to fabricate his false narration: let us
therefore pass over them; as also what Sophocles, speaking of
Orithya in one of his tragedies, says, that she, being snatched by the
north wind, was carried](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-47-320.jpg)
![of them, stretches his sight to a greater distance, but not in the least
behind him. And this also is introduced as a proof of this very thing,
that Homer classes with these the Hippemolgi,2606
the
Galactophagi,2607
and the Abii,2608
who are the Scythian
Hamaxœci2609
and Sarmatians; for at this day, all these nations, as
well as the Bastarnæ, are mixed with the Thracians, more especially
with those beyond the Danube, and some even with the Thracians
on this side the Danube; also amongst these are the Keltic tribes of
the Boii, Scordisci, and Taurisci. Some, indeed, call the Scordisci the
Scordistæ, and give to the Taurisci the names of Ligurisci2610
and
Tauristæ.
3. Posidonius relates that the Mysians religiously abstain from eating
any thing that had life, and consequently, from cattle; but that they
lived in a quiet way on honey, milk, and cheese; wherefore they are
considered a religious people, and called Capnobatæ.2611
He adds,
that there are amongst the Thracians some who live without wives,
and who are known by the name of Ctistæ. These are considered
sacred and worthy of honour, and live in great freedom. [He
pretends] that the poet comprehends the whole of these people
when he says,
“and where abide,
On milk sustain’d, and blest with length of days,
The Hippemolgi, justest of mankind.”2612
These he designates as “without life,” more particularly on account
of their living without wives, considering their solitary state as but a
half life; in the same way as he likewise designates the house of
Protesilaus “imperfect,” on account of the bereavement of his widow;
in the same manner he applies to the Mysians the epithet of “close-
fighting,” on account of their being invincible, like good warriors.
[Finally, Posidonius pretends] that in the thirteenth2613
book of the
Iliad we ought to substitute for “the close-fighting Mysians,” [“the
close-fighting Mœsi.”]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-49-320.jpg)
![4. Nevertheless it would perhaps be superfluous to change the text
[of Homer], which has stood the test of so many years. For it
appears more probable to suppose that the people were anciently
called Mysians, but that their name is now altered. Further, any one
would suppose that the Abii2614
were no more so named from being
unmarried than from their being houseless,2615
or their dwelling in
waggons. In fact, as injustice is ordinarily committed in matters
relative to bonds for money and the acquisition of wealth, it would
be natural that the people living so frugally on such small property
should be called [by Homer] the justest of mankind: and the more
so as the philosophers who place justice next to moderation, aim at
independence of others and frugality as amongst the most desirable
objects of attainment; from which however some, having passed the
bounds of moderation, have wandered into a cynical mode of
life.2616
But [the words of the poet] sanction no such assertion of
the Thracians, and the Getæ in particular, that they live without
wives. But see what Menander says of these people, not out of his
own imagination, as it should seem, but deriving it from history.
“All the Thracians truly, and especially above all others we Getæ, (for I myself
glory in being descended from this race,) are not very chaste.”
And a little after he gives examples of their rage for women.
“For there is no one among us who marries fewer than ten or eleven wives, and
some have twelve, or even more.2617
If any one loses his life who has only
married four or five wives, he is lamented by us as unfortunate, and one deprived
of the pleasures of Hymen.”
Such a one would be accounted as unmarried amongst them. These
things are likewise confirmed by the evidence of other historians.
And it is not likely that the same people should regard as an
unhappy life that which is passed without the enjoyment of many
women, and at the same time regard as a dignified and holy life that
which is passed in celibacy without any women. But that those living
without wives should be considered holy, and termed Capnobatæ, is
entirely opposed to our received opinions; for all agree in regarding
women as the authors of devotion to the gods, and it is they who](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-50-320.jpg)
![found some one of this character who assists the king in his
counsels, and is styled a god by the Getæ. The mountain likewise
[where Zamolxis retired] is held sacred, and is thus distinguished,
being named Cogæonus,2620
as well as the river which flows by it;
and at the time when Byrebistus, against whom divus Cæsar
prepared an expedition, reigned over the Getæ, Decæneus held that
honour: likewise the Pythagorean precept to abstain from animal
food, which was originally introduced by Zamolxis, is still observed to
a great extent.
6. Any one may well entertain such questions as these touching the
localities mentioned by the poet [Homer], and with regard to the
Mysians and the illustrious Hippemolgi: but what Apollodorus has
advanced in his preface to the Catalogue of Ships in the Second
Book [of the Iliad] is by no means to be adopted. For he praises the
opinions of Eratosthenes, who says that Homer and the rest of the
ancients were well versed in every thing that related to Greece, but
were in a state of considerable ignorance as to places at a distance,
in consequence of the impossibility of their making long journeys by
land or voyages by sea. In support of this he asserts,2621
that Homer
designated Aulis as ‘rocky,’ as indeed it is; Eteonus as ‘mountainous
and woody,’ Thisbe as ‘abounding in doves,’ Haliartus as ‘grassy;’ but
that neither Homer nor the others were familiar with localities far
off; for although there are forty rivers which discharge themselves
into the Black Sea,2622
he makes no mention whatever even of the
most considerable, as the Danube,2623
the Don,2624
the Dnieper,2625
the Bog,2626
the Phasz,2627
the Termeh,2628
the Kizil-Irmak,2629
nor
does he even allude to the Scythians, but makes up fables about
certain illustrious Hippemolgi, Galactophagi, and Abii. He had
become acquainted with the Paphlagonians of the interior from the
relations of such as had penetrated into those regions on foot, but
he was perfectly unacquainted with the sea-coasts of the country;
which indeed was likely enough, for that sea was in his time closed
to navigation, and known by the name of Pontus Axenus [or the
Inhospitable] on account of the severity of the storms to which it](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-52-320.jpg)
![was subject, as well as of the savage disposition of the nations who
inhabited its shores, but more especially of the Scythian hordes,2630
who made a practice of sacrificing strangers, devouring their flesh,
and using their skulls for drinking-cups; although at a subsequent
period, when the Ionians had established cities along its shores, it
was called by the name of Pontus Euxinus [or the Hospitable]. He
was likewise in ignorance as to the natural peculiarities of Egypt and
Libya,2631
as the risings of the Nile, and the alluvial deposits, which
he no where notices, nor yet the isthmus [of Suez] which separates
the Red Sea from the Egyptian Sea;2632
nor yet does he relate any
particulars of Arabia, Ethiopia, or the Ocean, unless we should agree
with the philosopher Zeno in altering the Homeric line as follows,
“I came to the Ethiopians, the Sidonians, and the Arabians.”2633
Indeed we ought not to be surprised at meeting with this in Homer,
for those who have lived at a more recent period than he did, have
been ignorant of many things, and have told strange tales. Hesiod
has talked of Hemicynes,2634
Megalocephali, and Pygmies; Alcman of
Steganopodes; Æschylus of Cynocephali, Sternophthalmi, and
Monommati, (they say it is in his Prometheus,) and ten thousand
other absurdities. From these he proceeds to censure the writers
who talk of the Riphæan Mountains2635
and Mount Ogyium,2636
and
the dwelling of the Gorgons2637
and the Hesperides,2638
the land of
Meropis2639
mentioned by Theopompus, Cimmeris,2640
a city
mentioned in Hecatæus, the land of Panchæa2641
mentioned by
Euhemerus, and the river-stones formed of sand mentioned by
Aristotle,2642
which were dissolved by rain-showers. Further, that
there exists in Africa a city of Bacchus which no one can find twice.
He likewise reproves those who assert that the wanderings of
Ulysses mentioned in Homer were in the neighbourhood of Sicily, for
again, if we should say that the wanderings did take place in those
parts, we should have to confess that the poet transferred them to
the ocean for the sake of making his account the more romantic.
Some allowance might be made for others, but no manner of excuse](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-53-320.jpg)
![can be put forward for Callimachus, who pretends to the character
of a critic, and yet supposes that Gaudus was the island of Calypso,
and identifies Scheria with Corcyra.2643
Other writers he blames for
misstatements as to Gerena,2644
Acacesium,2645
and the Demus2646
in Ithaca, Pelethronium2647
in Pelium, and the Glaucopium at
Athens.2648
With these and a few similar trifling observations, most
of which he has drawn from Eratosthenes, whose inaccuracy we
have before shown, he breaks off. However, we frankly
acknowledge, both with respect to him [Apollodorus] and
Eratosthenes, that the moderns are better informed on geography
than the ancients: but to strain the subject beyond measure, as they
do, especially when they inculpate Homer, seems to me as if it gave
a fair occasion to any one to find fault, and to say by way of
recrimination, that they reproach the poet for the very things of
which they themselves are ignorant. As for the rest of their
observations, particular mention is made of some of them in the
places where they occur, and of others in the General Introduction.
7. It has been our wish, while discoursing of the Thracians, and
“the bold
Close-fighting Mysian race, and where abide,
On milk sustain’d, and blest with length of days,
The Hippemolgi, justest of mankind,”2649
to compare what we have advanced with the remarks of Posidonius
and the other critics. Now, in the first place, they have universally
proved the very contrary of the allegations which they had
undertaken to maintain; for where they undertook to show that
amongst the ancients there was a greater amount of ignorance as to
places far from Greece than there was among the moderns, they
have proved the very contrary, and that not only with regard to the
countries more remote, but even with respect to Greece itself; but,
as I have said before, let the other matters remain in abeyance while
we consider carefully the subject now before us. Thus they say that
it was through ignorance Homer and the ancients omitted to speak
of the Scythians, and their cruelty to strangers, whom they](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-54-320.jpg)
![sacrificed, devoured their flesh, and afterwards made use of their
skulls as drinking-cups, for which barbarities the sea was termed the
Axine,2650
or inhospitable; but in place of these they imagined fables
as to illustrious Hippemolgi, Galactophagi, and Abii, the most just of
mankind, who never existed any where in this world. But how came
it that they named the sea the Axenus, if they were so ignorant of
the barbarism of that region, or of those savages who were the most
barbarous on earth? But these undoubtedly are the Scythians! Or in
the early times were not those who dwelt beyond the Mysians, and
Thracians, and Getæ, Hippemolgi, (or milkers of mares,)
Galactophagi, and Abii? Nay rather, they exist at this very day, being
called Hamaxœci and Nomades, living on the herd, milk and cheese,
and especially on cheese made of mare’s milk, and being ignorant
how to lay up treasure or deal in merchandise, except the simple
barter of one commodity for another. How then can it be said that
the poet [Homer] knew nothing of the Scythians, since he doubtless
designates some of them by the names of Hippemolgi and
Galactophagi? And that the men of that time called these people
Hippemølgi even Hesiod is a witness in the words which
Eratosthenes has quoted:
“He went and saw the Ethiopians, the Ligurians,2651
and the Scythians, milkers of
mares.”
