Management of system software

Microprocessor
Program controlled semiconductor device (IC)
which fetches (from memory), decodes and
executes instructions.
It is used as CPU (Central Processing Unit) in
computers.
3

Microprocessor
First Generation
Between 1971 – 1973
PMOS technology, non compatible with TTL
4 bit processors ⇒ 16 pins
8 and 16 bit processors ⇒ 40 pins
Due to limitations of pins, signals are
multiplexed
Second Generation
During 1973
NMOS technology ⇒ Faster speed, Higher
density, Compatible with TTL
4 / 8/ 16 bit processors ⇒ 40 pins
Ability to address large memory spaces
and I/O ports
Greater number of levels of subroutine
nesting
Better interrupt handling capabilities
Intel 8085 (8 bit processor)
Third Generation
During 1978
HMOS technology ⇒ Faster speed, Higher
packing density
16 bit processors ⇒ 40/ 48/ 64 pins
Easier to program
Dynamically relatable programs
Processor has multiply/ divide arithmetic
hardware
More powerful interrupt handling
capabilities
Flexible I/O port addressing
Intel 8086 (16 bit processor)
Fourth Generation
During 1980s
Low power version of HMOS technology
(HCMOS)
32 bit processors
Physical memory space 224
bytes = 16 Mb
Virtual memory space 240
bytes = 1 Tb
Floating point hardware
Supports increased number of addressing
modes
Intel 80386
Fifth Generation Pentium
4

Functional blocks
Microprocessor
Flag
Register
Timing and
control unit
Register array or
internal memory
Instruction
decoding unit
PC/ IP
ALU
Control Bus Address Bus
Data Bus
5
Computational Unit;
performs arithmetic and
logic operations
Various conditions of the
results are stored as
status bits called flags in
flag register
Internal storage of data
Generates the
address of the
instructions to be
fetched from the
memory and send
through address
bus to the
memory
Decodes instructions; sends
information to the timing and
control unit
Generates control signals for
internal and external operations
of the microprocessor

Overview
8086 Microprocessor
First 16- bit processor released by
INTEL in the year 1978
Originally HMOS, now manufactured
using HMOS III technique
Approximately 29, 000 transistors, 40
pin DIP, 5V supply
Does not have internal clock; external
asymmetric clock source with 33% duty
cycle
20-bit address to access memory ⇒ can
address up to 220
= 1 megabytes of
memory space.
6

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
8
Common signals
AD0
-AD15
(Bidirectional)
Address/Data bus
Low order address bus; these are
multiplexed with data.
When AD lines are used to transmit
memory address the symbol A is used
instead of AD, for example A0
-A15
.
When data are transmitted over AD lines
the symbol D is used in place of AD, for
example D0
-D7
, D8
-D15
or D0
-D15
.
A16
/S3
, A17
/S4
, A18
/S5
, A19
/S6
High order address bus. These are
multiplexed with status signals

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
9
Common signals
BHE (Active Low)/S7
(Output)
Bus High Enable/Status
It is used to enable data onto the most
significant half of data bus, D8
-D15
. 8-bit
device connected to upper half of the
data bus use BHE (Active Low) signal. It
is multiplexed with status signal S7
.
MN/ MX
MINIMUM / MAXIMUM
This pin signal indicates what mode the
processor is to operate in.
RD (Read) (Active Low)
The signal is used for read operation.
It is an output signal.
It is active when low.

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
10
Common signals
READY
This is the acknowledgement from the
slow device or memory that they have
completed the data transfer.
The signal made available by the devices
is synchronized by the 8284A clock
generator to provide ready input to the
8086.
The signal is active high.

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
11
Common signals
RESET (Input)
Causes the processor to immediately
terminate its present activity.
The signal must be active HIGH for at
least four clock cycles.
CLK
The clock input provides the basic timing
for processor operation and bus control
activity. Its an asymmetric square wave
with 33% duty cycle.
INTR Interrupt Request
This is a triggered input. This is sampled
during the last clock cycles of each
instruction to determine the availability
of the request. If any interrupt request is
pending, the processor enters the
interrupt acknowledge cycle.
This signal is active high and internally
synchronized.

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
13
Min/ Max Pins
The 8086 microprocessor can work in two
modes of operations : Minimum mode and
Maximum mode.
In the minimum mode of operation the
microprocessor do not associate with any
co-processors and can not be used for
multiprocessor systems.
In the maximum mode the 8086 can work
in multi-processor or co-processor
configuration.
Minimum or maximum mode operations
are decided by the pin MN/ MX(Active low).
When this pin is high 8086 operates in
minimum mode otherwise it operates in
Maximum mode.

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
(Data Transmit/ Receive) Output signal from the
processor to control the direction of data flow
through the data transceivers
(Data Enable) Output signal from the processor
used as out put enable for the transceivers
ALE (Address Latch Enable) Used to demultiplex the
address and data lines using external latches
Used to differentiate memory access and I/O
access. For memory reference instructions, it is
high. For IN and OUT instructions, it is low.
Write control signal; asserted low Whenever
processor writes data to memory or I/O port
(Interrupt Acknowledge) When the interrupt
request is accepted by the processor, the output is
low on this line.
14
Minimum mode signals

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
HOLD Input signal to the processor form the bus masters
as a request to grant the control of the bus.
Usually used by the DMA controller to get the
control of the bus.
HLDA (Hold Acknowledge) Acknowledge signal by the
processor to the bus master requesting the control
of the bus through HOLD.
The acknowledge is asserted high, when the
processor accepts HOLD.
15
Minimum mode signals

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
Status signals; used by the 8086 bus controller to
generate bus timing and control signals. These are
decoded as shown.
16
Maximum mode signals

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
(Queue Status) The processor provides the status
of queue in these lines.
The queue status can be used by external device to
track the internal status of the queue in 8086.
The output on QS0
and QS1
can be interpreted as
shown in the table.
17

Pins and Signals
8086 Microprocessor
18

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
20
Execution Unit (EU)
EU executes instructions that have
already been fetched by the BIU.
BIU and EU functions separately.
Bus Interface Unit (BIU)
BIU fetches instructions, reads data
from memory and I/O ports, writes
data to memory and I/ O ports.

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
21
Dedicated Adder to generate
20 bit address
Four 16-bit segment
registers
Code Segment (CS)
Data Segment (DS)
Stack Segment (SS)
Extra Segment (ES)
Segment Registers >>

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
22
Segment
Registers
• 8086’s 1-megabyte
memory is divided
into segments of up
to 64K bytes each.
• Programs obtain access
to code and data in the
segments by changing
the segment register
content to point to the
desired segments.
• The 8086 can directly
address four segments
(256 K bytes within the 1
M byte of memory) at a
particular time.

