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PSYCHOLINGUISTIC
Modeling Language production of the
               Competent Bilingual
   Researchers try to develop models to predict
    linguistic behavior.
   The aim is to capture all aspects of language
    use.
   The goal is to have a model that describes
    how language is processed in our brains, but
    the relationship between functional models
    that describe how language functions in
    communication, and structures in the brain.
   The creator of the model was William Levelt,
    he used the term “blue print” that is the
    structure of the system as it really works in
    the brain, but when and how is it located, is
    still unclear. Levelt’s “Speaking” model
    (1989,1999)
   Aims at describing the process of language
    production from the development of
    communicative intentions to the articulation
    of the sounds.
    It means that your intentions are shown by
    the sound you are giving into a conversation.
   The first component is the “conceptualizer”,
    this is the level of our thinking.
   The second component is the “formulator”,
    isolated words and meanings, are turned into
    sentences.
   The third component “the articulator”,
    sentences translated into sounds.
   This means that first we select words, or
    lexical items, which is divided in lemma and
    lexeme, of the basis of the meanings we want
    to express. Then sentence formation, which
    leads to the spoken expression.
   All information about a
    concept we have.
   Example:
   A horse has for legs.
   It can jump and pull
    carts
   Also how it smells and
    how it sounds
   Headwords you
    have;
   Run
   Running
   Runs
   Ran
   It deals with your body language, the way you
    are saying something, and the sound you are
    giving
Psycholinguistically,    code-switching   and
keeping languages apart are different aspects
of the same phenomenon. In the literature of
number of proposals have been made on hoe
bilingual speakers keep their languages apart.
On the basis of research on bilingual aphasia,
paradis (1981) has proposed the sub-set
hypothesis, which, it is claimed, can account
for most of the data found. According to
Paradis , words from given a language form a
sub-set of the total inventory.
A major advantage of the sub-set hypotesis
is that the set of lexical elements from which
a selection has to be made is reduced
dramatically as a result of the fact that a
particular language or sub-set has been
chosen.
 According to de sub-set hypothesis bilingual
speakers have stores for lemmas, lexemes,
syntactic rules, morpho-lphonological rules
and elements, and articulatory elements that
are not fundamentally different from those of
monolingual speakers.
returning to the model, we will now discuss
how language choice is implemented. In
speaking, the step which is probably most
crucial is the marching of chunks from the
pre-verbal message with the meaning part of
lemmas, because here the transition from
conceptualization    to    language-specific
coding takes place.
the syntactic information refers to the
syntactic category of a lemma and its
grammatical functions. When a lemma is
activated,     its     particular      syntactic
environmental is defined as well:            for
example, the verb sell will involve a subject,
an object and a prepositional phrase. In the
preceding     sections we gave a short
description of the production model that
represents the state of the art at the moment.
However,    many      aspects     of   bilingual
processing are still unclear.
Psycolinguistic
   Compared to research on language
    comprehension, there is as yet not that much
    experimental research on language
    production. The reason for this is that the
    kind of careful manipulations of the stimuli
    that may be made in comprehension studies
    cannot be done in a similar way in language
    production.
   In studies of comprehension, a word, a
    sentence or text can be presented and we can
    examine the way in which proccessing
    reflects it’s structure and meaning.
   Recent studies have used a set of
    experimental tasks to constrain the words
    that speakers produce in order to investigate
    the planning of utterances in real time.
   In a picture-naming task, participants are
    shown are shown a picture of a drawing and
    asked to speak the name of the picture aloud
    as quickly and as accurately as possible. By
    measuring the time to begin to speak the
    picture’s name in L1 or L2 it is possible to
    infer the bilingual’s relativeprofiency in the
    two languages.
   Typically, even proficient bilinguals are faster
    to name pictures in L1 than L2. However, the
    time difference alone does not reveal the
    source of language difference. One possibility
    is simply that bilingual speakers are slower to
    access the phonology of L2 than L1 and
    therefore they are slower on any production
    task in L2.
   The main empirical approach to language
    production in monolinguals has been to
    examine the patterns and timecourse of
    interference effects in a variant of the
    picture-naming task know as picture-word
    interference.
   A picture is pressented to be named, but
    nowa word distractor is also pressented and
    the participant is instructed to ignore the
    word and name the picture.
   By varying the time at wich the word is
    pressented relative to the picture and the
    relationof the word to the picture’s name, it is
    possible to infer the nature of the processes
    that must have been operating at different
    moments in time prior to speaking.
   Some recent studies have shown that
    concepts that can be named in two alternative
    ways(close synonyms) compete with each
    other during speech planning, to the point
    where the phonology of both alternatives
    appears to be active.
   A set of recent experiments has examined
    thes issue in bilingual speakers using the
    picture-word interferance task. The result is
    that they find evidence of cross-language
    semantics inteferance. This suggest that
    lemmas are active in both languages are
    active during speaking.
   We might tentatively conclude that language
    selection occurs at the level of lemma, but
    work in this area is too new to reach such
    firm conclusions.
I LLUSTRATIVE RESEARCH ON
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUSITION
   The topic of selectivity of lexical access mentioned
    above in the discussion of language production
    research is a key issue in understanding how
    knowledge of the bilingual’s two language is
    organized and accessed.
   One aproach to this problem was to ask bilinguals
    to make lexical decisions about letter strings that
    might be words in one or both of their languages.
   In lexical decision task, letter strings are presented
    and the participant must decide whether they are
    real words or not.
   The participant must take the decision as quickly as
    possible and indicate his or her respones by pressing
    Yes or No button.
   Gerard and Scarborough (1989) used
    the lexical decision to test the
    selectivity of lexical access by having
    English- Spanish bilinguals judge
    whether letter strings were real words
    in their L2.
   The condition of interest consisted of
    the interlingual homographs or false
    friends- words that exist in both of the
    bilingual´s languages, but that have
    different meanings in the two
    languages.
   For example in Spanish the word red means net,
    whereas in English the same letter string refers
    to a colour.
   If lexical access is selective then it should be possible for a
    bilingual to retrieve only the language- appropiate reading
    of the homograph.