And when we consider the amount of fraud connected with trading
speculations even amongst ourselves, what ground have we to
wonder that Homer should have designated as the justest and most
noble those who had but few commercial and monetary
transactions, and with the exception of their swords and drinking-
cups, possessed all things in common, and especially their wives and
children, who were cared for by the whole community according to
the system of Plato. Æschylus too seems to plead the poet’s cause,
when he says,
“But the Scythians, governed by good laws, and feeding on cheese of mares’ milk.”](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-55-320.jpg)
![And this is still the opinion entertained of them by the Greeks; for
we esteem them the most sincere, the least deceitful of any people,
and much more frugal and self-relying than ourselves. And yet the
manner of life customary among us has spread almost every where,
and brought about a change for the worse, effeminacy, luxury, and
over-great refinement, inducing extortion in ten thousand different
ways; and doubtless much of this corruption has penetrated even
into the countries of the nomades, as well as those of the other
barbarians; for having once learnt how to navigate the sea, they
have become depraved, committing piracy and murdering strangers;
and holding intercourse with many different nations, they have
imitated both their extravagance and their dishonest traffic, which
may indeed appear to promote civility of manners, but do doubtless
corrupt the morals and lead to dissimulation, in place of the genuine
sincerity we have before noticed.
8. Those however who lived before our time, and more especially
those who lived near to the times of Homer, were such as he
describes them, and so they were esteemed to be by the Greeks.
Take for instance what Herodotus relates concerning the king2652
of
the Scythians, against whom Darius waged war, and especially the
answer he sent [to the messenger of Darius]. Take again what
Chrysippus relates of the kings of the Bosphorus, [Satyrus2653
and]
Leuco. The letters of the Persians are full of the sincerity I have
described; so likewise are the memorials of the Egyptians,
Babylonians, and Indians. It was on this account that both
Anacharsis and Abaris, and certain others of the same class, gained
so great a reputation among the Greeks; for we may well believe
they displayed their national characteristics of affability of manner,
simplicity, and love of justice. But what occasion is there for me to
speak of such as belonged to the times of old? for Alexander [the
Great], the son of Philip, in his campaign against the Thracians
beyond Mount Hæmus,2654
is said to have penetrated as far as this
in an incursion into the country of the Triballi, and observed that
they occupied the territory as far as the Danube and the island](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-56-320.jpg)
![Peuce,2655
which is in it, and that the Getæ possessed the country
beyond that river; however, he was unable to pass into the island for
want of a sufficient number of ships, and because Syrmus, the king
of the Triballi, who had taken refuge in that place, resisted the
undertaking: but Alexander crossed over into the country of the
Getæ and took their city, after which he returned home in haste,
carrying with him presents from those nations, and also from
Syrmus. Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, relates that in this campaign the
Kelts who dwell on the Adriatic2656
came to Alexander for the
purpose of making a treaty of friendship and mutual hospitality, and
that the king received them in a friendly way, and asked them, while
drinking, what might be the chief object of their dread, supposing
that they would say it was he; but that they replied, it was no man,
only they felt some alarm lest the heavens should on some occasion
or other fall on them, but that they valued the friendship of such a
man as him above every thing. These examples sufficiently manifest
the open sincerity of the barbarians, both of the one who would not
suffer Alexander to land on the island, but nevertheless sent
presents and concluded a treaty of friendship with him, and also of
those who asserted that they feared no man, but that they valued
the friendship of great men above every price.
In like manner Dromichætes, who was king of the Getæ in the times
of the successors of Alexander, having taken captive Lysimachus,
who had come to wage war against him, showed him his poverty
and that of his people, and likewise their great frugality, bade him
not to make war on such, but rather seek them as friends; after
which he received him as a guest, made a treaty of friendship, and
suffered him to depart.2657
[*And Plato, in his Republic,2658
considers that the neighbourhood of the sea ought to be shunned as
being productive of vice, and that those who would enjoy a well-
governed city, should plant it very far from the sea, and not near
it.*]2659
9. Ephorus, in the fourth book of his History, which is entitled “Of
Europe,” having gone over Europe as far as the Scythians, concludes](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10202-250228055355-c18b4c6e/85/Inquiry-Into-Life-15th-Edition-Mader-Test-Bank-57-320.jpg)
Inquiry Into Life 15th Edition Mader Test Bank
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- 5. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-1 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Chapter 08 Photosynthesis Multiple Choice Questions 1. Heterotrophs A. have the ability to synthesize organic molecules from inorganic molecules. B. are ultimately dependent upon preformed organic molecules made by producers. C. are the origin of all food for the rest of the living world. D. are also called autotrophs. E. None of the answer choices is characteristic of heterotrophs. Heterotrophs are also known as consumers. They must take in preformed organic molecules in order to survive. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.01.01 Compare and contrast autotrophs and heterotrophs. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis 2. Which statement about producers and/or consumers is true? A. Consumers not only feed themselves but also feed producers. B. All animals must be either producers or consumers. C. Producers produce more food than they use. D. Consumers are not dependent upon other organisms for food. E. Only one species of producer and consumer can exist in any single community. Producers produce more food than they use, which then provides foods for the consumers. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.01 Compare and contrast autotrophs and heterotrophs. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 6. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-2 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 3. Which of the following is not an autotroph? A. yeast B. oak tree C. cyanobacterium D. algae E. grass All of the organisms are capable of photosynthesizing except the yeast. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.01 Compare and contrast autotrophs and heterotrophs. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis True / False Questions 4. At the base of most food chains are autotrophs. TRUE Autotrophs produce their own food and are able to sustain themselves and all other living things on Earth. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.01 Compare and contrast autotrophs and heterotrophs. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 7. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-3 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Multiple Choice Questions 5. Which of the following allows photosynthetic organisms to capture solar energy? A. pigments B. nucleus C. chloroplasts D. glucose E. NAD+ Pigments, such as chlorophyll, allow organisms to capture solar energy. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.01.01 Compare and contrast autotrophs and heterotrophs. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis True / False Questions 6. The red maple tree cannot photosynthesize because it is not green. FALSE The red maple is capable of photosynthesis because it has other pigments besides chlorophyll that enable it to capture solar energy. Bloom's Level: 3. Apply Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 8. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-4 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Multiple Choice Questions 7. The main function of stomata is to A. expose the chlorophyll to sunlight. B. transport water to the chlorophyll. C. allow passage of CO2 and O2 into the leaf. D. store glucose. E. store pyruvate and provide the site of the Calvin cycle. The stomata are small openings in the leaf that allow the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis 8. The substance that initially traps solar energy in photosynthesis is A. chlorophyll. B. RuBP. C. water. D. glucose. E. pyruvate. Pigments, such as chlorophyll, capture solar energy. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 9. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-5 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 9. The flattened sacs within the stroma of a chloroplast, which are connected to form a single inner compartment, are called A. stomata. B. thylakoids. C. mesophyll. D. carotenoids. E. CAM units. The thylakoids are the flattened sacs within the chloroplast. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Light Reactions True / False Questions 10. In the process of photosynthesis, the light reactions follow the Calvin cycle reactions. FALSE The light reactions occur first. This provides the energy for the Calvin cycle reactions. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 10. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-6 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Multiple Choice Questions 11. What does the term stroma refer to? A. the cytochrome system in the membranes of the thylakoids B. a stack of thylakoid membrane structures C. the double membrane of the chloroplast D. a flattened disk or sac in the chloroplast E. the central fluid-filled space of the chloroplast The stroma is the fluid-filled interior of the chloroplast. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.03 Describe the organization of the thylakoid and how this organization is critical to the production of ATP during photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Calvin Cycle/Carbon Reactions 12. The raw materials or reactants of the photosynthetic process include A. glucose and oxygen. B. carbon dioxide and glucose. C. carbon dioxide and water. D. carbon dioxide and oxygen. E. glucose and water. The chloroplast requires carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis. Glucose and oxygen are the end products. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.03 Recognize the overall chemical equation for photosynthesis. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 11. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-7 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 13. What are the products of photosynthesis? A. water and carbon dioxide B. water and oxygen C. carbohydrate and water D. oxygen and carbohydrate E. carbon dioxide and carbohydrate The end products of photosynthesis are a carbohydrate (glucose) and oxygen. Carbon dioxide and water are the substrates of the reaction. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.03 Recognize the overall chemical equation for photosynthesis. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis 14. Which molecule would you need to radioactively label in order to produce radioactive oxygen during photosynthesis? A. carbon dioxide B. water C. cytochrome D. glucose E. G3P Water contains oxygen which is broken down during photosynthesis to produce oxygen gas. Bloom's Level: 3. Apply Learning Outcome: 08.01.03 Recognize the overall chemical equation for photosynthesis. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 12. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-8 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 15. At the cellular level, photosynthesis occurs within A. the chloroplast. B. the cristae of the mitochondria. C. both chloroplasts and mitochondria. D. all plant cell organelles. E. the nucleus of plants but not of animals. Photosynthesis occurs within chloroplasts. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis 16. How many membranes does a chloroplast have? A. one B. two C. three D. four E. five A chloroplast has three membranes: an outer and inner membrane and a thylakoid membrane. Bloom's Level: 4. Analyze Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 13. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-9 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 17. To what does the term grana refer? A. the cytochrome system in the membranes of the thylakoids B. a stack of thylakoid membrane structures C. the double membrane of the chloroplast D. a flattened disk or sac in the chloroplast E. the central fluid-filled space of the chloroplast Grana are stacks of thylakoid membranes within the chloroplast. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 14. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-10 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 18. In which plant structure does photosynthesis primarily occur? A. root B. stem C. leaf D. petiole E. bark The leaves of a plant are specialized to carry out photosynthesis. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.01.03 Recognize the overall chemical equation for photosynthesis. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis 19. What are the two sets of reactions for photosynthesis? A. light reactions, Calvin cycle reactions B. glycolysis, citric acid cycle C. light reactions, glycolysis D. Calvin cycle reactions, citric acid cycle E. electron transport chain, light reactions The two sets of reactions in photosynthesis are the light reactions and the Calvin cycle reactions. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 15. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-11 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 20. An early experiment by Van Helmont (1600s) describes how he grew a tree in a large pot and found that after five years, the amount of soil in the pot had not changed. He concluded that the increase in weight was due to the addition of water. At that time, the compounds of the air had not yet been identified. Today, it is known that he only discovered half the story. Which of these experiments would NOT provide evidence that materials from a source other than water were involved in photosynthesis? A. Carbon is discovered as a major element in trees and is lacking in water molecules. B. Radioactive carbon in carbon dioxide in the air is identified as part of tree structures. C. A very careful analysis of the water taken in and lost by the tree would have revealed only part of the added weight gained by the tree was from water. D. After adding radioactive water with labeled oxygen to a plant, radioactive oxygen is given off. E. Radioactive carbon is found in stored glucose molecules after supplying a plant with radioactive carbon dioxide. Adding radioactive water with labeled oxygen would not address the other requirement for photosynthesis—carbon. Bloom's Level: 5. Evaluate Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 16. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-12 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 21. The heavy oxygen isotope (18 O) could be provided to plants either in the CO2 or in H2O or in both. Today, we know from experimental results that O2 released from chloroplasts comes from H2O and not from CO2. Which of the following experimental results would show conclusively that O2 is released from H2O and not CO2? A. When heavy oxygen is part of water given to the plant, the plant produces heavy O2. B. When heavy oxygen is part of both water and CO2 given to the plant, the plant produces heavy O2. C. When no heavy oxygen is part of water given to the plant, the plant produces no heavy O2. D. When no heavy oxygen is part of CO2 given to the plant, the plant produces no heavy O2. E. When heavy oxygen is part of CO2 given to the plant, the plant produces heavy O2. Because the oxygen comes from water, only heavy oxygen as part of water will produce heavy oxygen. In order to differentiate between water and carbon dioxide as the source of the oxygen, you could not give both water and carbon dioxide labeled with heavy oxygen. Bloom's Level: 4. Analyze Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis 22. Which two organelles are most directly involved in the flow of energy from the sun through all living things? A. Golgi apparatus and mitochondria B. lysosomes and chloroplasts C. chloroplasts and mitochondria D. mitochondria and ribosomes E. ribosomes and Golgi apparatus Chloroplasts are involved in the capture of solar energy to form carbohydrates. Mitochondria are involved in the breakdown of carbohydrates to form ATP. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.01.04 Describe the process of photosynthesis in terms of two sets of reactions that take place in a chloroplast. Section: 08.01 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 17. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-13 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 23. Which cofactor is involved in the Calvin cycle reactions? A. NAD+ B. FAD C. NADP+ D. both NAD+ and FAD E. both FAD and NADP+ NADP+ is the cofactor involved in the Calvin cycle reactions. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.03.01 Describe the three phases of the Calvin cycle. Section: 08.03 Topic: Calvin Cycle/Carbon Reactions 24. Which of the following statements is true concerning sunlight radiation used for photosynthesis? A. All of the sunlight that hits the atmosphere is used for photosynthesis. B. Only the highest energy wavelengths are used for photosynthesis. C. All of the visible light is used for photosynthesis. D. Only the red, blue, and violet wavelengths of visible light are used for photosynthesis. E. Only the green visible light is used for photosynthesis. Only the red, blue, and violet wavelengths of visible light are used for photosynthesis. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 18. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-14 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 25. Why are plant leaves green? A. They absorb only green wavelengths of light. B. They absorb only yellow and blue wavelengths of light. C. They reflect nearly all wavelengths of light. D. They reflect green wavelengths of light. E. They reflect yellow and blue wavelengths of light. Leaves reflect green light so they appear green to us. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis 26. The reason that deciduous leaves turn bright colors of red and yellow in the fall is A. chlorophyll is converted into bright carotenoid pigments. B. when chlorophyll breaks down, the remaining pigments other than green will show through. C. it is a chemical reaction involving the formation of ice crystals. D. bright pigments are shifted from the roots and stem to the leaves while sugars and chlorophyll are pumped down to the roots. E. a shift in the reflectance values of light is caused by the sun being lower in the sky; all leaf pigments actually remain the same. The yellow and orange carotenoids are present but masked by the green chlorophyll. When chlorophyll breaks down in the fall, the other pigments are uncovered. Bloom's Level: 3. Apply Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 19. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-15 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 27. We set up an experiment where the same species of plant is grown in boxes covered with plastic that only allows a single color of light through. In which box would we expect the least plant growth and even perhaps the death of the plant to occur? A. white B. blue C. red D. green E. indigo White light is a combination of all the colors so it would allow the plants to grow. Chlorophyll absorbs light in the indigo, blue, violet, and red region so those colors would allow the plant to grow. Chlorophyll does not absorb green light so that plant would not be able to photosynthesize and might die. Bloom's Level: 3. Apply Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis 28. Photosynthesis shows higher activity for violet/blue and orange/red and a lower absorption for green/yellow. If we could create a different photosynthetic pigment that absorbed absolutely all visible wavelengths of light, the leaves would appear which color? A. white B. black C. red D. green E. orange Since it absorbs all the colors, it does not reflect any, so it would appear black to us. Bloom's Level: 3. Apply Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 20. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-16 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. True / False Questions 29. Visible light has more energy than radio waves. TRUE Visible light is in the middle of the spectrum and contains more energy than radio waves. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis 30. There is an inverse relationship between wavelength of light and amount of energy. TRUE The greater the wavelength, the less the energy. This is an inverse relationship. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.01 Identify the photosynthetic pigments required to absorb the various wavelengths of light necessary for photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Photosynthesis
- 21. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-17 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Multiple Choice Questions 31. The "antenna" system of a plant that gathers the solar energy consists of A. the grana. B. the epidermal cells of the leaf. C. the pigment complex. D. the ATP synthase complex. E. the hydrogen ions (H+ ) The pigment complex gathers the solar energy. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.02 Explain the role of the noncyclic electron pathway and the cyclic electron pathway. Section: 08.02 Topic: Light Reactions 32. Water is split and oxygen is released in A. the electron transport chain. B. the cyclic electron pathway. C. the Calvin cycle reactions. D. the noncyclic electron pathway. E. photosystem I. In the noncyclic electron pathway, water is split in order to replace the electrons that are lost by photosystem II. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.02.02 Explain the role of the noncyclic electron pathway and the cyclic electron pathway. Section: 08.02 Topic: Light Reactions
- 22. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-18 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 33. Which part of photosynthesis does not occur inside the thylakoid membrane? A. noncyclic electron pathway B. cyclic electron pathway C. electron transport chain D. light reactions E. Calvin cycle reactions The Calvin cycle reactions occur within the stroma of the chloroplast. All of the others occur in the thylakoid membrane. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.02.02 Explain the role of the noncyclic electron pathway and the cyclic electron pathway. Section: 08.02 Topic: Calvin Cycle/Carbon Reactions 34. The cyclic electron pathway produces only A. NADPH. B. ATP. C. NAD+ . D. oxygen. E. carbon dioxide. The cyclic pathway produces only ATP. The noncyclic produces NADPH, ATP, H+ , and O2. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.02.02 Explain the role of the noncyclic electron pathway and the cyclic electron pathway. Section: 08.02 Topic: Light Reactions
- 23. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-19 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 35. Which of these is most closely associated with the process of electron transport? A. a sequence of molecules in the membranes of the thylakoids B. a stack of thylakoid membrane structures C. the double membrane of the chloroplast D. a flattened disk or sac in the chloroplast E. the central fluid-filled space of the chloroplast The electron transport chain consists of a series of electron carriers in the thylakoid membrane. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.02.03 Describe the organization of the thylakoid and how this organization is critical to the production of ATP during photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Light Reactions True / False Questions 36. Photosystem I comes before photosystem II in the noncyclic electron pathway. FALSE The photosystems were named for the order in which they were discovered, not the order in which they participate in photosynthesis. Photosystem II comes before photosystem I. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.02 Explain the role of the noncyclic electron pathway and the cyclic electron pathway. Section: 08.02 Topic: Light Reactions