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
23
Segment
Registers
Code Segment Register
• 16-bit
• CS contains the base or start of the current code segment;
IP contains the distance or offset from this address to the
next instruction byte to be fetched.
• BIU computes the 20-bit physical address by logically
shifting the contents of CS 4-bits to the left and then
adding the 16-bit contents of IP.
• That is, all instructions of a program are relative to the
contents of the CS register multiplied by 16 and then offset
is added provided by the IP.

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
24
Segment
Registers
Data Segment Register
• 16-bit
• Points to the current data segment; operands for most
instructions are fetched from this segment.
• The 16-bit contents of the Source Index (SI) or
Destination Index (DI) or a 16-bit displacement are used
as offset for computing the 20-bit physical address.

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
25
Segment
Registers
Stack Segment Register
• 16-bit
• Points to the current stack.
• The 20-bit physical stack address is calculated from the
Stack Segment (SS) and the Stack Pointer (SP) for stack
instructions such as PUSH and POP.
• In based addressing mode, the 20-bit physical stack
address is calculated from the Stack segment (SS) and the
Base Pointer (BP).

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
26
Segment
Registers
Extra Segment Register
• 16-bit
• Points to the extra segment in which data (in excess of
64K pointed to by the DS) is stored.
• String instructions use the ES and DI to determine the
20-bit physical address for the destination.

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
27
Segment
Registers
Instruction Pointer
• 16-bit
• Always points to the next instruction to be executed within
the currently executing code segment.
• So, this register contains the 16-bit offset address pointing
to the next instruction code within the 64Kb of the code
segment area.
• Its content is automatically incremented as the execution
of the next instruction takes place.

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
28
• A group of
First-In-First-Out (FIFO)
in which up to 6 bytes of
instruction code are pre
fetched from the memory
ahead of time.
• This is done in order to
speed up the execution
by overlapping
instruction fetch with
execution.
• This mechanism is known
as pipelining.
Instruction queue

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
29
Some of the 16 bit registers can be
used as two 8 bit registers as :
AX can be used as AH and AL
BX can be used as BH and BL
CX can be used as CH and CL
DX can be used as DH and DL
Execution Unit (EU)
EU decodes and
executes instructions.
A decoder in the EU
control system
translates instructions.
16-bit ALU for
performing arithmetic
and logic operation
Four general purpose
registers(AX, BX, CX, DX);
Pointer registers (Stack
Pointer, Base Pointer);
and
Index registers (Source
Index, Destination Index)
each of 16-bits

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
30
EU
Registers
Accumulator Register (AX)
• Consists of two 8-bit registers AL and AH, which can be
combined together and used as a 16-bit register AX.
• AL in this case contains the low order byte of the word,
and AH contains the high-order byte.
• The I/O instructions use the AX or AL for inputting /
outputting 16 or 8 bit data to or from an I/O port.
• Multiplication and Division instructions also use the AX or
AL.
Execution Unit (EU)

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
31
EU
Registers
Base Register (BX)
• Consists of two 8-bit registers BL and BH, which can be
combined together and used as a 16-bit register BX.
• BL in this case contains the low-order byte of the word,
and BH contains the high-order byte.
• This is the only general purpose register whose contents
can be used for addressing the 8086 memory.
• All memory references utilizing this register content for
addressing use DS as the default segment register.
Execution Unit (EU)

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
32
EU
Registers
Counter Register (CX)
• Consists of two 8-bit registers CL and CH, which can be
combined together and used as a 16-bit register CX.
• When combined, CL register contains the low order byte of
the word, and CH contains the high-order byte.
• Instructions such as SHIFT, ROTATE and LOOP use the
contents of CX as a counter.
Execution Unit (EU)
Example:
The instruction LOOP START automatically decrements
CX by 1 without affecting flags and will check if [CX] =
0.
If it is zero, 8086 executes the next instruction;
otherwise the 8086 branches to the label START.

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
33
EU
Registers
Execution Unit (EU)

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
34
EU
Registers
Stack Pointer (SP) and Base Pointer (BP)
• SP and BP are used to access data in the stack segment.
• SP is used as an offset from the current SS during
execution of instructions that involve the stack segment in
the external memory.
• SP contents are automatically updated (incremented/
decremented) due to execution of a POP or PUSH
instruction.
• BP contains an offset address in the current SS, which is
used by instructions utilizing the based addressing mode.
Execution Unit (EU)

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
35
EU
Registers
Source Index (SI) and Destination Index (DI)
• Used in indexed addressing.
• Instructions that process data strings use the SI and DI
registers together with DS and ES respectively in order to
distinguish between the source and destination addresses.
Execution Unit (EU)

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
36
EU
Registers
Source Index (SI) and Destination Index (DI)
• Used in indexed addressing.
• Instructions that process data strings use the SI and DI
registers together with DS and ES respectively in order to
distinguish between the source and destination addresses.
Execution Unit (EU)

Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
37
Flag Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
OF DF IF TF SF ZF AF PF CF
Carry Flag
This flag is set, when there is
a carry out of MSB in case of
addition or a borrow in case
of subtraction.
Parity Flag
This flag is set to 1, if the lower
byte of the result contains even
number of 1’s ; for odd number
of 1’s set to zero.
Auxiliary Carry Flag
This is set, if there is a carry from the
lowest nibble, i.e, bit three during
addition, or borrow for the lowest
nibble, i.e, bit three, during
subtraction.
Zero Flag
This flag is set, if the result of
the computation or comparison
performed by an instruction is
zero
Sign Flag
This flag is set, when the
result of any computation
is negative
Tarp Flag
If this flag is set, the processor
enters the single step execution
mode by generating internal
interrupts after the execution of
each instruction
Interrupt Flag
Causes the 8086 to recognize
external mask interrupts; clearing IF
disables these interrupts.
Direction Flag
This is used by string manipulation instructions. If this flag bit
is ‘0’, the string is processed beginning from the lowest
address to the highest address, i.e., auto incrementing mode.
Otherwise, the string is processed from the highest address
towards the lowest address, i.e., auto incrementing mode.
Over flow Flag
This flag is set, if an overflow occurs, i.e, if the result of a signed
operation is large enough to accommodate in a destination
register. The result is of more than 7-bits in size in case of 8-bit
signed operation and more than 15-bits in size in case of 16-bit
sign operations, then the overflow will be set.
Execution Unit (EU)

