![International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS)
Vol. 12, No. 3, September 2021, pp. 1720~1728
ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v12.i3.pp1720-1728 1720
Journal homepage: http://ijpeds.iaescore.com
Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost
converter
Razman Ayop1
, Shahrin Md Ayob2
, Chee Wei Tan3
, Tole Sutikno4
, Mohd Junaidi Abdul Aziz5
1,2,3,5
School of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
4
Embedded System and Power Electronics Research Group, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Mar 12, 2021
Revised Jun 27, 2021
Accepted Jul 13, 2021
Direct current (DC) electronic load is useful equipment for testing the
electrical system. It can emulate various load at a high rating. The electronic
load requires a power converter to operate and a linear regulator is a common
option. Nonetheless, it is hard to control due to the temperature variation.
This paper proposed a DC electronic load using the boost converter. The
proposed electronic load operates in the continuous current mode and control
using the integral controller. The electronic load using the boost converter is
compared with the electronic load using the linear regulator. The results
show that the boost converter able to operate as an electronic load with an
error lower than 0.5% and response time lower than 13 ms.
Keywords:
Boost converter
Electronic load
Integral controller
Linear regulator
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Razman Ayop
School of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310, UTM Skudai, Johor Darul Takzim, Malaysia
Email: razman.ayop@utm.my
1. INTRODUCTION
An electronic load is an equipment that can emulate the load. The advantages of using the electronic
load are the load can be changed easily and has a high rating. It is a piece of useful equipment in testing
electrical system like a battery [1], photovoltaic [2], generator [3], [4], or motor [5] at various load condition.
The electronic load is also being used as the dump load to maintain the power quality of an electrical system
[3], [6]. The curve tracing of photovoltage (PV) uses the electronic load to determine the degradation level of
the PV panel [7]. The electronic load is also being used in surge protection [8]. These examples show that the
electronic load is useful in various sector. A commercial electronic load can cost around 500 USD for a 200
W rating and can reach up to 18000 USD for a 6kW rating. Nevertheless, there are some researches available
to build an electronic load at a lower cost.
Commonly, the linear regulator is preferred in the direct current (DC) electronic load [1], [9]-[11].
The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and insulated-gate bipolar transistor
(IGBT) is used to emulate the load. This is done by varying the voltage across the gate-source terminal of the
MOSFET and the voltage across the gate-emitter terminal of the IGBT. Since the voltage required to control
these power switch change with temperature, a closed-loop controller is needed to ensure the electronic load
is able to maintain its operation. It also requires a complicated voltage-controlled gate drive. The control
becomes more complicated since most of the power dissipation occurs at the power switch that results in
high-temperature variation. To overcome this problem, the power switch needs to operate in the saturation](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21254-41405-2-pb-220128065602/85/Comparison-of-electronic-load-using-linear-regulator-and-boost-converter-1-320.jpg)
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Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost converter (Razman Ayop)
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and cut-off regions. This can be achieved by using the load switching method [12]-[15]. Nevertheless, this
method requires multiple power switches or resistances, which complicates the control process and this
requires closed-loop control.
Since both linear regulator and load switching method requires closed-loop control, a controller is
needed. The proportional-integral (PI) controller is commonly used to control the electronic load [1], [12],
[16, [17]. There is also the user of the fuzzy logic controller to improves the performance of the electronic
load using the PI controller [17]. The proportional-integral-derivative (PID) neural network controller has
also been introduced to control the electronic load [18]. Another controller used in the electronic load is the
quasi-proportional-resonance controller [19]. These controllers are implemented using an analogue circuit
[8], [10] or digital platforms like Arduino [1], [9] or other microcontrollers [12], [16].
The design of the controller and its implementation for the linear regulator and load switching
method for the electronic load is complicated. An electronic load with a power converter that can easily be
controlled is preferred. The boost converter is one of the switched-mode power supply (SMPS) that can
easily be controlled and it is not severely affected by the temperature changes [18]. Nonetheless, this
converter is rarely used in the electronic load. Currently, the electronic load using the boost converter does
not focus on the passive component design and the control is based on the current-controlled system [20],
[21]. The passive component design is important to ensure the electronic load operate properly and within an
acceptable ripple. Since the electronic load can receive the current source, the electronic load with the
current-controlled system may not work properly. Besides a proper design of electronic load using the boost
converter, the comparison between this electronic load with the electronic load using the linear regulator is
incomplete in term of accuracy and transient response [13].