   Gerard and Scarborough (1989) found support for the
    selective hypothesis because bilinguals were able to accept
    and interlingual homograph as a real word as quickly as a
    control word that was exclusively a word in one language
    only.
D EVELOPING LEXICAL
             PROFICIENCY IN A SECOND
                           LANGUAGE .
   The main focus in psycholinguistics research on the
    development of L2 expertise has instead been on the
    avaliability of the L1 translation equivalent during L2
    processing.

   Potter (1984) Feldman (1984) used the comparision between
    picture naming and single word translation as means of
    determining whether bilinguals were able to acess concepts
    directly for L2 or whether access proceeded through the L1
    first.
F ORGETTING AND
                                      RELEARNING
   Level of acqusition of linguistic knowledge is crucial in
    production and perception. Through non- use of a language,
    the level of activation of knowledge in language decreases,
    even to the point that knowledge is considered lost.

   An important point for foreign language teaching is how such
    knowledge can be reactivated again.
M ANY PEOPLE ASSUME THAT WORDS CAN
  BE LOST COMPLETELY, BUT IT IS TRUE ?
      Bot and Stoessel(2000) made use of the Saving method for
       establishing low levels of activation of items in memory.

      This method is based on the assumption that words, once
       learned, are never really lost.

      Also motivation is important, as it leads to learners actively
       seeking opportunities to use the foreing language in
       different settings.