38
Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
Sl.No. Type Register width Name of register
1 General purpose register 16 bit AX, BX, CX, DX
8 bit AL, AH, BL, BH, CL, CH, DL, DH
2 Pointer register 16 bit SP, BP
3 Index register 16 bit SI, DI
4 Instruction Pointer 16 bit IP
5 Segment register 16 bit CS, DS, SS, ES
6 Flag (PSW) 16 bit Flag register
8086 registers
categorized
into 4 groups
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
OF DF IF TF SF ZF AF PF CF

39
Architecture
8086 Microprocessor
Register Name of the Register Special Function
AX 16-bit Accumulator Stores the 16-bit results of arithmetic and logic
operations
AL 8-bit Accumulator Stores the 8-bit results of arithmetic and logic
operations
BX Base register Used to hold base value in base addressing mode
to access memory data
CX Count Register Used to hold the count value in SHIFT, ROTATE
and LOOP instructions
DX Data Register Used to hold data for multiplication and division
operations
SP Stack Pointer Used to hold the offset address of top stack
memory
BP Base Pointer Used to hold the base value in base addressing
using SS register to access data from stack
memory
SI Source Index Used to hold index value of source operand (data)
for string instructions
DI Data Index Used to hold the index value of destination
operand (data) for string operations
Registers and Special Functions

ADDRESSING MODES
&
Instruction set

Introduction
41
8086 Microprocessor
Program
A set of instructions written to solve
a problem.
Instruction
Directions which a microprocessor
follows to execute a task or part of a
task.
Computer language
High Level Low Level
Machine Language Assembly Language
◼ Binary bits ◼ English Alphabets
◼ ‘Mnemonics’
◼ Assembler
Mnemonics → Machine
Language

Introduction
42
8086 Microprocessor
Program is a set of instructions written to solve a problem. Instructions are
the directions which a microprocessor follows to execute a task or part of a
task. Broadly, computer language can be divided into two parts as
high-level language and low level language. Low level language are
machine specific. Low level language can be further divided into machine
language and assembly language.
Machine language is the only language which a machine can understand.
Instructions in this language are written in binary bits as a specific bit
pattern. The computer interprets this bit pattern as an instruction to perform
a particular task. The entire program is a sequence of binary numbers. This
is a machine-friendly language but not user friendly. Debugging is another
problem associated with machine language.
To overcome these problems, programmers develop another way in
which instructions are written in English alphabets. This new language is
known as Assembly language. The instructions in this language are termed
mnemonics. As microprocessor can only understand the machine
language so mnemonics are translated into machine language either
manually or by a program known as assembler.
Efficient software development for the microprocessor requires a
complete familiarity with the instruction set, their format and addressing
modes. Here in this chapter, we will focus on the addressing modes and
instructions formats of microprocessor 8086.

Group I : Addressing modes for
register and immediate data
Group IV : Relative Addressing mode
Group V : Implied Addressing mode
Group III : Addressing modes for
I/O ports
Group II : Addressing modes for
memory data
Addressing Modes
44
8086 Microprocessor
• Every instruction of a program has to operate on a data.
• The different ways in which a source operand is denoted
in an instruction are known as addressing modes.
1. Register Addressing
2. Immediate Addressing
3. Direct Addressing
4. Register Indirect Addressing
5. Based Addressing
6. Indexed Addressing
7. Based Index Addressing
8. String Addressing
9. Direct I/O port Addressing
10. Indirect I/O port Addressing
11. Relative Addressing
12. Implied Addressing

Addressing Modes
45
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
The instruction will specify the name of the
register which holds the data to be operated by
the instruction.
Example:
MOV CL, DH
The content of 8-bit register DH is moved to
another 8-bit register CL
(CL) ← (DH)

Addressing Modes
46
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
In immediate addressing mode, an 8-bit or 16-bit
data is specified as part of the instruction
Example:
MOV DL, 08H
The 8-bit data (08H
) given in the instruction is
moved to DL
(DL) ← 08H
MOV AX, 0A9FH
The 16-bit data (0A9FH
) given in the instruction is
moved to AX register
(AX) ← 0A9FH

Addressing Modes : Memory Access
47
8086 Microprocessor
Physical Address (20
Bits)
Adder
Segment Register (16
bits)
0 0 0
0
Offset Value (16
bits)

Addressing Modes : Memory Access
48
8086 Microprocessor
• 20 Address lines ⇒ 8086 can address up to
220
= 1M bytes of memory
• However, the largest register is only 16 bits
• Physical Address will have to be calculated
Physical Address : Actual address of a byte in
memory. i.e. the value which goes out onto the
address bus.
• Memory Address represented in the form –
Seg : Offset (Eg - 89AB:F012)
• Each time the processor wants to access
memory, it takes the contents of a segment
register, shifts it one hexadecimal place to the
left (same as multiplying by 1610
), then add the
required offset to form the 20- bit address
89AB : F012 → 89AB → 89AB0 (Paragraph to byte → 89AB x 10 = 89AB0)
F012 → 0F012 (Offset is already in byte unit)
+ -------
98AC2 (The absolute address)
16 bytes of
contiguous memory

Addressing Modes
50
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
Here, the effective address of the memory
location at which the data operand is stored is
given in the instruction.
The effective address is just a 16-bit number
written directly in the instruction.
Example:
MOV BX, [1354H]
MOV BL, [0400H]
The square brackets around the 1354H
denotes
the contents of the memory location. When
executed, this instruction will copy the contents of
the memory location into BX register.
This addressing mode is called direct because the
displacement of the operand from the segment
base is specified directly in the instruction.
Group II : Addressing modes
for memory data

Addressing Modes
51
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
In Register indirect addressing, name of the
register which holds the effective address (EA)
will be specified in the instruction.
Registers used to hold EA are any of the following
registers:
BX, BP, DI and SI.
Content of the DS register is used for base
address calculation.
Example:
MOV CX, [BX]
Operations:
EA = (BX)
BA = (DS) x 1610
MA = BA + EA
(CX) ← (MA) or,
(CL) ← (MA)
(CH) ← (MA +1)
for memory data
Note : Register/ memory
enclosed in brackets refer
to content of register/
memory

Addressing Modes
52
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
In Based Addressing, BX or BP is used to hold the
base value for effective address and a signed 8-bit
or unsigned 16-bit displacement will be specified
in the instruction.
In case of 8-bit displacement, it is sign extended
to 16-bit before adding to the base value.
When BX holds the base value of EA, 20-bit
physical address is calculated from BX and DS.
When BP holds the base value of EA, BP and SS is
used.
Example:
MOV AX, [BX + 08H]
Operations:
0008H
← 08H
(Sign extended)
EA = (BX) + 0008H
BA = (DS) x 1610
MA = BA + EA
(AX) ← (MA) or,
(AL) ← (MA)
(AH) ← (MA + 1)
for memory data