- 24. Chapter 08 - Photosynthesis 8-20 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 37. ATP synthase is an enzyme complex located in the thylakoid membranes. TRUE The ATP synthase in the thylakoid membranes participates in the production of ATP for the Calvin cycle. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.03 Describe the organization of the thylakoid and how this organization is critical to the production of ATP during photosynthesis. Section: 08.02 Topic: Light Reactions 38. The first step of the cyclic electron pathway involves the removal of the electrons from water. FALSE The electrons for the cyclic electron pathway recycle. Water is used to replace the electrons in photosystem II in the noncyclic electron pathway. Bloom's Level: 2. Understand Learning Outcome: 08.02.02 Explain the role of the noncyclic electron pathway and the cyclic electron pathway. Section: 08.02 Topic: Light Reactions Multiple Choice Questions 39. What are the products of the noncyclic electron pathway? A. H+ , O2, ATP, and NADPH B. H+ and O2 C. H+ , ATP, and NADPH D. ATP and NADPH E. O2 and ATP The noncyclic electron pathway produces H+ , O2, ATP, and NADPH. Bloom's Level: 1. Remember Learning Outcome: 08.02.02 Explain the role of the noncyclic electron pathway and the cyclic electron pathway. Section: 08.02 Topic: Light Reactions
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- 26. “The fathers of our fathers, armed for war, Possessing ever patient courage, fought at Messene For nineteen years with unremitting toil. Till on the twentieth, leaving their rich soil, The enemy forsook the towering heights of Ithome.”2410 Thus then did they destroy Messenia, but returning home, they neglected to honour the Partheniæ like other youths, and treated them as though they had been born out of wedlock. The Partheniæ, leaguing with the Helots, conspired against the Lacedæmonians, and agreed to raise a Laconic felt hat2411 in the market-place as a signal for the commencement of hostilities. Some of the Helots betrayed the plot, but the government found it difficult to resist them by force, for they were many, and all unanimous, and looked upon each other as brothers; those in authority therefore commanded such as were appointed to raise the signal, to depart out of the market- place; when they therefore perceived that their plot was disclosed they desisted, and the Lacedæmonians persuaded them, through the instrumentality of their fathers, to leave the country and colonize: and advised them, if they should get possession of a convenient place, to abide in it, but if not, they promised that a fifth part of Messenia should be divided amongst them on their return. So they departed and found the Greeks carrying on hostilities against the barbarians, and taking part in the perils of the war, they obtained possession of Tarentum, which they colonized. 4. At one time, when the government of the Tarentines had assumed a democratic form, they rose to great importance; for they possessed the greatest fleet of any state in those parts, and could bring into the field an army of 30,000 foot and 3000 horse, exclusive of a select body of 1000 cavalry called Hipparchi.2412 They likewise encouraged the Pythagorean philosophy, and Archytas, who for a long time presided over the government of their state, gave it his special support.2413 But at a later period their luxury, which was produced by their prosperity, increased to that degree that their general holidays or festivals exceeded in number the days of the year; and hence arose an inefficient government, and as one proof
- 27. of their unstatesmanlike acts we may adduce their employment of foreign generals; for they sent for Alexander,2414 king of the Molossi, to come and assist them against the Messapii and Leucani. They had before that employed Archidamus, the son of Agesilaus;2415 afterwards they called in Cleonymus2416 and Agathocles,2417 and later, when they rose against the Romans, Pyrrhus.2418 They were not able even to retain the respect of those whom they had invited, but rather merited their disgust. Alexander [of Epirus] was so displeased with them that he endeavoured to remove the seat of the general council of the Greek states in Italy, which was accustomed to assemble at Heraclea, a city of the Tarentines, to a city of the Thurii; and he commanded that some place on the river Acalandrus,2419 commodious for their meetings, should be properly fortified for their reception.—And indeed they say that the misfortune2420 of that prince was chiefly due to a want of good feeling on their part. They were deprived of their liberty during the wars2421 of Hannibal, but have since received a Roman colony,2422 and now live in peace and are in a more prosperous state than ever. They also engaged in war with the Messapii concerning Heraclea, when they counted the kings of the Daunii and of the Peucetii as allies.2423 5. The remainder of the country of the Iapygii is very fair, notwithstanding unfavourable appearances; for although, for the most part, it appears rugged, yet when it is broken up the soil is found to be deep; and although it lacks water, yet it appears well- suited for pasture, and is furnished with trees. At one time it was thickly inhabited throughout its whole extent, and possessed thirteen cities, but now it is so depopulated that, with the exception of Tarentum and Brentesium,2424 they only deserve the name of hamlets. They say that the Salentini are a colony of Cretans. Here is the temple of Minerva,2425 which formerly was rich, and the rock called Acra Iapygia,2426 which juts out far into the sea towards the rising of the sun in winter,2427 and turning, as it were, towards Cape Lacinium, which lies opposite to it on the west, it closes the entrance
- 28. of the Gulf of Tarentum, as on the other side, the Ceraunian Mountains, together with the said Cape, close the entrance of the Ionian Gulf, the run across is about 700 stadia from that,2428 both to the Ceraunian Mountains and to Cape Lacinium.2429 In coasting along the shore from Tarentum to Brentesium there are 600 stadia as far as the little city of Baris, which is at the present time called Veretum,2430 and is situated on the extremities of the Salentine territory; the approach to it from Tarentum is much easier on foot2431 than by sea. Thence to Leuca are 80 stadia; this too is but a small village, in which there is shown a well of fetid water, and the legend runs, that when Hercules drove out the last of the giants from Phlegra in Campania, who were called Leuternians, some fled and were buried here, and that from their blood a spring issues to supply the well; on this account likewise the coast is called the Leuternian coast.2432 From Leuca to Hydrus,2433 a small town, 150 stadia. From thence to Brentesium 400, and the like distance also [from Hydrus] to the island Saso,2434 which is situated almost in the midst of the course from Epirus to Brentesium; and therefore when vessels are unable to obtain a direct passage they run to the left from Saso to Hydrus, and thence watching for a favourable wind they steer towards the haven of Brentesium, or the passengers disembarking proceed on foot by a shorter way through Rudiæ, a Grecian city, where the poet Ennius was born.2435 The district which we have followed by sea from Tarentum to Brentesium is like a peninsula. The road by land from Brentesium to Tarentum is but a day’s journey for a light person on foot, it constitutes the isthmus of the said peninsula, which people in general call Messapia, Iapygia, Calabria, or Salentinum, without being at all particular; but some, as we have said before, do make a distinction. Thus have we described the towns on the sea-coast. 6. In the inland are Rudiæ and Lupiæ, and at a short distance from the sea Aletia;2436 about the middle of the isthmus is Uria,2437 in which is still shown the palace of a certain famous nobleman.2438 As Hyria2439 is described by Herodotus as situated in Iapygia, and as
- 29. founded by the Cretans who strayed from the fleet of Minos while sailing to Sicily;2440 we must suppose that he meant either this place [Uria] or Veretum. It is said that a colony of Cretans settled in Brentesium,2441 but the tradition varies; some say they were those who came with Theseus from Cnossus;2442 others, that they were some out of Sicily who had come with Iapyx; they agree however in saying that they did not abide there, but went thence to Bottiæa. At a later period, when the state was under the government of a monarch, it lost a large portion of its territories, which was taken by the Lacedæmonians who came over under Phalanthus; notwithstanding this the Brundusians received him when he was expelled from Tarentum, and honoured him with a splendid tomb at his death. They possess a district of superior fertility to that of the Tarentines; for its soil is light, still it is fruitful, and its honey and wools are amongst the most esteemed; further, the harbour of Brentesium is superior to that of Tarentum, for many havens are protected by the single entrance,2443 and rendered perfectly smooth, many bays [or reaches] being formed within it, so that it resembles in fashion the antlers of a stag, whence its name, for the place, together with the city, is exceedingly like the head of a stag, and in the Messapian language the stag’s head is called Brentesium; while the port of Tarentum is not entirely safe, both on account of its lying very open, and of certain shallows near its head. 7. Further, the course for passengers from Greece and Asia is most direct to Brentesium, and in fact all who are journeying to Rome disembark here. Hence there are two ways to Rome; one, which is only walked by mules, through the Peucetii, who are called Pœdicli, the Daunii, and the Samnites, as far as Beneventum, on which road is the city Egnatia,2444 then Celia,2445 Netium,2446 Canusium,2447 and Herdonia.2448 That through Tarentum is a little to the left, it runs about a day’s journey round for one traversing the whole distance; it is called the Appian Way, and is more of a carriage road than the other. On it stands the city Uria,2449 and Venusia;2450 the one [Uria] between Tarentum and Brentesium, the other on the confines of the
- 30. Samnites and Lucani. Both the roads from Brentesium run into one near Beneventum and Campania, and thence to Rome it receives the name of Appian, and runs through Caudium,2451 Calatia,2452 Capua,2453 and Casilinum,2454 to Sinuessa.2455 The way from thence to Rome has been already described.—The whole length of the Appian Way from Rome to Brentesium is 360 miles. There is a third way from Rhegium, through the Bruttii, Lucani, and Samnites, along the chain of the Apennines, into Campania, where it joins the Appian Way;2456 it is longer than those from Brentesium by about three or four days’ journey. 8. From Brentesium the sea is traversed by two passages to the opposite coast, one crossing to the Ceraunian2457 Mountains and the adjacent coasts of the Epirus and Greece, the other to Epidamnus,2458 which is the longer2459 of the two, being 18002460 stadia. Still this is habitually traversed, on account of the situation of the city [Epidamnus] being convenient for the nations of Illyria and Macedonia. As we coast along the shore of the Adriatic from Brentesium we come to the city Egnatia,2461 it is the general place to stop at for those travelling to Barium,2462 as well by land as by sea. The run is made when the wind blows from the south. The territory of the Peucetii extends as far as this along the coast, in the interior of the land it reaches as far as Silvium.2463 It is throughout rugged and mountainous, and chiefly occupied by the Apennine mountains. It is thought to have been colonized by a party of Arcadians. The distance from Brentesium to Barium is about 700 stadia. [Tarentum] is about equally distant from both.2464 The Daunii inhabit the adjoining district, then the Apuli as far as the Phrentani. As the inhabitants of the district, except in ancient times, have never been particular in speaking of the Peucetii or Daunii precisely, and as the whole of this country is now called Apulia, the boundaries of these nations are necessarily but ill defined: wherefore we ourselves shall not be very exact in treating of them.