This paper presents the design of the DC electronic load using the boost converter. The boost
converter is expected to operate in the continuous current mode with the voltage and current ripple below
1%. The results are compared with the electronic load using the linear regulator. Since the linear regulator
requires a closed-loop controller, the integral controller is chosen. For a fair comparison, the linear regulator
using the boost converter also use the integral controller. The integral controller for both electronic loads is
based on resistive feedback to ensure the electronic load is able to work with voltage and current sources.
The next section discusses the design of the electronic loads using the linear regulator and boost converter.
The next section shows the results and discussions. The last section concludes the result of the comparison.
2. DESIGN OF ELECTRONIC LOAD
The DC electronic load consist of several parts. The simple closed-loop DC electronic load is shown
in Figure 1. When a DC power source is connected to a DC electronic load, the voltage and current sensors
measure the input voltage and current (Vi and Ii), respectively. The Vi is divided by Ii to obtain the input
resistance, Ri, based on Ohm’s Law. The Ri is compared with the reference resistance, Rref, which are set by
the user. The Ri is positive and the Rref is negative since the increase in control input to the power converter
results in the reduction of emulated Ri. The error produced by comparing the Ri with the Rref is fed into an
integral controller. Based on the error, the integral controller adjusts the control input for the power
converter. The power converter adjusts the operation according to the control input. The process continues
until the Ri is equal to Rref. There are two power converters used for the DC electronic load, which are the
linear regulator and boost converter.
Integral
Controller
Power
Converter
Sensors
Power
Source
-+
Vi Ii
DC Electronic Load
+
Vi
-
Ii
Vi/Ii
Ri
Rref
Figure 1. The block diagram of the DC electronic load](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21254-41405-2-pb-220128065602/85/Comparison-of-electronic-load-using-linear-regulator-and-boost-converter-2-320.jpg)
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2.1. Linear regulator
The first power converter for the DC electronic load is the linear regulator. The MOSFET is chosen
for the DC electronic load since it is easier to control compared to the transistor. The MOSFET has 3
terminals, which are the drain, source, and gate. The MOSFET is controlled by adjusting the gate-source
voltage, Vgs. The higher the Vgs, the higher the drain current, Id, that can pass through the MOSFET.
To design the DC electronic load using MOSFET, many characteristics of the MOSFET needs to be
considered. The first characteristic is the safe operating zone, as shown in Figure 2. Since the electronic load
is DC, the safe operating zone is small. The operation of the DC electronic load needs to maintain within the
zone to avoid damaging the MOSFET. The temperature needs to be considered when it comes to the safe
operating zone. When the temperature increases, this zone becomes smaller. Therefore, it is recommended to
obtain a safe operating zone for the MOSFET at high temperature from the manufacturer. It is also important
to install a large heat sink at the MOSFET to reduce the temperature increase at the MOSFET [22].
The I-V characteristic of the MOSFET is controlled by the Vgs. Nonetheless, the Id and drain-source
voltage, Vds, also affects the I-V characteristic of the MOSFET, as shown in Figure 3. If the power source
connected to the input of the DC electronic load is the voltage source, the Vds becomes the Vi when the
MOSFET is used in the DC electronic load using the linear regulator. The adjustment of Vgs results in the
adjustment of the Id. While if the power source connected to the input of the DC electronic load is the current
source, the Id becomes the Ii when the MOSFET is used in the DC electronic load using the linear regulator.
The adjustment of Vgs results in the adjustment of the Vds. The Id-Vds characteristic also changes when the
temperature changes. Therefore, the open-loop operation is not possible since the control input Vgs changes
over time.
Figure 2. Example of the safe operating zone for the
MOSFET at 25°C [23]
Figure 3. The Id-Vds characteristic curve for different
Vgs at 25°C [23]
The design of the DC electronic load is implemented in MATLAB/Simulink, as shown in Figure 4.