Addressing Modes
53
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
SI or DI register is used to hold an index value for
memory data and a signed 8-bit or unsigned
16-bit displacement will be specified in the
instruction.
Displacement is added to the index value in SI or
DI register to obtain the EA.
In case of 8-bit displacement, it is sign extended
to 16-bit before adding to the base value.
Example:
MOV CX, [SI + 0A2H]
Operations:
FFA2H
← A2H
(Sign extended)
EA = (SI) + FFA2H
BA = (DS) x 1610
MA = BA + EA
(CX) ← (MA) or,
(CL) ← (MA)
(CH) ← (MA + 1)
for memory data

Addressing Modes
54
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
In Based Index Addressing, the effective address
is computed from the sum of a base register (BX
or BP), an index register (SI or DI) and a
displacement.
Example:
MOV DX, [BX + SI + 0AH]
Operations:
000AH
← 0AH
(Sign extended)
EA = (BX) + (SI) + 000AH
BA = (DS) x 1610
MA = BA + EA
(DX) ← (MA) or,
(DL) ← (MA)
(DH) ← (MA + 1)
for memory data

Addressing Modes
55
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
Employed in string operations to operate on string
data.
The effective address (EA) of source data is stored
in SI register and the EA of destination is stored in
DI register.
Segment register for calculating base address of
source data is DS and that of the destination data
is ES
Example: MOVS BYTE
Operations:
Calculation of source memory location:
EA = (SI) BA = (DS) x 1610
MA = BA + EA
Calculation of destination memory location:
EAE
= (DI) BAE
= (ES) x 1610
MAE
= BAE
+ EAE
(MAE) ← (MA)
If DF = 1, then (SI) ← (SI) – 1 and (DI) = (DI) - 1
If DF = 0, then (SI) ← (SI) +1 and (DI) = (DI) + 1
for memory data
Note : Effective address of
the Extra segment register

Addressing Modes
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
These addressing modes are used to access data
from standard I/O mapped devices or ports.
In direct port addressing mode, an 8-bit port
address is directly specified in the instruction.
Example: IN AL, [09H]
Operations: PORTaddr
= 09H
(AL) ← (PORT)
Content of port with address 09H
is
moved to AL register
In indirect port addressing mode, the instruction
will specify the name of the register which holds
the port address. In 8086, the 16-bit port address
is stored in the DX register.
Example: OUT [DX], AX
Operations: PORTaddr
= (DX)
(PORT) ← (AX)
Content of AX is moved to port
whose address is specified by DX
register.
56
Group III : Addressing
modes for I/O ports

Addressing Modes
57
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
In this addressing mode, the effective address of
a program instruction is specified relative to
Instruction Pointer (IP) by an 8-bit signed
displacement.
Example: JZ 0AH
Operations:
000AH
← 0AH
(sign extend)
If ZF = 1, then
EA = (IP) + 000AH
BA = (CS) x 1610
MA = BA + EA
If ZF = 1, then the program control jumps to
new address calculated above.
If ZF = 0, then next instruction of the
program is executed.
Group IV : Relative
Addressing mode

Addressing Modes
58
8086 Microprocessor
5. Based Addressing
Instructions using this mode have no operands.
The instruction itself will specify the data to be
operated by the instruction.
Example: CLC
This clears the carry flag to zero.
Group IV : Implied
Addressing mode

1. Data Transfer Instructions
2. Arithmetic Instructions
3. Logical Instructions
4. String manipulation Instructions
5. Process Control Instructions
6. Control Transfer Instructions
Instruction Set
60
8086 Microprocessor
8086 supports 6 types of instructions.

Instruction Set
61
8086 Microprocessor
Instructions that are used to transfer data/ address in to
registers, memory locations and I/O ports.
Generally involve two operands: Source operand and
Destination operand of the same size.
Source: Register or a memory location or an immediate data
Destination : Register or a memory location.
The size should be a either a byte or a word.
A 8-bit data can only be moved to 8-bit register/ memory
and a 16-bit data can be moved to 16-bit register/ memory.

Instruction Set
62
8086 Microprocessor
Mnemonics: MOV, XCHG, PUSH, POP, IN, OUT …
MOV reg2/ mem, reg1/ mem
MOV reg2, reg1
MOV mem, reg1
MOV reg2, mem
(reg2) ← (reg1)
(mem) ← (reg1)
(reg2) ← (mem)
MOV reg/ mem, data
MOV reg, data
MOV mem, data
(reg) ← data
(mem) ← data
XCHG reg2/ mem, reg1
XCHG reg2, reg1
XCHG mem, reg1
(reg2) ↔ (reg1)
(mem) ↔ (reg1)

Instruction Set
63
8086 Microprocessor
PUSH reg16/ mem
PUSH reg16
PUSH mem
(SP) ← (SP) – 2
MA S
= (SS) x 1610
+ SP
(MA S
; MA S
+ 1) ← (reg16)
(SP) ← (SP) – 2
MA S
= (SS) x 1610
+ SP
(MA S
; MA S
+ 1) ← (mem)
POP reg16/ mem
POP reg16
POP mem
MA S
= (SS) x 1610
+ SP
(reg16) ← (MA S
; MA S
+ 1)
(SP) ← (SP) + 2
MA S
= (SS) x 1610
+ SP
(mem) ← (MA S
; MA S
+ 1)
(SP) ← (SP) + 2

Instruction Set
64
8086 Microprocessor
IN A, [DX]
IN AL, [DX]
IN AX, [DX]
PORTaddr
= (DX)
(AL) ← (PORT)
PORTaddr
= (DX)
(AX) ← (PORT)
IN A, addr8
IN AL, addr8
IN AX, addr8
(AL) ← (addr8)
(AX) ← (addr8)
OUT [DX], A
OUT [DX], AL
OUT [DX], AX
PORTaddr
= (DX)
(PORT) ← (AL)
PORTaddr
= (DX)
(PORT) ← (AX)
OUT addr8, A
OUT addr8, AL
OUT addr8, AX
(addr8) ← (AL)
(addr8) ← (AX)

Instruction Set
65
8086 Microprocessor
Mnemonics: ADD, ADC, SUB, SBB, INC, DEC, MUL, DIV, CMP…
ADD reg2/ mem, reg1/mem
ADC reg2, reg1
ADC reg2, mem
ADC mem, reg1
(reg2) ← (reg1) + (reg2)
(reg2) ← (reg2) + (mem)
(mem) ← (mem)+(reg1)
ADD reg/mem, data
ADD reg, data
ADD mem, data
(reg) ← (reg)+ data
(mem) ← (mem)+data
ADD A, data
ADD AL, data8
ADD AX, data16
(AL) ← (AL) + data8
(AX) ← (AX) +data16