- 31. 9. From Barium to the river Ofanto,2465 on which the Canusitæ have established an emporium, there are 4002466 stadia. The course up the river to the emporium is 90 [stadia]. Near it is Salapia,2467 the port of the Argyrippeni. For the two cities, Canusium and Argyrippa, are situated at no great distance from the sea, and in the midst of a plain; at one time they were the most important cities of the Greeks of Italy, as is manifest from the circumference of their walls, but now they have fallen off. One of them was originally called Argos Hippium, then Argyrippa, and then again Arpi. They are said to have been both founded by Diomed, and both the plain of Diomed and many other things are shown in these districts as evidence of his having possessed them. Such were the ancient offerings in the temple of Minerva, at Luceria.2468 That was an ancient city of the Daunii, but now it is of no account. Again, in the neighbouring sea there are two islands called the Diomedean islands, one of which is inhabited, but the other, they say, is desert: in the latter it is fabled that Diomed disappeared from the earth, and that his companions were transformed into birds,2469 and indeed the fable goes so far as to prolong their race to the present time, saying that they are tame, and lead a sort of human life, both in respect of food, and their readiness to approach men of gentle manners, and to shun the evil and wanton. We have already noticed2470 what is currently reported amongst the Heneti concerning this hero [Diomed] and the honours decreed to him by custom. It is thought also that Sipus2471 was a settlement founded by Diomed, it is distant from Salapia about 140 stadia, and was called by the Greeks Sepius, from the numbers of cuttle fish2472 thrown up by the sea along its shore. Between Salapia and Sipus is a navigable river, and a considerable estuary; by both of these channels the merchandise, and wheat especially, of Sipus is conveyed to the sea. Two heroa or shrines are shown on a hill of Daunia, called Drium, one on the very brow of the hill sacred to Calchas, those who are about to inquire of the oracle offer a black ram to him, and sleep upon the fleece, the other below near the foot of the hill is dedicated to Podalirius, it is about a hundred stadia distant from the sea; from this hill also flows a stream,2473 which is a
- 32. potent cure for all manner of diseases among cattle.2474 The promontory of Garganum2475 running into the sea, juts out from this bay about 300 stadia.2476 As you turn the point you perceive the town of Urium,2477 while off the headland are seen the Diomedean islands. All this coast produces everything in great abundance, it is exceedingly well adapted for horses and sheep, and the wool is finer than that of Tarentum, but less glossy. The district is mild on account of the cup-like situation of the plains. There are some who report that Diomed attempted to cut a canal to the sea, but being sent for to return home, where he died, left it incomplete, as well as other undertakings. This is one account of him: another makes him abide here till the end of his days; a third is the fable I have already noticed, that he vanished in the island [of Teutria], and one might reckon as a fourth that of the Heneti,2478 for they somehow make out that he finished his career among them, as they assert his apotheosis. The distances I have thus given are laid down in accordance with those of Artemidorus. 10. The chorographer indeed gives only 165 miles from Brentesium2479 to Garganum, but Artemidorus makes them more.2480 Thence to Ancona, the first says there are 254 miles, whilst Artemidorus has given but 1250 stadia to the Fiumesino,2481 near to Ancona, which is much shorter. Polybius says that from Iapygia the distance has been laid down in miles, and that there are 562 miles thence to the town of Sila,2482 thence to Aquileia 178. These geographers do not agree as to the length to be assigned to the line of the sea-coast of Illyria, run from the Ceraunian Mountains2483 to the head2484 of the Adriatic, some of them stating it to be above 6000 [stadia], and making it longer than the opposite coast [of Italy], while it is much shorter.2485 Indeed they all generally differ among themselves in stating distances, as we often have occasion to remark. Wherever it is possible to discriminate we set forth what appears to us to be correct, but where it is impossible to come to any safe conclusion we think it our duty to publish their several assertions. However, when we have no data furnished by
- 33. them, it must not be wondered at, if we should leave some points untouched in treating of such and so vast a subject as we have undertaken. We would not indeed omit any of the important particulars, but trifling circumstances, even when they are noted, are of little advantage, and when taken no heed of, are not missed, nor does their omission at all impair the whole work, or, if it does, at most not much. 11. Immediately beyond the Garganum comes a deep bay.2486 Those who dwell round it call themselves Apuli,2487 they speak the same language as the Daunii and Peucetii, and at the present time resemble them in every other particular; however it is likely that they were formerly distinct, since their names completely differ from those of the others. In ancient times the whole of this country was flourishing, but Hannibal and the wars which subsequently occurred have wasted it. Here too was fought the battle of Cannæ, where there was so great a slaughter of the Roman forces and their allies.2488 Near this gulf there is a lake,2489 and above the lake in the interior is the Apulian Teanum,2490 having a like name with that of the Sidicini.2491 It is between this and the neighbourhood of Dicæarchia2492 that the breadth of Italy is so contracted as to form an isthmus of less than 1000 stadia from sea to sea.2493 Leaving the lake we sail next to Buca,2494 and the country of the Frentani. There are 200 stadia from the lake both to Buca and to the Garganum. The remainder of the towns in the vicinity of Buca have been before described.2495 CHAPTER IV. 1. So great indeed is Italy, and much as we have described it; we will now advert to the chief of the many things that have been described, which have conduced to raise the Romans to so great a height of prosperity. One point is its insular position, by which it is
- 34. securely guarded, the seas forming a natural protection around it with the exception of a very inconsiderable frontier, which too is fortified by almost impassable mountains. A second is, that there are but few harbours, and those few capacious and admirably situated. These are of great service both for enterprises against foreign places, and also in case of invasions undertaken against the country, and the reception of abundant merchandise. And a third, that it is situated so as to possess many advantages of atmosphere and temperature of climate, in which both animals and plants, and in fact all things available for sustaining life, may be accommodated with every variety both of mild and severe temperature; its length stretches in a direction north and south. Sicily, which is extensive, may be looked upon as an addition to its length, for we cannot consider it in any other light than as a part of it. The salubrity or severity of the atmosphere of different countries, is estimated by the amount of cold or heat, or the degrees of temperature between those extremes; in this way we shall find that Italy, which is situated in the medium of both the extremes, and having so great a length, largely participates in a salubrious atmosphere, and that in many respects. This advantage is still secured to it in another way, for the chain of the Apennines extending through its whole length, and leaving on each side plains and fruitful hills, there is no district which does not participate in the advantages of the best productions both of hill and plain. We must also enumerate the magnitude and number of its rivers and lakes, and the springs of hot and cold waters supplied by nature in various localities for the restoration of health; and in addition to these, its great wealth in mines of all the metals, abundance of timber, and excellent food both for man and for beasts of all kinds. Italy, likewise, being situated in the very midst of the greatest nations, I allude to Greece and the best provinces of Asia, is naturally in a position to gain the ascendency, since she excels the circumjacent countries both in the valour of her population and in extent of territory, and by being in proximity to them seems to have been ordained to bring them into subjection without difficulty.
- 35. 2. If, in addition to our description of Italy, a few words should be summarily added about the Romans who have possessed themselves of it, and prepared it as a centre from whence to enforce their universal dominion, we would offer the following.—The Romans, after the foundation of their state, discreetly existed as a kingdom for many years, till Tarquin, the last [Roman king], abused his power, when they expelled him, and established a mixed form of government, being a modification both of the monarchical and aristocratical systems; they admitted both the Sabines2496 and Latins2497 into their alliance, but as neither they nor the other neighbouring states continued to act with good faith towards them at all times, they were under the necessity of aggrandizing themselves by the dismemberment of their neighbours.2498 Having thus, by degrees, arrived at a state of considerable importance, it chanced that they lost their city suddenly, contrary to the expectation of all men, and again recovered the same contrary to all expectation.2499 This took place, according to Polybius, in the nineteenth year after the naval engagement of Ægos-potami,2500 about the time of the conclusion of the peace of Antalcidas.2501 Having escaped these misfortunes, the Romans first reduced all the Latins2502 to complete obedience, they then subdued the Tyrrheni,2503 and stayed the Kelts, who border the Po, from their too frequent and licentious forays; then the Samnites, and after them they conquered the Tarentines and Pyrrhus,2504 and presently after the remainder of what is now considered as Italy, with the exception of the districts on the Po. While these still remained a subject of dispute they passed over into Sicily,2505 and having wrested that island from the Carthaginians2506 they returned to complete the conquest of the people dwelling along the Po. While this war was still in hand Hannibal entered Italy,2507 thus the second war against the Carthaginians ensued, and after a very short interval the third, in which Carthage was demolished.2508 At the same time the Romans became masters of Africa,2509 and of such portions of Spain as they won from the Carthaginians. Both the Greeks and the Macedonians,
- 36. and the nations of Asia who dwelt on the hither side of the river Kizil-Irmak2510 and the Taurus, took part in these struggles with the Carthaginians: over these Antiochus2511 was king, and Philip and Perseus,2512 these therefore the Romans found themselves obliged to subdue. The people likewise of Illyria and Thrace, who were next neighbours to the Greeks and Macedonians, at this time commenced the war with the Romans that never ceased, until the subjugation of all the people who inhabit the countries on the hither side of the Danube2513 and the Kizil-Irmak(4) had been effected. The Iberians, and Kelts, and all the rest who are subject to the Romans, shared a similar fate, for the Romans never rested in the subjugation of the land to their sway until they had entirely overthrown it: in the first instance they took Numantia,2514 and subdued Viriathus,2515 and afterwards vanquished Sertorius,2516 and last of all the Cantabrians,2517 who were brought to subjection by Augustus Cæsar.2518 Likewise the whole of Gaul both within and beyond the Alps with Liguria were annexed at first by a partial occupation, but subsequently divus Cæsar and then Augustus subdued them completely in open war, so that now2519 the Romans direct their expeditions against the Germans from these countries as the most convenient rendezvous, and have already adorned their own country with several triumphs over them. Also in Africa all that did not belong to the Carthaginians has been left to the charge of kings owning dependence on the Roman state, while such as have attempted to assert their independence have been overpowered. At the present moment both Maurusia and much of the rest of Africa have fallen to the portion of Juba2520 on account of his good will and friendship towards the Romans. The like things have taken place in Asia. At first it was governed by kings who were dependent on the Romans, and afterwards when their several lines of succession failed, as of that of the kings Attalus,2521 the kings of the Syrians,2522 the Paphlagonians,2523 Cappadocians,2524 and Egyptians,2525 [or] when they revolted and were subsequently deposed, as it happened in the case of Mithridates Eupator, and
- 37. Cleopatra of Egypt, the whole of their territories within the Phasis2526 and the Euphrates,2527 with the exception of some tribes of Arabs, were brought completely under the dominion of the Romans and the dynasties set up by them. The Armenians and the people who lie beyond Colchis, both the Albani and Iberians, require nothing more than that Roman governors should be sent among them, and they would be easily ruled; their attempted insurrections are merely the consequence of the want of attention from the Romans, who are so much occupied elsewhere: the like may be asserted of those who dwell beyond the Danube,2528 and inhabit the banks of the Euxine, excepting only those who dwell on the Bosphorus2529 and the Nomades;2530 of these the former are in subjection to the Romans, and the latter are unprofitable for commerce on account of their wandering life, and only require to be watched. The rest of the countries [of Asia] are chiefly inhabited by Scenites2531 and Nomades who dwell at a great distance. The Parthians indeed border on them and are very powerful, but they have yielded so far to the superiority of the Romans and our emperors, that they have not only sent back2532 to Rome the trophies which they had at a still more distant period taken from the Romans, but Phraates has even sent his sons and his sons’ sons to Augustus Cæsar, as hostages, assiduously courting his friendship:2533 indeed the [Parthians] of the present time frequently send for a king from hence,2534 and are almost on the point of relinquishing all power to the Romans. We now see Italy, which has frequently been torn by civil war even since it came under the dominion of the Romans, nay, even Rome herself, restrained from rushing headlong into confusion and destruction by the excellence of her form of government and the ability of her emperors. Indeed it were hard to administer the affairs of so great an empire otherwise than by committing them to one man as a father.2535 For it would never have been in the power of the Romans and their allies to attain to a state of such perfect peace, and the enjoyment of such abundant prosperity, as Augustus Cæsar afforded them from the time that he took upon himself the absolute authority; and which his
- 38. son Tiberius, who has succeeded him, still maintains, who takes his father for a pattern in his government and ordinances. And in their turn his sons, Germanicus and Drusus,2536 who are exercising the functions of government under their father, take him for their model.