It is based on the block diagram in Figure 1. There are two components inside the power converter, which are
the MOSFET and the controlled voltage source block. Since the simulation does not have a safe operating
zone and a proper temperature variation input, these effects cannot be simulated. The integral gain, Ki, is
adjusted manually using the try and error method. Since the MOSFET response quickly, the Ki can be set at a
high value without resulting in an unstable operation. The Ki chosen is 1000.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21254-41405-2-pb-220128065602/85/Comparison-of-electronic-load-using-linear-regulator-and-boost-converter-3-320.jpg)
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Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost converter (Razman Ayop)
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Figure 4. The implementation of the DC electronic load using the MOSFET
2.2. Boost converter
The important design step for the linear converter is on the safe operating zone and Id-Vds
characteristic curve. However, the design of the boost converter shown in Figure 5 focuses on different
aspects, which is the duty cycle, d and ripple [24]. The design consideration on the boost converter is the d.
Since the d is limited from 0 to 1, a proper design of the Ro is crucial to avoid the operation outside the d
limit. The boost converter is chosen from the SMPS category due to its low number of components and low Ii
ripple. This is an important characteristic because the ideal DC electronic load should not have ripples.
Nonetheless, the power converter under the SMPS category contains current or voltage ripples. Therefore, it
is essential to choose the power converter with the low ripple, especially at the Vi and Ii. The control input
from the integral controller is the d and it is converted into switching pulse, ps, by the pulse width
modulation, PWM.
C
L
Ro
+
Vi
-
Ii
ps
d
PWM
Figure 5. The circuit diagram of the boost converter
The d-Ro relationship is crucial when using the boost converter for the DC electronic load. This
relationship is shown in (1) [24]. In an ideal condition, the d is “0 to 1”. However, the boost converter unable
to follow this range doe to the nonideality factor [25]. It is recommended that the operation of the boost
converter is “0.10 to 0.75” to avoid voltage regulation problem. This is because when the d is above 0.75, the
output voltage, Vo, begins to drop and affect the performance of the electronic load. Therefore, the minimum
and maximum d (dmin and dmax) are 0.10 and 0.75, respectively. Then, the minimum and maximum Ri (Ri_min
and Ri_max) need to be chosen. The Ri_min and Ri_max become the range of emulated resistance for the DC
electronic load. The Ri_min and Ri_max need to obey the range in (2) [24]. In this design, the Ri_min and Ri_max are
set to 10 and 100, respectively and the range obey (2). Then, the Ro is chosen within the range of (2).
𝑅𝑜 =
𝑅𝑖
(1−𝑑)2 (1)
𝑅𝑖_𝑚𝑎𝑥
(1−𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛)2 ≤ 𝑅𝑜 ≤
𝑅𝑖_𝑚𝑖𝑛
(1−𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥)2 (2)
𝑉𝑖 = √𝑃𝑅𝑜𝑅𝑖 (3)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21254-41405-2-pb-220128065602/85/Comparison-of-electronic-load-using-linear-regulator-and-boost-converter-4-320.jpg)
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The list of parameters is tabulated in Table 1. Since most of the power is transmitted to Ro, it is
essential to ensure the Ro capable to handle the power. The power transmitted to Ro, PRo, is calculated using
(3) [24]. The rating of the Ro is highly depended on the Vi, which is the voltage rating of the DC electronic
load, and the Ri. Note that the rating of Vi is based on Ri and PRo. Therefore, the chosen Ro is 130 Ω (within
the range of 123.5 Ω and 160.0 Ω).
Table 1. The desired specification and calculated parameters for the DC electronic load using the boost
Parameter Value
Minimum Input Resistance, Ri_min 10 Ω
Maximum Input Resistance, Ri_max 100 Ω
Minimum Duty Cycle, Dmin 0.10
Maximum Duty Cycle, Dmax 0.75
Maximum Input Voltage, Vi_max 50 V
Switching Frequency, fs (kHz) 100 kHz
Output Voltage Ripple Factor, γVo 1%
Input Current Ripple Factor, γIi 1%
Output Resistance, Ro 130 Ω
Inductance, L (mH) 19.26 mH
Capacitance, C (µF) 5.56 μF
A resistive load does not produce any voltage and current ripple. Nonetheless, the boost converter
contains ripples and cannot be eliminated. To remove the current ripple at Ii, the inductance, L, chosen needs
to be infinity. The infinity L is an impractical solution and results in a slow transient. Therefore, a 1% Ii
ripple factor, γIi, is chosen since it is accurate enough to produce a steady current. The L is calculated using
(4) [24], which equals to19.26 mH. Although the Vo ripple factor, γVo, can be ignored since this parameter is
not considered in the DC electronic load, it still essential to avoid unstable operation. The γVo is calculated
using (5) [24], which equals to 5.56 μF.