Instruction Set
66
8086 Microprocessor
ADC reg2/ mem, reg1/mem
ADC reg2, reg1
ADC reg2, mem
ADC mem, reg1
(reg2) ← (reg1) + (reg2)+CF
(reg2) ← (reg2) + (mem)+CF
(mem) ← (mem)+(reg1)+CF
ADC reg/mem, data
ADC reg, data
ADC mem, data
(reg) ← (reg)+ data+CF
(mem) ← (mem)+data+CF
ADDC A, data
ADD AL, data8
ADD AX, data16
(AL) ← (AL) + data8+CF
(AX) ← (AX) +data16+CF

Instruction Set
67
8086 Microprocessor
SUB reg2/ mem, reg1/mem
SUB reg2, reg1
SUB reg2, mem
SUB mem, reg1
(reg2) ← (reg1) - (reg2)
(reg2) ← (reg2) - (mem)
(mem) ← (mem) - (reg1)
SUB reg/mem, data
SUB reg, data
SUB mem, data
(reg) ← (reg) - data
(mem) ← (mem) - data
SUB A, data
SUB AL, data8
SUB AX, data16
(AL) ← (AL) - data8
(AX) ← (AX) - data16

Instruction Set
68
8086 Microprocessor
SBB reg2/ mem, reg1/mem
SBB reg2, reg1
SBB reg2, mem
SBB mem, reg1
(reg2) ← (reg1) - (reg2) - CF
(reg2) ← (reg2) - (mem)- CF
(mem) ← (mem) - (reg1) –CF
SBB reg/mem, data
SBB reg, data
SBB mem, data
(reg) ← (reg) – data - CF
(mem) ← (mem) - data - CF
SBB A, data
SBB AL, data8
SBB AX, data16
(AL) ← (AL) - data8 - CF
(AX) ← (AX) - data16 - CF

Instruction Set
69
8086 Microprocessor
INC reg/ mem
INC reg8
INC reg16
INC mem
(reg8) ← (reg8) + 1
(reg16) ← (reg16) + 1
(mem) ← (mem) + 1
DEC reg/ mem
DEC reg8
DEC reg16
DEC mem
(reg8) ← (reg8) - 1
(reg16) ← (reg16) - 1
(mem) ← (mem) - 1

Instruction Set
70
8086 Microprocessor
MUL reg/ mem
MUL reg
MUL mem
For byte : (AX) ← (AL) x (reg8)
For word : (DX)(AX) ← (AX) x (reg16)
For byte : (AX) ← (AL) x (mem8)
For word : (DX)(AX) ← (AX) x (mem16)
IMUL reg/ mem
IMUL reg
IMUL mem
For byte : (AX) ← (AL) x (reg8)
For word : (DX)(AX) ← (AX) x (reg16)
For byte : (AX) ← (AX) x (mem8)
For word : (DX)(AX) ← (AX) x (mem16)

Instruction Set
71
8086 Microprocessor
DIV reg/ mem
DIV reg
DIV mem
For 16-bit :- 8-bit :
(AL) ← (AX) :- (reg8) Quotient
(AH) ← (AX) MOD(reg8) Remainder
(AX) ← (DX)(AX) :- (reg16) Quotient
(DX) ← (DX)(AX) MOD(reg16) Remainder
(AL) ← (AX) :- (mem8) Quotient
(AH) ← (AX) MOD(mem8) Remainder
(AX) ← (DX)(AX) :- (mem16) Quotient
(DX) ← (DX)(AX) MOD(mem16) Remainder

Instruction Set
72
8086 Microprocessor
IDIV reg/ mem
IDIV reg
IDIV mem
(AL) ← (AX) :- (reg8) Quotient
(AH) ← (AX) MOD(reg8) Remainder
(AX) ← (DX)(AX) :- (reg16) Quotient
(DX) ← (DX)(AX) MOD(reg16) Remainder
(AL) ← (AX) :- (mem8) Quotient
(AH) ← (AX) MOD(mem8) Remainder
(AX) ← (DX)(AX) :- (mem16) Quotient
(DX) ← (DX)(AX) MOD(mem16) Remainder

Instruction Set
73
8086 Microprocessor
CMP reg2/mem, reg1/ mem
CMP reg2, reg1
CMP reg2, mem
CMP mem, reg1
Modify flags ← (reg2) – (reg1)
If (reg2) > (reg1) then CF=0, ZF=0, SF=0
If (reg2) < (reg1) then CF=1, ZF=0, SF=1
If (reg2) = (reg1) then CF=0, ZF=1, SF=0
Modify flags ← (reg2) – (mem)
If (reg2) > (mem) then CF=0, ZF=0, SF=0
If (reg2) < (mem) then CF=1, ZF=0, SF=1
If (reg2) = (mem) then CF=0, ZF=1, SF=0
Modify flags ← (mem) – (reg1)
If (mem) > (reg1) then CF=0, ZF=0, SF=0
If (mem) < (reg1) then CF=1, ZF=0, SF=1
If (mem) = (reg1) then CF=0, ZF=1, SF=0

Instruction Set
74
8086 Microprocessor
CMP reg/mem, data
CMP reg, data
CMP mem, data
Modify flags ← (reg) – (data)
If (reg) > data then CF=0, ZF=0, SF=0
If (reg) < data then CF=1, ZF=0, SF=1
If (reg) = data then CF=0, ZF=1, SF=0
Modify flags ← (mem) – (mem)
If (mem) > data then CF=0, ZF=0, SF=0
If (mem) < data then CF=1, ZF=0, SF=1
If (mem) = data then CF=0, ZF=1, SF=0

Instruction Set
75
8086 Microprocessor
CMP A, data
CMP AL, data8
CMP AX, data16
Modify flags ← (AL) – data8
If (AL) > data8 then CF=0, ZF=0, SF=0
If (AL) < data8 then CF=1, ZF=0, SF=1
If (AL) = data8 then CF=0, ZF=1, SF=0
Modify flags ← (AX) – data16
If (AX) > data16 then CF=0, ZF=0, SF=0
If (mem) < data16 then CF=1, ZF=0, SF=1
If (mem) = data16 then CF=0, ZF=1, SF=0

Instruction Set
76
8086 Microprocessor
Mnemonics: AND, OR, XOR, TEST, SHR, SHL, RCR, RCL …

Instruction Set
77
8086 Microprocessor

Instruction Set
78
8086 Microprocessor

Instruction Set
79
8086 Microprocessor

Instruction Set
80
8086 Microprocessor

Instruction Set
81
8086 Microprocessor

Instruction Set
82
8086 Microprocessor

Instruction Set
83
8086 Microprocessor

4. String Manipulation Instructions
Instruction Set
84
8086 Microprocessor
❑ String : Sequence of bytes or words
❑ 8086 instruction set includes instruction for string movement, comparison,
scan, load and store.
❑ REP instruction prefix : used to repeat execution of string instructions
❑ String instructions end with S or SB or SW.
S represents string, SB string byte and SW string word.
❑ Offset or effective address of the source operand is stored in SI register and
that of the destination operand is stored in DI register.
❑ Depending on the status of DF, SI and DI registers are automatically
updated.
❑ DF = 0 ⇒ SI and DI are incremented by 1 for byte and 2 for word.
❑ DF = 1 ⇒ SI and DI are decremented by 1 for byte and 2 for word.