- 39. BOOK VII. germany.—the cimbri, getæ, daci.—mouths of the danube.—the taurica chersonesus, illyricum, hungary, epirus, dodona, macedonia, thrace.—the hellespont. SUMMARY. In the Seventh Book Strabo describes the remaining portions of Europe. That on the east is the country beyond the Rhine, as far as the Don2537 and the mouth of the Sea of Azof;2538 and on the south, that which the Danube2539 bounds, lying between the Adriatic and the left shores of the Euxine, as far as Greece and the Sea of Marmora,2540 including the whole of Macedonia. CHAPTER I. 1. We have described Spain and the Keltic nations, together with Italy and the islands adjacent, and must now speak of the remaining portions of Europe, dividing it in the best way we can. That which remains is, on the east, all the country beyond the Rhine, as far as the Don and the mouth of the Sea of Azof; and, on the south, that which the Danube bounds, lying between the Adriatic and the left shores of the Euxine, as far as Greece and the Sea of Marmora, for the Danube, which is the largest of the rivers of Europe, divides the whole territory of which we have spoken, into two portions. This river from its commencement flows southwards, then, making a sudden turn, continues its course from west to east, which [terminates] in the Euxine Sea. It takes its rise in the western confines of Germany, not far from the head of the Adriatic, being distant from it about 1000 stadia,2541 and falls into the Euxine near the mouths of the Dniester2542 and the Dnieper,2543 inclining a little towards the north. Thus the countries beyond the Rhine and Keltica
- 40. are situated to the north of the Danube, and are occupied by the Galatic and German tribes, as far as the territory of the Bastarnæ,2544 the Tyregetæ,2545 and the river Dnieper; so also is the country situated between the Dnieper, the Don, and the mouth of the Sea of Azof, which on one side stretches back as far as the [Northern] Ocean,2546 and on another is washed by the Euxine. To the south of the Danube are situated the people of Illyria and Thrace, and mixed with them certain tribes of Kelts and other races, extending as far as Greece. We will first speak of those nations to the north of the Danube, for their history is less involved than that of the tribes situated on the other side of the river. 2. Next after the Keltic nations come the Germans who inhabit the country to the east beyond the Rhine; and these differ but little from the Keltic race, except in their being more fierce, of a larger stature, and more ruddy in countenance; but in every other respect, their figure, their customs and manners of life, are such as we have related of the Kelts.2547 The Romans therefore, I think, have very appositely applied to them the name “Germani,” as signifying genuine; for in the Latin language Germani signifies genuine.2548 3. The first division of this country is the land extending along the Rhine from its source to its embouchure. Indeed, the valley of that river extends nearly as far as the whole breadth of Germany on the west. Of the people who occupied this country, some have been transplanted by the Romans into Keltica, the others have retired to the interior, as the Marsi;2549 there are but few remaining, and some portion of them are Sicambri;2550 next to the inhabitants of this valley succeeds the tribe dwelling between the Rhine and the river Elbe,2551 which river flows towards the ocean in a direction nearly parallel with the Rhine, and traversing a country of no less extent. There are also between these other navigable rivers, such as the Ems,2552 on which Drusus defeated the Bructeri2553 in a naval engagement; all likewise flowing from south to north, and falling into
- 41. the ocean; for the whole country rises towards the south, and forms a ridge of mountains near the Alps, which extends eastward as though it were a continuation of the Alps;2554 and some have even so described it, as well on account of its position as because it produces the same system of vegetation; nevertheless, the altitude of this ridge in no part equals that of the Alps. Here is situated the Hercynian Wood,2555 and the tribes of the Suevi,2556 some of whom inhabit the forest, as do likewise some of the Quadi.2557 Among these latter people is situated Bujæmum, the royal city of Marobodus, whither he has assembled many strangers and many of the Marcomanni, a kindred nation with his own. This Marobodus, from a private station, raised himself to the administration of affairs after his return from Rome. For he went to that city while a youth, and was patronized by Augustus. After he came home, he acquired the sovereignty of his country, and added to the people I have enumerated, the Luji,2558 a powerful nation, and the Zumi,2559 and the Gutones2560 and Mugilones and Sibini, besides the Semnones, another considerable tribe of the Suevi. As I have previously stated, a portion of the Suevi dwells within the Forest, while another portion occupies the territory beyond, on the frontiers of the Getæ; wherefore the nation of the Suevi is the most considerable, as it extends from the Rhine as far as the Elbe, and even a part of them, as the Hermonduri and the Langobardi, inhabit the country beyond the Elbe; but at the present time these tribes, having been defeated, have retired entirely beyond the Elbe. All these nations easily change their abode, on account of the scantiness of provisions, and because they neither cultivate the lands nor accumulate wealth, but dwell in miserable huts, and satisfy their wants from day to day, the most part of their food being supplied by the herd, as amongst the nomade races, and in imitation of them they transfer their households in waggons, wandering with their cattle to any place which may appear most advantageous. There are many other smaller German tribes, as the Cherusci, Chatti, Gamabrivi,2561 Chattuarii, and next the ocean the Sicambri, Chaubi,2562 Bructeri,2563 Cimbri, Cauci, Caulci, Campsiani,2564 and many others.
- 42. In the same direction with the Ems,2565 the Weser2566 and the river Lippe2567 take their course, the latter, distant about 600 stadia from the Rhine, flows through the territory of the Lesser Bructeri. And there is also the river Sala,2568 between which and the Rhine Drusus Germanicus died, whilst in the midst of his victories. He not only subdued the greater part of the German tribes, but also the islands on the coast he passed along, one amongst which is Byrchanis,2569 which he took by siege. 4. All these nations became known through their wars with the Romans, at one time submitting, at another revolting and quitting their habitations; and we should have become acquainted with a greater number of their tribes, if Augustus had permitted his generals to pass the Elbe, in pursuit of those who had fled thither; but he considered the war on hand would be more easily brought to a conclusion, if he left the people on the other side of the Elbe unmolested, and not by attacking provoke them to make common cause with his enemies. The Sicambri inhabiting the country next the Rhine were the first to commence the war, under the conduct of their leader, Melon; other nations afterwards followed their example, at one time being victorious, at another defeated, and again recommencing hostilities, without regard to hostages or the faith of treaties. Against these people mistrust was the surest defence; for those who were trusted effected the most mischief. For example, the Cherusci, and those who were subject to them, amongst whom three Roman legions with their general, Quintilius Varus, perished by ambush, in violation of the truce; nevertheless all have received punishment for this perfidy, which furnished to Germanicus the Younger the opportunity of a most brilliant triumph, he leading publicly as his captives the most illustrious persons, both men and women, amongst whom were Segimuntus,2570 the son of Segestes, the chief of the Cherusci, and his sister, named Thusnelda, the wife of Armenius, who led on the Cherusci when they treacherously attacked Quintilius Varus, and even to this day continues the war; likewise his son Thumelicus, a
- 43. boy three years old, as also Sesithacus, the son of Segimerus,2571 chief of the Cherusci, and his wife Rhamis, the daughter of Ucromirus,2572 chief of the Chatti,2573 and Deudorix, the son of Bætorix, the brother of Melon, of the nation of the Sicambri; but Segestes, the father-in-law of Armenius, from the commencement opposed the designs of his son-in-law, and taking advantage of a favourable opportunity, went over to the Roman camp and witnessed the triumphal procession over those who were dearest to him, he being held in honour by the Romans. There was also led in triumph Libes the priest of the Chatti, and many other prisoners of the various vanquished nations, the Cathylci and the Ampsani, the Bructeri, the Usipi, the Cherusci, the Chatti, the Chattuarii, the Landi,2574 the Tubattii.2575 The Rhine is distant from the Elbe about 3000 stadia, if one could travel in a direct line; but we are compelled to go a circuitous route, on account of the windings of the marshes and the woods. 5. The Hercynian Forest2576 is extremely dense, and overgrown with very large trees, covering an immense circuit of country, fortified by nature. In the midst of it is situated the region well suited for habitation, of which we have spoken. Near this forest are the sources of the Danube and the Rhine, and the lake2577 situated between these, together with the marshes formed by the Rhine. The circuit of the lake is more than 3002578 stadia, and the distance across about 200. In this lake is an island which served Tiberius as an arsenal, in the naval war with the Vindelici. This lake is south of the sources of the Danube and the Hercynian Forest, so that in passing from Keltica2579 to the forest, one has first to cross the lake, then the Danube, and afterwards by a more passable country, and over elevated plains, you approach the forest. When Tiberius had proceeded but one day’s journey from the lake, he came in sight of the sources of the Danube.2580 The territory of the Rhæti2581 borders some portion of this lake, but the greater part of the shores belong to the Helvetii2582 and
- 44. Vindelici,2583 [the Norici come next after the Vindelici in an easterly direction,]2584 and the desert of the Boii.2585 The nations as far as the Pannonians,2586 but more especially the Helvetii and Vindelici, inhabit high table lands. The Rhæti and the Norici,2587 verging towards Italy, extend over the very summits of the Alps; the former confining with the Insubri,2588 the latter the Carni,2589 and the districts about Aquileia. There is likewise another great forest, named Gabreta, on this side the territory of the Suevi, while beyond them lies the Hercynian Wood, which also is in their possession. CHAPTER II. 1. Some of the accounts which we receive respecting the Cimbri are not worthy of credit, while others seem likely enough: for instance, no one could accept the reason given for their wandering life and piracy, that, dwelling on a peninsula, they were driven out of their settlements by a very high tide;2590 for they still to this day possess the country which they had in former times, and have sent as a present to Augustus the caldron held most sacred by them, supplicating his friendship, and an amnesty for past offences; and having obtained their request, they returned home. Indeed, it would have been ridiculous for them to have departed from their country in a pet, on account of a natural and constant phenomenon, which recurs twice every day. It is likewise evidently a fiction, that there ever occurred an overwhelming flood-tide, for the ocean, in the influences of this kind which it experiences, receives a certain settled and periodical increase and decrease.2591 Neither is it true, as has been related,2592 that the Cimbri take arms against the flood-tides, or that the Kelts, as an exercise of their intrepidity, suffer their houses to be washed away by them, and afterwards rebuild them; and that a greater number of them perish by water than by war, as Ephorus relates. For the regular order the flood-tides observe, and