𝐿 =
4𝑅𝑜
27𝛾𝐼𝑖𝑓𝑠
(4)
𝐶 =
1
𝛾𝑉𝑜𝑓𝑠
(
1
𝑅𝑜
− √
𝑅𝑖_𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑜
3 ) (5)
Since the boost converter consists of an inductor and capacitor, the transient response is much
slower compared to the linear regulator. Therefore, the Ki is adjusted properly to ensure the stability of the
electronic load. Using the try and error method, the chosen Ki is 3. The design of boost converter is then
implemented into MATLAB/Simulink, as shown in
Figure 6.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21254-41405-2-pb-220128065602/85/Comparison-of-electronic-load-using-linear-regulator-and-boost-converter-5-320.jpg)
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Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost converter (Razman Ayop)
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Figure 6. The implementation of the DC electronic load using the boost converter.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A high accuracy emulation of the load is important for the DC electronic load. The lower the
percentage error, e%, the higher the accuracy. The e% is calculated using (6). The DC electronic loads using
the linear regulator and boost converter are simulated separately with Rref from 10 Ω to 100 Ω. Both
electronic loads are connected to the 100 V voltage source. The Vi and Ii are measured to determine Ri. The
e% obtained at various Rref are visualized in Figure 7. The results show that the electronic load using the linear
regulator has a lower e% compared to the electronic load using the boost converter. This means that the
electronic load using the linear regulator has higher accuracy compared to the electronic load using the boost
converter. This effect is caused by the Ii ripple present in the boost converter. According to [24], the highest
ripple occur when the Ri is 4/9 out of Ro. Since Ro is 130 Ω, the highest Ii occur when Ri equals to 57.78 Ω.
Based on Figure 7, it is clearly shown that e% is the highest doing that condition. Therefore, the Ii ripple
affects the accuracy of the electronic load using the boost converter.
𝑒% =
|𝑅𝑖−𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓|
𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓
× 100% (6)
For the electronic load using the linear regulator, the result shows that the e% becomes higher when
the Rref increases. Nonetheless, it is significantly lower compared to the electronic load using the boost
converter. It is worth mention that the simulation does not consider the effect of temperature variation and
electrical noise. As mention before, the Vgs requires to emulate load changes with time. Therefore, it is harder
to control the electronic load and may result in a higher error. The slight change of Vgs also affects the
emulation of the load. Therefore, the electrical noise in the Vgs may significantly affect the accuracy of the
electronic load using the linear regulator. The hardware implementation is required to analyse this effect,
which is out of the scope of the study.
The electronic load using the linear regulator and boost converter are simulated separately with the
Rref is stepped-up from 20 Ω to 80 Ω at 0.03 s and stepped-down from 80 Ω to 20 Ω at 0.06 s. The simulation
is conducted to ensure the electronic load transient response does not affect the experimental result during
load emulation. The desired response for the electronic load is the Ii changes instantaneously. By referring to
Figure 8, the electronic load using the linear regulator able to change instantaneously. However, the
electronic load using the boost converter has a slow transient response. Assume that the steady-state time, ts,
is defined as the time taken for the parameter to achieve within 2% of its final value, the ts during stepped-up
load is 9.2 ms. While the ts during stepped-down load is 12.9 ms.
Figure 7. The e% against Rref for the linear regulator
and boost converter in the DC electronic load
application
Figure 8. The transient response of Ii when the load
is stepped-up from 20 Ω to 80 Ω and stepped-down
from 80 Ω to 20 Ω
The delay during the load change is insignificant if the power converter connected to the electronic
load has a slow response. However, the load emulation becomes inaccurate if the power converter connected
to the electronic load has a faster response compared to the electronic load. The slow response is due to the
requirement of the boost converter to has a large L, which reduced the Ii ripple. To avoid this problem, a
higher fs is needed. Nonetheless, it may result in a higher switching loss. Which increase the heat generation
at the power switch in the boost converter. If the transient response result is not collected for the experiment,
the proposed electronic load can be applied to the experiment.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21254-41405-2-pb-220128065602/85/Comparison-of-electronic-load-using-linear-regulator-and-boost-converter-6-320.jpg)
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The power dissipation for the boost converter is mostly at the resistance. While the power
dissipation for the linear regulator is mostly at the MOSFET. This is an undesired situation especially for
high power load emulation since the MOSFET has limited safe operating area, especially during DC
operation. The temperature is also a problem faced by the linear regulator based electronic load. Since the
power dissipates mostly at the MOSFET, the temperature of the MOSFET increases significantly. This may
lead to the failure of the MOSFET and the operation of the electronic load stops. The temperature increase
also changes the Vgs significantly, thus a closed-loop system is needed to maintain the emulation of the load.