Instruction Set
85
8086 Microprocessor
Mnemonics: REP, MOVS, CMPS, SCAS, LODS, STOS
REP
REPZ/ REPE
(Repeat CMPS or SCAS until
ZF = 0)
REPNZ/ REPNE
(Repeat CMPS or SCAS until
ZF = 1)
While CX ≠ 0 and ZF = 1, repeat execution of
string instruction and
(CX) ← (CX) – 1
While CX ≠ 0 and ZF = 0, repeat execution of
string instruction and
(CX) ← (CX) - 1

Instruction Set
86
8086 Microprocessor
MOVS
MOVSB
MOVSW
MA = (DS) x 1610
+ (SI)
MAE
= (ES) x 1610
+ (DI)
(MAE
) ← (MA)
If DF = 0, then (DI) ← (DI) + 1; (SI) ← (SI) + 1
If DF = 1, then (DI) ← (DI) - 1; (SI) ← (SI) - 1
MA = (DS) x 1610
+ (SI)
MAE
= (ES) x 1610
+ (DI)
(MAE
; MAE
+ 1) ← (MA; MA + 1)

Instruction Set
87
8086 Microprocessor
CMPS
CMPSB
CMPSW
MA = (DS) x 1610
+ (SI)
MAE
= (ES) x 1610
+ (DI)
Modify flags ← (MA) - (MAE
)
If (MA) > (MAE
), then CF = 0; ZF = 0; SF = 0
If (MA) < (MAE
), then CF = 1; ZF = 0; SF = 1
If (MA) = (MAE
), then CF = 0; ZF = 1; SF = 0
For byte operation
For word operation
Compare two string byte or string word

Instruction Set
88
8086 Microprocessor
SCAS
SCASB
SCASW
MAE
= (ES) x 1610
+ (DI)
Modify flags ← (AL) - (MAE
)
If (AL) > (MAE
), then CF = 0; ZF = 0; SF = 0
If (AL) < (MAE
), then CF = 1; ZF = 0; SF = 1
If (AL) = (MAE
), then CF = 0; ZF = 1; SF = 0
If DF = 0, then (DI) ← (DI) + 1
If DF = 1, then (DI) ← (DI) – 1
MAE
= (ES) x 1610
+ (DI)
Modify flags ← (AL) - (MAE
)
If (AX) > (MAE
; MAE
+ 1), then CF = 0; ZF = 0; SF = 0
If (AX) < (MAE
; MAE
+ 1), then CF = 1; ZF = 0; SF = 1
If (AX) = (MAE
; MAE
+ 1), then CF = 0; ZF = 1; SF = 0
If DF = 0, then (DI) ← (DI) + 2
If DF = 1, then (DI) ← (DI) – 2
Scan (compare) a string byte or word with accumulator

Instruction Set
89
8086 Microprocessor
LODS
LODSB
LODSW
MA = (DS) x 1610
+ (SI)
(AL) ← (MA)
If DF = 0, then (SI) ← (SI) + 1
If DF = 1, then (SI) ← (SI) – 1
MA = (DS) x 1610
+ (SI)
(AX) ← (MA ; MA + 1)
If DF = 0, then (SI) ← (SI) + 2
If DF = 1, then (SI) ← (SI) – 2
Load string byte in to AL or string word in to AX

Instruction Set
90
8086 Microprocessor
STOS
STOSB
STOSW
MAE
= (ES) x 1610
+ (DI)
(MAE
) ← (AL)
If DF = 0, then (DI) ← (DI) + 1
If DF = 1, then (DI) ← (DI) – 1
MAE
= (ES) x 1610
+ (DI)
(MAE
; MAE
+ 1 ) ← (AX)
If DF = 0, then (DI) ← (DI) + 2
If DF = 1, then (DI) ← (DI) – 2
Store byte from AL or word from AX in to string

Mnemonics Explanation
STC Set CF ← 1
CLC Clear CF ← 0
CMC Complement carry CF ← CF/
STD Set direction flag DF ← 1
CLD Clear direction flag DF ← 0
STI Set interrupt enable flag IF ← 1
CLI Clear interrupt enable flag IF ← 0
NOP No operation
HLT Halt after interrupt is set
WAIT Wait for TEST pin active
ESC opcode mem/ reg Used to pass instruction to a coprocessor
which shares the address and data bus with
the 8086
LOCK Lock bus during next instruction
5. Processor Control Instructions
Instruction Set
91
8086 Microprocessor

Instruction Set
92
8086 Microprocessor
• Transfer the control to a specific destination or target instruction
• Do not affect flags
CALL reg/ mem/ disp16 Call subroutine
RET Return from subroutine
JMP reg/ mem/ disp8/ disp16 Unconditional jump
❑ 8086 Unconditional transfers

Instruction Set
93
8086 Microprocessor
❑ 8086 signed conditional
branch instructions
❑ 8086 unsigned conditional
branch instructions
• Checks flags
• If conditions are true, the program control is
transferred to the new memory location in the same
segment by modifying the content of IP

Instruction Set
94
8086 Microprocessor
Name Alternate name
JE disp8
Jump if equal
JZ disp8
Jump if result is 0
JNE disp8
Jump if not equal
JNZ disp8
Jump if not zero
JG disp8
Jump if greater
JNLE disp8
Jump if not less or
equal
JGE disp8
Jump if greater
than or equal
JNL disp8
Jump if not less
JL disp8
Jump if less than
JNGE disp8
Jump if not
greater than or
equal
JLE disp8
Jump if less than
or equal
JNG disp8
Jump if not
greater
❑ 8086 signed conditional
branch instructions
❑ 8086 unsigned conditional
branch instructions
Name Alternate name
JE disp8
Jump if equal
JZ disp8
Jump if result is 0
JNE disp8
Jump if not equal
JNZ disp8
Jump if not zero
JA disp8
Jump if above
JNBE disp8
Jump if not below
or equal
JAE disp8
Jump if above or
equal
JNB disp8
Jump if not below
JB disp8
Jump if below
JNAE disp8
Jump if not above
or equal
JBE disp8
Jump if below or
equal
JNA disp8
Jump if not above