- 45. the notoriety of the extent of the country subject to inundation by them, could never have given occasion for such absurd actions. For the tide flowing twice every day, how could any one think for an instant that it was not a natural and harmless phenomenon, and that it occurs not only on their coasts, but on all others bordering on the ocean? Is not this quite incredible? Neither is Clitarchus to be trusted,2593 when he says that their cavalry, on seeing the sea flowing in, rode off at full speed, and yet scarcely escaped by flight from being overtaken by the flood; for we know, by experience, that the tide does not come in with such impetuosity, but that the sea advances stealthily by slow degrees. And we should think, besides, that a phenomenon of daily occurrence, which would naturally strike the ear of such as approached it, before even they could see it with their eyes, could not by any means terrify them so as to put them to flight, as if they had been surprised by some unexpected catastrophe. 2. For such fables as these, Posidonius justly blames these writers, and not inaptly conjectures that the Cimbri, on account of their wandering life and habits of piracy, might have made an expedition as far as the countries around the Palus Mæotis, and that from them has been derived the name of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, or what we should more correctly denominate the Cimbrian Bosphorus, for the Greeks call the Cimbri Cimmerii. He likewise tells us that the Boii formerly inhabited the Hercynian Forest, and that the Cimbri, having made an incursion into those parts, were repulsed by them, and driven towards the Danube, and the country occupied by the Scordisci, a Galatic tribe, and from thence to the Tauristæ, or Taurisci, a people likewise of Galatic origin, and farther to the Helvetii, who were at that time a rich and peaceful people; but, perceiving that the wealth of these freebooters far exceeded their own, the Helvetii, and more especially the Tigureni and the Toygeni, associated themselves with their expeditions. But both the Cimbri and their auxiliaries were
- 46. vanquished by the Romans, the one part when they crossed the Alps and came down upon Italy, the others on the other side of the Alps. 3. It is reported that the Cimbri had a peculiar custom. They were accompanied in their expeditions by their wives; these were followed by hoary-headed priestesses,2594 clad in white, with cloaks of carbasus2595 fastened on with clasps, girt with brazen girdles, and bare-footed. These individuals, bearing drawn swords, went to meet the captives throughout the camp, and, having crowned them, led them to a brazen vessel containing about 20 amphoræ, and placed on a raised platform, which one of the priestesses having ascended, and holding the prisoner above the vessel, cut his throat; then, from the manner in which the blood flowed into the vessel, some drew certain divinations; while others, having opened the corpse, and inspected the entrails, prophesied victory to their army. In battle too they beat skins stretched on the wicker sides of chariots, which produces a stunning noise. 4. As we have before stated, the northernmost of the Germans inhabit a country bordering on the ocean; but we are only acquainted with those situated between the mouths of the Rhine and the Elbe, of which the Sicambri2596 and Cimbri2597 are the most generally known: those dwelling along the coast2598 beyond the Elbe are entirely unknown to us; for none of the ancients with whom I am acquainted have prosecuted this voyage towards the east as far as the mouths of the Caspian Sea, neither have the Romans as yet sailed coastwise beyond the Elbe, nor has any one travelling on foot penetrated farther into this country. But it is evident, by the climates and the parallels of distances, that in following a longitudinal course towards the east we must come to the countries near the Dnieper, and the regions on the north side of the Euxine. But as for any particulars as to Germany beyond the Elbe, or of the countries which lie beyond it in order, whether we should call them the Bastarnæ, as most geographers suppose, or whether other nations intervene, such as the Jazyges,2599 or the Roxolani,2600 or any others of the tribes dwelling in waggons, it is not easy to give any account. Neither can
- 47. we say whether these nations extend as far as the [Northern] Ocean, along the whole distance, or whether [between them and the Ocean] there are countries rendered unfit for habitation by the cold or by any other cause; or whether men of a different race are situated between the sea and the most eastern of the Germans. The same uncertainty prevails with regard to the other nations2601 of the north, for we know neither the Bastarnæ nor the Sauromatæ;2602 nor, in a word, any of those tribes situate above the Euxine: we are ignorant as to what distance they lie from the Atlantic,2603 or even whether they extend as far as that sea. CHAPTER III. 1. As to the southern part of Germany beyond the Elbe, the country which adjoins the bank of that river is now occupied by the Suevi. Next lies the country of the Getæ, at first narrow, its southern side extends along the Danube, and the opposite side along the mountains of the Hercynian Forest, even including part of those mountains, it then becomes broader towards the north, and extends as far as the Tyregetæ; however, we are unable to declare its boundaries with accuracy; and it is on account of our ignorance of these places that those who relate fables of the Riphæan mountains and the Hyperboreans have received credit; as also that which Pytheas of Marseilles has forged concerning the countries bordering on the Northern Ocean, making use of his acquaintance with astronomy and mathematics to fabricate his false narration: let us therefore pass over them; as also what Sophocles, speaking of Orithya in one of his tragedies, says, that she, being snatched by the north wind, was carried
- 48. “Over the whole ocean, to the extremities of the earth, Even to the place where night received its birth, Where the opposite side of the heavens is beheld, And where is situated the ancient garden of Phœbus.” This is of no value to our present inquiry, but must be omitted, as Socrates has done in the Phædrus of Plato. We will relate only what we have learnt from ancient accounts, and the reports made in our times. 2. The Greeks indeed considered the Getæ to be Thracians. They occupied either bank of the Danube, as also did the Mysians, likewise a Thracian people, now called the Mœsi, from whom are descended the Mysians, settled between the Lydians, the Phrygians, and the inhabitants of the Troad. Even the Phrygians themselves are the same as the Briges, a people of Thrace, as also are the Mygdones, the Bebryces, the Mædobithyni, the Bithyni, the Thyni, and, as I consider, also are the Mariandyni. All these people quitted Europe entirely, the Mysians alone remaining. Posidonius appears to me to have rightly conjectured that it is the Mysians of Europe (or as I should say of Thrace) that Homer designates when he says, “and his glorious eyes Averting, on the land look’d down remote Of the horse-breeding Thracians, of the bold Close-fighting Mysian race....”2604 For if any one should understand them as the Mysians of Asia, the expression of the poet would not be fitting. For this would be, that having turned his eyes from the Trojans towards the land of the Thracians, he beheld at the same time the land of the Mysians, situated not far off from where he was, but conterminous with the Troad, rather behind it and on either side, but separated from Thrace by the breadth of the Hellespont.2605 This would be to confound the continents, and at the same time to disregard the form of the poet’s expression. For “to turn his eyes again,” is more especially to turn them behind him; but he who extends his vision from the Trojans to the people either behind them, or on either side
- 49. of them, stretches his sight to a greater distance, but not in the least behind him. And this also is introduced as a proof of this very thing, that Homer classes with these the Hippemolgi,2606 the Galactophagi,2607 and the Abii,2608 who are the Scythian Hamaxœci2609 and Sarmatians; for at this day, all these nations, as well as the Bastarnæ, are mixed with the Thracians, more especially with those beyond the Danube, and some even with the Thracians on this side the Danube; also amongst these are the Keltic tribes of the Boii, Scordisci, and Taurisci. Some, indeed, call the Scordisci the Scordistæ, and give to the Taurisci the names of Ligurisci2610 and Tauristæ. 3. Posidonius relates that the Mysians religiously abstain from eating any thing that had life, and consequently, from cattle; but that they lived in a quiet way on honey, milk, and cheese; wherefore they are considered a religious people, and called Capnobatæ.2611 He adds, that there are amongst the Thracians some who live without wives, and who are known by the name of Ctistæ. These are considered sacred and worthy of honour, and live in great freedom. [He pretends] that the poet comprehends the whole of these people when he says, “and where abide, On milk sustain’d, and blest with length of days, The Hippemolgi, justest of mankind.”2612 These he designates as “without life,” more particularly on account of their living without wives, considering their solitary state as but a half life; in the same way as he likewise designates the house of Protesilaus “imperfect,” on account of the bereavement of his widow; in the same manner he applies to the Mysians the epithet of “close- fighting,” on account of their being invincible, like good warriors. [Finally, Posidonius pretends] that in the thirteenth2613 book of the Iliad we ought to substitute for “the close-fighting Mysians,” [“the close-fighting Mœsi.”]
- 50. 4. Nevertheless it would perhaps be superfluous to change the text [of Homer], which has stood the test of so many years. For it appears more probable to suppose that the people were anciently called Mysians, but that their name is now altered. Further, any one would suppose that the Abii2614 were no more so named from being unmarried than from their being houseless,2615 or their dwelling in waggons. In fact, as injustice is ordinarily committed in matters relative to bonds for money and the acquisition of wealth, it would be natural that the people living so frugally on such small property should be called [by Homer] the justest of mankind: and the more so as the philosophers who place justice next to moderation, aim at independence of others and frugality as amongst the most desirable objects of attainment; from which however some, having passed the bounds of moderation, have wandered into a cynical mode of life.2616 But [the words of the poet] sanction no such assertion of the Thracians, and the Getæ in particular, that they live without wives. But see what Menander says of these people, not out of his own imagination, as it should seem, but deriving it from history. “All the Thracians truly, and especially above all others we Getæ, (for I myself glory in being descended from this race,) are not very chaste.” And a little after he gives examples of their rage for women. “For there is no one among us who marries fewer than ten or eleven wives, and some have twelve, or even more.2617 If any one loses his life who has only married four or five wives, he is lamented by us as unfortunate, and one deprived of the pleasures of Hymen.” Such a one would be accounted as unmarried amongst them. These things are likewise confirmed by the evidence of other historians. And it is not likely that the same people should regard as an unhappy life that which is passed without the enjoyment of many women, and at the same time regard as a dignified and holy life that which is passed in celibacy without any women. But that those living without wives should be considered holy, and termed Capnobatæ, is entirely opposed to our received opinions; for all agree in regarding women as the authors of devotion to the gods, and it is they who
- 51. induce the men by their example to a more attentive worship of the gods, and to the observance of feast-days and supplications; for scarcely is there found a man living by himself who pays any regard to such matters. And again attend to the words of the same poet when he speaks in one of his characters, bringing in a man disgusted with the expenses2618 of the sacrifices of the women. “The gods weary us indeed, but especially our married men, who are always obliged to celebrate some feast.” And his Misogynes, complaining of the same things, exclaims, “We sacrificed five times a day, while seven female slaves ranged in a circle played on the cymbals, and others raised their suppliant cries.” It would therefore seem absurd to suppose that only those among the Getæ who remained without wives were considered pious, but that the care of worshipping the Supreme Being is great among this nation is not to be doubted, after what Posidonius has related, “and they even abstain from animal food from religious motives,” as likewise on account of the testimony of other historians. 5. For it is said that one of the nation of the Getæ, named Zamolxis,2619 had served Pythagoras, and had acquired with this philosopher some astronomical knowledge, in addition to what he had learned from the Egyptians, amongst whom he had travelled. He returned to his own country, and was highly esteemed both by the chief rulers and the people, on account of his predictions of astronomical phenomena, and eventually persuaded the king to unite him in the government, as an organ of the will of the gods. At first he was chosen a priest of the divinity most revered by the Getæ, but afterwards was esteemed as a god, and having retired into a district of caverns, inaccessible and unfrequented by other men, he there passed his life, rarely communicating with anybody except the king and his ministers. The king himself assisted him to play his part, seeing that his subjects obeyed him more readily than formerly, as promulgating his ordinances with the counsel of the gods. This custom even continues to our time; for there is always