4. CONCLUSION
In general, the boost converter able to be used as the DC electronic load. Since the temperature is
not significantly affecting the operating point, the open-loop system is an option. The power dissipation is
located to the output resistance and not at the power switch. However, the electronic load using the boost
converter is inferior compared to the electronic load using the linear regulator. When the temperature and
electrical noise effects are discounted, the accuracy of the electronic load using the boost converter is lower
compared to the electronic load using the linear regulator. This is due to the current ripple problem faced by
the boost converter. The transient response of the electronic load using the boost converter is lower compared
to the electronic load using the linear regulator. This is due to the large inductor needed to maintain a low
current ripple. To summarise, the boost converter is suitable to be implemented for the DC electronic load.
Nonetheless, it has lower accuracy and slower response when compared with the linear regulator.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express gratitude to Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for providing
comprehensive library facilities and funding. Funding provided by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Encouragement Research Grant under vote Q.J130000.2651.18J39. Lastly, thanks to colleagues who have
either directly or indirectly contributed to the completion of this work.
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[25] D. W. Hart, Power Electronics, Valparaiso University, Indiana: Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2011.
BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Razman Ayop received the Bachelor's degree in electrical engineering with first-class honors,
the master's degree in electrical engineering with specialization in power system, and the Ph.D.
degree in electrical engineering from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor, Malaysia,
in 2013, 2015, and 2018, respectively. He is a Senior Lecturer with UTM and a member of
Power Electronics and Drives Research Group, School of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, UTM. His research interests include renewable energy and power electronics
Shahrin bin Md. Ayob was born in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. He obtained his first degree in
Electrical Engineering, Master in Electrical Engineering (Power), and Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.) from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 2001, 2003, and 2009, respectively. Currently,
he is an associate professor at the School of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. He is a registered Graduate Engineer under the Board of
Engineer Malaysia (BEM) and Senior Member of IEEE. His current research interest is the
solar photovoltaic system, electric vehicle technology, fuzzy system, and evolutionary
algorithms for power electronics applications.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21254-41405-2-pb-220128065602/85/Comparison-of-electronic-load-using-linear-regulator-and-boost-converter-8-320.jpg)
Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost converter
- 1. International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS) Vol. 12, No. 3, September 2021, pp. 1720~1728 ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v12.i3.pp1720-1728 1720 Journal homepage: http://ijpeds.iaescore.com Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost converter Razman Ayop1 , Shahrin Md Ayob2 , Chee Wei Tan3 , Tole Sutikno4 , Mohd Junaidi Abdul Aziz5 1,2,3,5 School of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia 4 Department of Electrical Engineering, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 4 Embedded System and Power Electronics Research Group, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Article Info ABSTRACT Article history: Received Mar 12, 2021 Revised Jun 27, 2021 Accepted Jul 13, 2021 Direct current (DC) electronic load is useful equipment for testing the electrical system. It can emulate various load at a high rating. The electronic load requires a power converter to operate and a linear regulator is a common option. Nonetheless, it is hard to control due to the temperature variation. This paper proposed a DC electronic load using the boost converter. The proposed electronic load operates in the continuous current mode and control using the integral controller. The electronic load using the boost converter is compared with the electronic load using the linear regulator. The results show that the boost converter able to operate as an electronic load with an error lower than 0.5% and response time lower than 13 ms. Keywords: Boost converter Electronic load Integral controller Linear regulator This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license. Corresponding Author: Razman Ayop School of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310, UTM Skudai, Johor Darul Takzim, Malaysia Email: razman.ayop@utm.my 1. INTRODUCTION An electronic load is an equipment that can emulate the load. The