Instruction Set
95
8086 Microprocessor
JC disp8 Jump if CF = 1
JNC disp8 Jump if CF = 0
JP disp8 Jump if PF = 1
JNP disp8 Jump if PF = 0
JO disp8 Jump if OF = 1
JNO disp8 Jump if OF = 0
JS disp8 Jump if SF = 1
JNS disp8 Jump if SF = 0
JZ disp8 Jump if result is zero, i.e, Z = 1
JNZ disp8 Jump if result is not zero, i.e, Z = 1
❑ 8086 conditional branch instructions affecting individual flags

Assemble Directives
97
8086 Microprocessor
• Instructions to the Assembler regarding the program being
executed.
• Control the generation of machine codes and organization of the
program; but no machine codes are generated for assembler
directives.
• Also called ‘pseudo instructions’
• Used to :
› specify the start and end of a program
› attach value to variables
› allocate storage locations to input/ output data
› define start and end of segments, procedures, macros etc..

Assemble Directives
98
8086 Microprocessor
• Define Byte
• Define a byte type (8-bit) variable
• Reserves specific amount of memory
locations to each variable
• Range : 00H
– FFH
for unsigned value;
00H
– 7FH
for positive value and 80H
–
FFH
for negative value
• General form : variable DB value/ values
Example:
LIST DB 7FH, 42H, 35H
Three consecutive memory locations are reserved for
the variable LIST and each data specified in the
instruction are stored as initial value in the reserved
memory location
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
FAR
NEAR
ENDP
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM

Assemble Directives
99
8086 Microprocessor
• Define Word
• Define a word type (16-bit) variable
• Reserves two consecutive memory locations
to each variable
• Range : 0000H
– FFFFH
for unsigned value;
0000H
– 7FFFH
for positive value and
8000H
– FFFFH
for negative value
• General form : variable DW value/ values
Example:
ALIST DW 6512H, 0F251H, 0CDE2H
Six consecutive memory locations are reserved for
the variable ALIST and each 16-bit data specified in
the instruction is stored in two consecutive memory
location.
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
FAR
NEAR
ENDP
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM

Assemble Directives
100
8086 Microprocessor
• SEGMENT : Used to indicate the beginning of
a code/ data/ stack segment
• ENDS : Used to indicate the end of a code/
data/ stack segment
• General form:
Segnam SEGMENT
…
…
…
…
…
…
Segnam ENDS
Program code
or
Data Defining Statements
User defined name of
the segment
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
FAR
NEAR
ENDP
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM

Assemble Directives
101
8086 Microprocessor
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
FAR
NEAR
ENDP
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM
• Informs the assembler the name of the
program/ data segment that should be used
for a specific segment.
• General form:
Segment Register
ASSUME segreg : segnam, .. , segreg : segnam
the segment
ASSUME CS: ACODE, DS:ADATA Tells the compiler that the
instructions of the program are
stored in the segment ACODE and
data are stored in the segment
ADATA
Example:

Assemble Directives
102
8086 Microprocessor
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
FAR
NEAR
ENDP
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM
• ORG (Origin) is used to assign the starting address
(Effective address) for a program/ data segment
• END is used to terminate a program; statements
after END will be ignored
• EVEN : Informs the assembler to store program/
data segment starting from an even address
• EQU (Equate) is used to attach a value to a variable
ORG 1000H Informs the assembler that the statements
following ORG 1000H should be stored in
memory starting with effective address
1000H
LOOP EQU 10FEH Value of variable LOOP is 10FEH
_SDATA SEGMENT
ORG 1200H
A DB 4CH
EVEN
B DW 1052H
_SDATA ENDS
In this data segment, effective address of
memory location assigned to A will be 1200H
and that of B will be 1202H
and 1203H
.
Examples:

Assemble Directives
103
8086 Microprocessor
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
ENDP
FAR
NEAR
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM
• PROC Indicates the beginning of a procedure
• ENDP End of procedure
• FAR Intersegment call
• NEAR Intrasegment call
• General form
procname PROC[NEAR/ FAR]
…
…
…
RET
procname ENDP
Program statements of the
procedure
Last statement of the
procedure
the procedure

Assemble Directives
104
8086 Microprocessor
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
ENDP
FAR
NEAR
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM
ADD64 PROC NEAR
…
…
…
RET
ADD64 ENDP
The subroutine/ procedure named ADD64 is
declared as NEAR and so the assembler will
code the CALL and RET instructions involved
in this procedure as near call and return
CONVERT PROC FAR
…
…
…
RET
CONVERT ENDP
The subroutine/ procedure named CONVERT
is declared as FAR and so the assembler will
code the CALL and RET instructions involved
in this procedure as far call and return
Examples:

Assemble Directives
105
8086 Microprocessor
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
ENDP
FAR
NEAR
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM
• Reserves one memory location for 8-bit
signed displacement in jump instructions
JMP SHORT
AHEAD
The directive will reserve one
memory location for 8-bit
displacement named AHEAD
Example:

Assemble Directives
106
8086 Microprocessor
DB
DW
SEGMENT
ENDS
ASSUME
ORG
END
EVEN
EQU
PROC
ENDP
FAR
NEAR
SHORT
MACRO
ENDM
• MACRO Indicate the beginning of a macro
• ENDM End of a macro
• General form:
macroname MACRO[Arg1, Arg2 ...]
…
…
…
macroname ENDM
Program
statements in
the macro
the macro

Interfacing memory and i/o ports

Memory
109
8086 Microprocessor
Memory
Processor Memory
Primary or Main Memory
Secondary Memory
Store
Programs
and Data
▪ Registers inside a microcomputer
▪ Store data and results temporarily
▪ No speed disparity
▪ Cost ↑
▪ Storage area which can be directly
accessed by microprocessor
▪ Store programs and data prior to
execution
▪ Should not have speed disparity with
processor ⇒ Semi Conductor
memories using CMOS technology
▪ ROM, EPROM, Static RAM, DRAM
▪ Storage media comprising of slow
devices such as magnetic tapes and
disks
▪ Hold large data files and programs:
Operating system, compilers,
databases, permanent programs etc.