- 52. found some one of this character who assists the king in his counsels, and is styled a god by the Getæ. The mountain likewise [where Zamolxis retired] is held sacred, and is thus distinguished, being named Cogæonus,2620 as well as the river which flows by it; and at the time when Byrebistus, against whom divus Cæsar prepared an expedition, reigned over the Getæ, Decæneus held that honour: likewise the Pythagorean precept to abstain from animal food, which was originally introduced by Zamolxis, is still observed to a great extent. 6. Any one may well entertain such questions as these touching the localities mentioned by the poet [Homer], and with regard to the Mysians and the illustrious Hippemolgi: but what Apollodorus has advanced in his preface to the Catalogue of Ships in the Second Book [of the Iliad] is by no means to be adopted. For he praises the opinions of Eratosthenes, who says that Homer and the rest of the ancients were well versed in every thing that related to Greece, but were in a state of considerable ignorance as to places at a distance, in consequence of the impossibility of their making long journeys by land or voyages by sea. In support of this he asserts,2621 that Homer designated Aulis as ‘rocky,’ as indeed it is; Eteonus as ‘mountainous and woody,’ Thisbe as ‘abounding in doves,’ Haliartus as ‘grassy;’ but that neither Homer nor the others were familiar with localities far off; for although there are forty rivers which discharge themselves into the Black Sea,2622 he makes no mention whatever even of the most considerable, as the Danube,2623 the Don,2624 the Dnieper,2625 the Bog,2626 the Phasz,2627 the Termeh,2628 the Kizil-Irmak,2629 nor does he even allude to the Scythians, but makes up fables about certain illustrious Hippemolgi, Galactophagi, and Abii. He had become acquainted with the Paphlagonians of the interior from the relations of such as had penetrated into those regions on foot, but he was perfectly unacquainted with the sea-coasts of the country; which indeed was likely enough, for that sea was in his time closed to navigation, and known by the name of Pontus Axenus [or the Inhospitable] on account of the severity of the storms to which it
- 53. was subject, as well as of the savage disposition of the nations who inhabited its shores, but more especially of the Scythian hordes,2630 who made a practice of sacrificing strangers, devouring their flesh, and using their skulls for drinking-cups; although at a subsequent period, when the Ionians had established cities along its shores, it was called by the name of Pontus Euxinus [or the Hospitable]. He was likewise in ignorance as to the natural peculiarities of Egypt and Libya,2631 as the risings of the Nile, and the alluvial deposits, which he no where notices, nor yet the isthmus [of Suez] which separates the Red Sea from the Egyptian Sea;2632 nor yet does he relate any particulars of Arabia, Ethiopia, or the Ocean, unless we should agree with the philosopher Zeno in altering the Homeric line as follows, “I came to the Ethiopians, the Sidonians, and the Arabians.”2633 Indeed we ought not to be surprised at meeting with this in Homer, for those who have lived at a more recent period than he did, have been ignorant of many things, and have told strange tales. Hesiod has talked of Hemicynes,2634 Megalocephali, and Pygmies; Alcman of Steganopodes; Æschylus of Cynocephali, Sternophthalmi, and Monommati, (they say it is in his Prometheus,) and ten thousand other absurdities. From these he proceeds to censure the writers who talk of the Riphæan Mountains2635 and Mount Ogyium,2636 and the dwelling of the Gorgons2637 and the Hesperides,2638 the land of Meropis2639 mentioned by Theopompus, Cimmeris,2640 a city mentioned in Hecatæus, the land of Panchæa2641 mentioned by Euhemerus, and the river-stones formed of sand mentioned by Aristotle,2642 which were dissolved by rain-showers. Further, that there exists in Africa a city of Bacchus which no one can find twice. He likewise reproves those who assert that the wanderings of Ulysses mentioned in Homer were in the neighbourhood of Sicily, for again, if we should say that the wanderings did take place in those parts, we should have to confess that the poet transferred them to the ocean for the sake of making his account the more romantic. Some allowance might be made for others, but no manner of excuse
- 54. can be put forward for Callimachus, who pretends to the character of a critic, and yet supposes that Gaudus was the island of Calypso, and identifies Scheria with Corcyra.2643 Other writers he blames for misstatements as to Gerena,2644 Acacesium,2645 and the Demus2646 in Ithaca, Pelethronium2647 in Pelium, and the Glaucopium at Athens.2648 With these and a few similar trifling observations, most of which he has drawn from Eratosthenes, whose inaccuracy we have before shown, he breaks off. However, we frankly acknowledge, both with respect to him [Apollodorus] and Eratosthenes, that the moderns are better informed on geography than the ancients: but to strain the subject beyond measure, as they do, especially when they inculpate Homer, seems to me as if it gave a fair occasion to any one to find fault, and to say by way of recrimination, that they reproach the poet for the very things of which they themselves are ignorant. As for the rest of their observations, particular mention is made of some of them in the places where they occur, and of others in the General Introduction. 7. It has been our wish, while discoursing of the Thracians, and “the bold Close-fighting Mysian race, and where abide, On milk sustain’d, and blest with length of days, The Hippemolgi, justest of mankind,”2649 to compare what we have advanced with the remarks of Posidonius and the other critics. Now, in the first place, they have universally proved the very contrary of the allegations which they had undertaken to maintain; for where they undertook to show that amongst the ancients there was a greater amount of ignorance as to places far from Greece than there was among the moderns, they have proved the very contrary, and that not only with regard to the countries more remote, but even with respect to Greece itself; but, as I have said before, let the other matters remain in abeyance while we consider carefully the subject now before us. Thus they say that it was through ignorance Homer and the ancients omitted to speak of the Scythians, and their cruelty to strangers, whom they
- 55. sacrificed, devoured their flesh, and afterwards made use of their skulls as drinking-cups, for which barbarities the sea was termed the Axine,2650 or inhospitable; but in place of these they imagined fables as to illustrious Hippemolgi, Galactophagi, and Abii, the most just of mankind, who never existed any where in this world. But how came it that they named the sea the Axenus, if they were so ignorant of the barbarism of that region, or of those savages who were the most barbarous on earth? But these undoubtedly are the Scythians! Or in the early times were not those who dwelt beyond the Mysians, and Thracians, and Getæ, Hippemolgi, (or milkers of mares,) Galactophagi, and Abii? Nay rather, they exist at this very day, being called Hamaxœci and Nomades, living on the herd, milk and cheese, and especially on cheese made of mare’s milk, and being ignorant how to lay up treasure or deal in merchandise, except the simple barter of one commodity for another. How then can it be said that the poet [Homer] knew nothing of the Scythians, since he doubtless designates some of them by the names of Hippemolgi and Galactophagi? And that the men of that time called these people Hippemølgi even Hesiod is a witness in the words which Eratosthenes has quoted: “He went and saw the Ethiopians, the Ligurians,2651 and the Scythians, milkers of mares.” And when we consider the amount of fraud connected with trading speculations even amongst ourselves, what ground have we to wonder that Homer should have designated as the justest and most noble those who had but few commercial and monetary transactions, and with the exception of their swords and drinking- cups, possessed all things in common, and especially their wives and children, who were cared for by the whole community according to the system of Plato. Æschylus too seems to plead the poet’s cause, when he says, “But the Scythians, governed by good laws, and feeding on cheese of mares’ milk.”
- 56. And this is still the opinion entertained of them by the Greeks; for we esteem them the most sincere, the least deceitful of any people, and much more frugal and self-relying than ourselves. And yet the manner of life customary among us has spread almost every where, and brought about a change for the worse, effeminacy, luxury, and over-great refinement, inducing extortion in ten thousand different ways; and doubtless much of this corruption has penetrated even into the countries of the nomades, as well as those of the other barbarians; for having once learnt how to navigate the sea, they have become depraved, committing piracy and murdering strangers; and holding intercourse with many different nations, they have imitated both their extravagance and their dishonest traffic, which may indeed appear to promote civility of manners, but do doubtless corrupt the morals and lead to dissimulation, in place of the genuine sincerity we have before noticed. 8. Those however who lived before our time, and more especially those who lived near to the times of Homer, were such as he describes them, and so they were esteemed to be by the Greeks. Take for instance what Herodotus relates concerning the king2652 of the Scythians, against whom Darius waged war, and especially the answer he sent [to the messenger of Darius]. Take again what Chrysippus relates of the kings of the Bosphorus, [Satyrus2653 and] Leuco. The letters of the Persians are full of the sincerity I have described; so likewise are the memorials of the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Indians. It was on this account that both Anacharsis and Abaris, and certain others of the same class, gained so great a reputation among the Greeks; for we may well believe they displayed their national characteristics of affability of manner, simplicity, and love of justice. But what occasion is there for me to speak of such as belonged to the times of old? for Alexander [the Great], the son of Philip, in his campaign against the Thracians beyond Mount Hæmus,2654 is said to have penetrated as far as this in an incursion into the country of the Triballi, and observed that they occupied the territory as far as the Danube and the island
- 57. Peuce,2655 which is in it, and that the Getæ possessed the country beyond that river; however, he was unable to pass into the island for want of a sufficient number of ships, and because Syrmus, the king of the Triballi, who had taken refuge in that place, resisted the undertaking: but Alexander crossed over into the country of the Getæ and took their city, after which he returned home in haste, carrying with him presents from those nations, and also from Syrmus. Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, relates that in this campaign the Kelts who dwell on the Adriatic2656 came to Alexander for the purpose of making a treaty of friendship and mutual hospitality, and that the king received them in a friendly way, and asked them, while drinking, what might be the chief object of their dread, supposing that they would say it was he; but that they replied, it was no man, only they felt some alarm lest the heavens should on some occasion or other fall on them, but that they valued the friendship of such a man as him above every thing. These examples sufficiently manifest the open sincerity of the barbarians, both of the one who would not suffer Alexander to land on the island, but nevertheless sent presents and concluded a treaty of friendship with him, and also of those who asserted that they feared no man, but that they valued the friendship of great men above every price. In like manner Dromichætes, who was king of the Getæ in the times of the successors of Alexander, having taken captive Lysimachus, who had come to wage war against him, showed him his poverty and that of his people, and likewise their great frugality, bade him not to make war on such, but rather seek them as friends; after which he received him as a guest, made a treaty of friendship, and suffered him to depart.2657 [*And Plato, in his Republic,2658 considers that the neighbourhood of the sea ought to be shunned as being productive of vice, and that those who would enjoy a well- governed city, should plant it very far from the sea, and not near it.*]2659 9. Ephorus, in the fourth book of his History, which is entitled “Of Europe,” having gone over Europe as far as the Scythians, concludes
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