advantages of using the electronic load are the load can be changed easily and has a high rating. It is a piece of useful equipment in testing electrical system like a battery [1], photovoltaic [2], generator [3], [4], or motor [5] at various load condition. The electronic load is also being used as the dump load to maintain the power quality of an electrical system [3], [6]. The curve tracing of photovoltage (PV) uses the electronic load to determine the degradation level of the PV panel [7]. The electronic load is also being used in surge protection [8]. These examples show that the electronic load is useful in various sector. A commercial electronic load can cost around 500 USD for a 200 W rating and can reach up to 18000 USD for a 6kW rating. Nevertheless, there are some researches available to build an electronic load at a lower cost. Commonly, the linear regulator is preferred in the direct current (DC) electronic load [1], [9]-[11]. The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is used to emulate the load. This is done by varying the voltage across the gate-source terminal of the MOSFET and the voltage across the gate-emitter terminal of the IGBT. Since the voltage required to control these power switch change with temperature, a closed-loop controller is needed to ensure the electronic load is able to maintain its operation. It also requires a complicated voltage-controlled gate drive. The control becomes more complicated since most of the power dissipation occurs at the power switch that results in high-temperature variation. To overcome this problem, the power switch needs to operate in the saturation
- 2. Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost converter (Razman Ayop) 1721 and cut-off regions. This can be achieved by using the load switching method [12]-[15]. Nevertheless, this method requires multiple power switches or resistances, which complicates the control process and this requires closed-loop control. Since both linear regulator and load switching method requires closed-loop control, a controller is needed. The proportional-integral (PI) controller is commonly used to control the electronic load [1], [12], [16, [17]. There is also the user of the fuzzy logic controller to improves the performance of the electronic load using the PI controller [17]. The proportional-integral-derivative (PID) neural network controller has also been introduced to control the electronic load [18]. Another controller used in the electronic load is the quasi-proportional-resonance controller [19]. These controllers are implemented using an analogue circuit [8], [10] or digital platforms like Arduino [1], [9] or other microcontrollers [12], [16]. The design of the controller and its implementation for the linear regulator and load switching method for the electronic load is complicated. An electronic load with a power converter that can easily be controlled is preferred. The boost converter is one of the switched-mode power supply (SMPS) that can easily be controlled and it is not severely affected by the temperature changes [18]. Nonetheless, this converter is rarely used in the electronic load. Currently, the electronic load using the boost converter does not focus on the passive component design and the control is based on the current-controlled system [20], [21]. The passive component design is important to ensure the electronic load operate properly and within an acceptable ripple. Since the electronic load can receive the current source, the electronic load with the current-controlled system may not work properly. Besides a proper design of electronic load using the boost converter, the comparison between this electronic load with the electronic load using the linear regulator is incomplete in term of accuracy and transient response [13]. This paper presents the design of the DC electronic load using the boost converter. The boost converter is expected to operate in the continuous current mode with the voltage and current ripple below 1%. The results are compared with the electronic load using the linear regulator. Since the linear regulator requires a closed-loop controller, the integral controller is chosen. For a fair comparison, the linear regulator using the boost converter also use the integral controller. The integral controller for both electronic loads is based on resistive feedback to ensure the electronic load is able to work with voltage and current sources. The next section discusses the design of the electronic loads using the linear regulator and boost converter. The next section shows the results and discussions. The last section concludes the result of the comparison. 2. DESIGN OF ELECTRONIC LOAD The DC electronic load consist of several parts. The simple closed-loop DC electronic load is shown in Figure 1. When a DC power source is connected to a DC electronic load, the voltage and current sensors measure the input voltage and current (Vi and Ii), respectively. The Vi is divided by Ii to obtain the input resistance, Ri, based on Ohm’s Law. The Ri is compared with the reference resistance, Rref, which are set by the user. The Ri is positive and the Rref is negative since the increase in control input to the power converter results in the reduction of emulated Ri. The error produced by comparing the Ri with the Rref is fed into an integral controller. Based on the error, the integral controller adjusts the control input for the power converter. The power converter adjusts the operation according to the control input. The process continues until the Ri is equal to Rref. There are two power converters used for the DC electronic load, which are the linear regulator and boost converter. Integral Controller Power Converter Sensors Power Source -+ Vi Ii DC Electronic Load + Vi - Ii Vi/Ii Ri Rref Figure 1. The block diagram of the DC electronic load