Memory organization in 8086
110
8086 Microprocessor

111
8086 Microprocessor
Operation A0
Data Lines Used
1 Read/ Write byte at an even address 1 0 D7
– D0
2 Read/ Write byte at an odd address 0 1 D15
– D8
3 Read/ Write word at an even address 0 0 D15
– D0
4 Read/ Write word at an odd address 0 1 D15
– D0
in first operation
byte from odd bank is
transferred
1 0 D7
– D0
in first operation
byte from odd bank is
transferred

112
8086 Microprocessor
• Available memory space = EPROM + RAM
• Allot equal address space in odd and even
bank for both EPROM and RAM
• Can be implemented in two IC’s (one for
even and other for odd) or in multiple IC’s

Interfacing SRAM and EPROM
113
8086 Microprocessor
• Memory interface ⇒ Read from and write in
to a set of semiconductor memory IC chip
• EPROM ⇒ Read operations
• RAM ⇒ Read and Write
In order to perform read/ write operations,
• Memory access time < read / write time of
the processor
• Chip Select (CS) signal has to be generated
• Control signals for read / write operations
• Allot address for each memory location

114
8086 Microprocessor
• Typical Semiconductor IC Chip
No of
Address
pins
Memory capacity Range of
address in
hexa
In Decimal In kilo In hexa
20 220
= 10,48,576 1024 k = 1M 100000 00000
to
FFFFF

115
8086 Microprocessor
• Memory map of 8086
RAM are mapped at the beginning; 00000H is allotted to RAM
EPROM’s are mapped at FFFFFH
⇒ Facilitate automatic execution of monitor programs
and creation of interrupt vector table

116
8086 Microprocessor
Monitor Programs
⇒ Programing 8279 for keyboard scanning and display
refreshing
⇒ Programming peripheral IC’s 8259, 8257, 8255,
8251, 8254 etc
⇒ Initialization of stack
⇒ Display a message on display (output)
⇒ Initializing interrupt vector table
8279 Programmable keyboard/ display controller
8257 DMA controller
8259 Programmable interrupt controller
8255 Programmable peripheral interface
Note :

Interfacing I/O and peripheral devices
117
8086 Microprocessor
I/O devices
⇒ For communication between microprocessor and
outside world
⇒ Keyboards, CRT displays, Printers, Compact Discs
etc.
⇒
⇒ Data transfer types
Microprocessor I/ O devices
Ports / Buffer IC’s
(interface circuitry)
Programmed I/ O
Data transfer is accomplished
through an I/O port controlled by
software
Interrupt driven I/ O
I/O device interrupts the
processor and initiate data
transfer
Direct memory access
Data transfer is achieved by
bypassing the microprocessor
Memory mapped
I/O mapped

8086 and 8088 comparison
118
8086 Microprocessor
Memory mapping I/O mapping
20 bit address are provided for I/O
devices
8-bit or 16-bit addresses are
provided for I/O devices
The I/O ports or peripherals can be
treated like memory locations and
so all instructions related to
memory can be used for data
transmission between I/O device
and processor
Only IN and OUT instructions can be
used for data transfer between I/O
device and processor
Data can be moved from any
register to ports and vice versa
Data transfer takes place only
between accumulator and ports
When memory mapping is used for
I/O devices, full memory address
space cannot be used for
addressing memory.
⇒ Useful only for small systems
where memory requirement is less
Full memory space can be used for
addressing memory.
⇒ Suitable for systems which
require large memory capacity

8086 and 8088 comparison
120
8086 Microprocessor
8086 8088
Similar EU and Instruction set ; dissimilar BIU
16-bit Data bus lines obtained by
demultiplexing AD0
– AD15
8-bit Data bus lines obtained by
demultiplexing AD0
– AD7
20-bit address bus 8-bit address bus
Two banks of memory each of 512
kb
Single memory bank
6 byte instruction queue 4 byte instruction queue
Clock speeds: 5 / 8 / 10 MHz 5 / 8 MHz
No such signal required, since the
data width is only 1-byte

Co-processor – Intel 8087
122
8086 Microprocessor
Multiprocessor
system
• A microprocessor system comprising of two or more
processors
• Distributed processing: Entire task is divided in to
subtasks
Advantages • Better system throughput by having more than one
processor
• Each processor have a local bus to access local
memory or I/O devices so that a greater degree of
parallel processing can be achieved
• System structure is more flexible.
One can easily add or remove modules to change the
system configuration without affecting the other
modules in the system

123
8086 Microprocessor
• Specially designed to take care of mathematical
calculations involving integer and floating point data
• “Math coprocessor” or “Numeric Data Processor (NDP)”
• Works in parallel with a 8086 in the maximum mode
8087
coprocessor
1) Can operate on data of the integer, decimal and real
types with lengths ranging from 2 to 10 bytes
2) Instruction set involves square root, exponential,
tangent etc. in addition to addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
3) High performance numeric data processor ⇒ it can
multiply two 64-bit real numbers in about 27μs and
calculate square root in about 36 μs
4) Follows IEEE floating point standard
5) It is multi bus compatible
Features

124
8086 Microprocessor
• 16 multiplexed address / data pins
and 4 multiplexed address / status
pins
• Hence it can have 16-bit external
data bus and 20-bit external address
bus like 8086
• Processor clock, ready and reset
signals are applied as clock, ready
and reset signals for coprocessor

125
8086 Microprocessor
BUSY

126
8086 Microprocessor
• The request / grant signal from the
8087 is usually connected to the
request / grant pin of the
independent processor such as 8089

127
8086 Microprocessor
• The interrupt pin is connected to the
interrupt management logic.
• The 8087 can interrupt the 8086
through this interrupt management
logic at the time error condition
exists
INT

128
8086 Microprocessor
Status
1 0 0 Unused
1 0 1 Read memory
1 1 0 Write memory
1 1 1 Passive
QS0
– QS1
QS0
QS1
Status
0 0 No operation
0 1 First byte of opcode
from queue
1 0 Queue empty
1 1 Subsequent byte of
opcode from queue

129
8086 Microprocessor
• 8087
instructions
are inserted
in the 8086
program
• 8086 and 8087 reads
instruction bytes and
puts them in the
respective queues
• NOP
• 8087 instructions have
11011 as the MSB of
their first code byte
Ref: Microprocessor, Atul P. Godse, Deepali A. Gode, Technical publications, Chap 11

130
8086 Microprocessor
ESC
Execute the
8086
instructions
WAIT
Monitor
8086/
8088
Deactivate the
host’s TEST pin
and execute the
specific
operation
Activate
the TEST
pin
Wake up the
coprocessor
Wake up the
8086/ 8088
8086/ 8088 Coprocessor

Management of system software

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