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Psycolinguistic

  • 2. Modeling Language production of the Competent Bilingual
  • 3. Researchers try to develop models to predict linguistic behavior.  The aim is to capture all aspects of language use.  The goal is to have a model that describes how language is processed in our brains, but the relationship between functional models that describe how language functions in communication, and structures in the brain.
  • 4. The creator of the model was William Levelt, he used the term “blue print” that is the structure of the system as it really works in the brain, but when and how is it located, is still unclear. Levelt’s “Speaking” model (1989,1999)
  • 5. Aims at describing the process of language production from the development of communicative intentions to the articulation of the sounds.  It means that your intentions are shown by the sound you are giving into a conversation.
  • 6. The first component is the “conceptualizer”, this is the level of our thinking.  The second component is the “formulator”, isolated words and meanings, are turned into sentences.  The third component “the articulator”, sentences translated into sounds.
  • 7. This means that first we select words, or lexical items, which is divided in lemma and lexeme, of the basis of the meanings we want to express. Then sentence formation, which leads to the spoken expression.
  • 8. All information about a concept we have.  Example:  A horse has for legs.  It can jump and pull carts  Also how it smells and how it sounds
  • 9. Headwords you have;  Run  Running  Runs  Ran
  • 10. It deals with your body language, the way you are saying something, and the sound you are giving
  • 11. Psycholinguistically, code-switching and keeping languages apart are different aspects of the same phenomenon. In the literature of number of proposals have been made on hoe bilingual speakers keep their languages apart. On the basis of research on bilingual aphasia, paradis (1981) has proposed the sub-set hypothesis, which, it is claimed, can account for most of the data found. According to Paradis , words from given a language form a sub-set of the total inventory.
  • 12. A major advantage of the sub-set hypotesis is that the set of lexical elements from which a selection has to be made is reduced dramatically as a result of the fact that a particular language or sub-set has been chosen. According to de sub-set hypothesis bilingual speakers have stores for lemmas, lexemes, syntactic rules, morpho-lphonological rules and elements, and articulatory elements that are not fundamentally different from those of monolingual speakers.
  • 13. returning to the model, we will now discuss how language choice is implemented. In speaking, the step which is probably most crucial is the marching of chunks from the pre-verbal message with the meaning part of lemmas, because here the transition from conceptualization to language-specific coding takes place.
  • 14. the syntactic information refers to the syntactic category of a lemma and its grammatical functions. When a lemma is activated, its particular syntactic environmental is defined as well: for example, the verb sell will involve a subject, an object and a prepositional phrase. In the preceding sections we gave a short description of the production model that represents the state of the art at the moment. However, many aspects of bilingual processing are still unclear.
  • 16. Compared to research on language comprehension, there is as yet not that much experimental research on language production. The reason for this is that the kind of careful manipulations of the stimuli that may be made in comprehension studies cannot be done in a similar way in language production.
  • 17. In studies of comprehension, a word, a sentence or text can be presented and we can examine the way in which proccessing reflects it’s structure and meaning.
  • 18. Recent studies have used a set of experimental tasks to constrain the words that speakers produce in order to investigate the planning of utterances in real time.
  • 19. In a picture-naming task, participants are shown are shown a picture of a drawing and asked to speak the name of the picture aloud as quickly and as accurately as possible. By measuring the time to begin to speak the picture’s name in L1 or L2 it is possible to infer the bilingual’s relativeprofiency in the two languages.
  • 20. Typically, even proficient bilinguals are faster to name pictures in L1 than L2. However, the time difference alone does not reveal the source of language difference. One possibility is simply that bilingual speakers are slower to access the phonology of L2 than L1 and therefore they are slower on any production task in L2.
  • 21. The main empirical approach to language production in monolinguals has been to examine the patterns and timecourse of interference effects in a variant of the picture-naming task know as picture-word interference.
  • 22. A picture is pressented to be named, but nowa word distractor is also pressented and the participant is instructed to ignore the word and name the picture.
  • 23. By varying the time at wich the word is pressented relative to the picture and the relationof the word to the picture’s name, it is possible to infer the nature of the processes that must have been operating at different moments in time prior to speaking.
  • 24. Some recent studies have shown that concepts that can be named in two alternative ways(close synonyms) compete with each other during speech planning, to the point where the phonology of both alternatives appears to be active.
  • 25. A set of recent experiments has examined thes issue in bilingual speakers using the picture-word interferance task. The result is that they find evidence of cross-language semantics inteferance. This suggest that lemmas are active in both languages are active during speaking.
  • 26. We might tentatively conclude that language selection occurs at the level of lemma, but work in this area is too new to reach such firm conclusions.
  • 27. I LLUSTRATIVE RESEARCH ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUSITION  The topic of selectivity of lexical access mentioned above in the discussion of language production research is a key issue in understanding how knowledge of the bilingual’s two language is organized and accessed.
  • 28. One aproach to this problem was to ask bilinguals to make lexical decisions about letter strings that might be words in one or both of their languages.
  • 29. In lexical decision task, letter strings are presented and the participant must decide whether they are real words or not.  The participant must take the decision as quickly as possible and indicate his or her respones by pressing Yes or No button.
  • 30. Gerard and Scarborough (1989) used the lexical decision to test the selectivity of lexical access by having English- Spanish bilinguals judge whether letter strings were real words in their L2.  The condition of interest consisted of the interlingual homographs or false friends- words that exist in both of the bilingual´s languages, but that have different meanings in the two languages.
  • 31. For example in Spanish the word red means net, whereas in English the same letter string refers to a colour.
  • 32. If lexical access is selective then it should be possible for a bilingual to retrieve only the language- appropiate reading of the homograph.  Gerard and Scarborough (1989) found support for the selective hypothesis because bilinguals were able to accept and interlingual homograph as a real word as quickly as a control word that was exclusively a word in one language only.
  • 33. D EVELOPING LEXICAL PROFICIENCY IN A SECOND LANGUAGE .  The main focus in psycholinguistics research on the development of L2 expertise has instead been on the avaliability of the L1 translation equivalent during L2 processing.  Potter (1984) Feldman (1984) used the comparision between picture naming and single word translation as means of determining whether bilinguals were able to acess concepts directly for L2 or whether access proceeded through the L1 first.
  • 34. F ORGETTING AND RELEARNING  Level of acqusition of linguistic knowledge is crucial in production and perception. Through non- use of a language, the level of activation of knowledge in language decreases, even to the point that knowledge is considered lost.  An important point for foreign language teaching is how such knowledge can be reactivated again.
  • 35. M ANY PEOPLE ASSUME THAT WORDS CAN BE LOST COMPLETELY, BUT IT IS TRUE ?  Bot and Stoessel(2000) made use of the Saving method for establishing low levels of activation of items in memory.  This method is based on the assumption that words, once learned, are never really lost.  Also motivation is important, as it leads to learners actively seeking opportunities to use the foreing language in different settings.