- 3. ISSN: 2088-8694 Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 12, No. 3, September 2021 : 1720 – 1728 1722 2.1. Linear regulator The first power converter for the DC electronic load is the linear regulator. The MOSFET is chosen for the DC electronic load since it is easier to control compared to the transistor. The MOSFET has 3 terminals, which are the drain, source, and gate. The MOSFET is controlled by adjusting the gate-source voltage, Vgs. The higher the Vgs, the higher the drain current, Id, that can pass through the MOSFET. To design the DC electronic load using MOSFET, many characteristics of the MOSFET needs to be considered. The first characteristic is the safe operating zone, as shown in Figure 2. Since the electronic load is DC, the safe operating zone is small. The operation of the DC electronic load needs to maintain within the zone to avoid damaging the MOSFET. The temperature needs to be considered when it comes to the safe operating zone. When the temperature increases, this zone becomes smaller. Therefore, it is recommended to obtain a safe operating zone for the MOSFET at high temperature from the manufacturer. It is also important to install a large heat sink at the MOSFET to reduce the temperature increase at the MOSFET [22]. The I-V characteristic of the MOSFET is controlled by the Vgs. Nonetheless, the Id and drain-source voltage, Vds, also affects the I-V characteristic of the MOSFET, as shown in Figure 3. If the power source connected to the input of the DC electronic load is the voltage source, the Vds becomes the Vi when the MOSFET is used in the DC electronic load using the linear regulator. The adjustment of Vgs results in the adjustment of the Id. While if the power source connected to the input of the DC electronic load is the current source, the Id becomes the Ii when the MOSFET is used in the DC electronic load using the linear regulator. The adjustment of Vgs results in the adjustment of the Vds. The Id-Vds characteristic also changes when the temperature changes. Therefore, the open-loop operation is not possible since the control input Vgs changes over time. Figure 2. Example of the safe operating zone for the MOSFET at 25°C [23] Figure 3. The Id-Vds characteristic curve for different Vgs at 25°C [23] The design of the DC electronic load is implemented in MATLAB/Simulink, as shown in Figure 4. It is based on the block diagram in Figure 1. There are two components inside the power converter, which are the MOSFET and the controlled voltage source block. Since the simulation does not have a safe operating zone and a proper temperature variation input, these effects cannot be simulated. The integral gain, Ki, is adjusted manually using the try and error method. Since the MOSFET response quickly, the Ki can be set at a high value without resulting in an unstable operation. The Ki chosen is 1000.
- 4. Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost converter (Razman Ayop) 1723 Figure 4. The implementation of the DC electronic load using the MOSFET 2.2. Boost converter The important design step for the linear converter is on the safe operating zone and Id-Vds characteristic curve. However, the design of the boost converter shown in Figure 5 focuses on different aspects, which is the duty cycle, d and ripple [24]. The design consideration on the boost converter is the d. Since the d is limited from 0 to 1, a proper design of the Ro is crucial to avoid the operation outside the d limit. The boost converter is chosen from the SMPS category due to its low number of components and low Ii ripple. This is an important characteristic because the ideal DC electronic load should not have ripples. Nonetheless, the power converter under the SMPS category contains current or voltage ripples. Therefore, it is essential to choose the power converter with the low ripple, especially at the Vi and Ii. The control input from the integral controller is the d and it is converted into switching pulse, ps, by the pulse width modulation, PWM. C L Ro + Vi - Ii ps d PWM Figure 5. The circuit diagram of the boost converter The d-Ro relationship is crucial when using the boost converter for the DC electronic load. This relationship is shown in (1) [24]. In an ideal condition, the d is “0 to 1”. However, the boost converter unable to follow this range doe to the nonideality factor [25]. It is recommended that the operation of the boost converter is “0.10 to 0.75” to avoid voltage regulation problem. This is because when the d is above 0.75, the output voltage, Vo, begins to drop and affect the performance of the electronic load. Therefore, the minimum and maximum d (dmin and dmax) are 0.10 and 0.75, respectively. Then, the minimum and maximum Ri (Ri_min and Ri_max) need to be chosen. The Ri_min and Ri_max become the range of emulated resistance for the DC electronic load. The Ri_min and Ri_max need to obey the range in (2) [24]. In this design, the Ri_min and Ri_max are set to 10 and 100, respectively and the range obey (2). Then, the Ro is chosen within the range of (2). 𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅𝑖 (1−𝑑)2 (1) 𝑅𝑖_𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1−𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛)2 ≤ 𝑅𝑜 ≤ 𝑅𝑖_𝑚𝑖𝑛 (1−𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥)2 (2) 𝑉𝑖 = √𝑃𝑅𝑜𝑅𝑖 (3)
- 5. ISSN: 2088-8694 Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 12, No. 3, September 2021 : 1720 – 1728 1724 The list of parameters is tabulated in Table 1. Since most of the power is transmitted to Ro, it is essential to ensure the Ro capable to handle the power. The power transmitted to Ro, PRo, is calculated using (3) [24]. The rating of the Ro is highly depended on the Vi, which is the voltage rating of the DC electronic load, and the Ri. Note that the rating of Vi is based on Ri and PRo. Therefore, the chosen Ro is 130 Ω (within the range of 123.5 Ω and 160.0 Ω). Table 1. The desired specification and calculated parameters for the DC electronic load using the boost Parameter Value Minimum Input Resistance, Ri_min 10 Ω Maximum Input Resistance, Ri_max 100 Ω Minimum Duty Cycle, Dmin 0.10 Maximum Duty Cycle, Dmax 0.75 Maximum Input Voltage, Vi_max 50 V Switching Frequency, fs (kHz) 100 kHz Output Voltage Ripple Factor, γVo 1% Input Current Ripple Factor, γIi 1% Output Resistance, Ro 130 Ω Inductance, L (mH) 19.26 mH Capacitance, C (µF) 5.56 μF A resistive load does not produce any voltage and current ripple. Nonetheless, the boost converter contains ripples and cannot be eliminated. To remove the current ripple at Ii, the inductance, L, chosen needs to be infinity. The infinity L is an impractical solution and results in a slow transient. Therefore, a 1% Ii ripple factor, γIi, is chosen since it is accurate enough to produce a steady current. The L is calculated using (4) [24], which equals to19.26 mH. Although the Vo ripple factor, γVo, can be ignored since this parameter is not considered in the DC electronic load, it still essential to avoid unstable operation. The γVo is calculated using (5) [24], which equals to 5.56 μF. 𝐿 = 4𝑅𝑜 27𝛾𝐼𝑖𝑓𝑠 (4) 𝐶 = 1 𝛾𝑉𝑜𝑓𝑠 ( 1 𝑅𝑜 − √ 𝑅𝑖_𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑜 3 ) (5) Since the boost converter consists of an inductor and capacitor, the transient response is much slower compared to the linear regulator. Therefore, the Ki is adjusted properly to ensure the stability of the electronic load. Using the try and error method, the chosen Ki is 3. The design of boost converter is then implemented into MATLAB/Simulink, as shown in Figure 6.
- 6. Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 Comparison of electronic load using linear regulator and boost converter (Razman Ayop) 1725 Figure 6. The implementation of the DC electronic load using the boost converter. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A high accuracy emulation of the load is important for the DC electronic load. The lower the percentage error, e%, the higher the accuracy. The e% is calculated using (6). The DC electronic loads using the linear regulator and boost converter are simulated separately with Rref from 10 Ω to 100 Ω. Both electronic loads are connected to the 100 V voltage source. The Vi and Ii are measured to determine Ri. The e% obtained at various Rref are visualized in Figure 7. The results show that the electronic load using the linear regulator has a lower e% compared to the electronic load using the boost converter. This means that the electronic load using the linear regulator has higher accuracy compared to the electronic load using the boost converter. This effect is caused by the Ii ripple present in the boost converter. According to [24], the highest ripple occur when the Ri is 4/9 out of Ro. Since Ro is 130 Ω, the highest Ii occur when Ri equals to 57.78 Ω. Based on Figure 7, it is clearly shown that e% is the highest doing that condition. Therefore, the Ii ripple affects the accuracy of the electronic load using the boost converter. 𝑒% = |𝑅𝑖−𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓| 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 × 100% (6) For the electronic load using the linear regulator, the result shows that the e% becomes higher when the Rref increases. Nonetheless, it is significantly lower compared to the electronic load using the boost converter. It is worth mention that the simulation does not consider the effect of temperature variation and electrical noise. As mention before, the Vgs requires to emulate load changes with time. Therefore, it is harder to control the electronic load and may result in a higher error. The slight change of Vgs also affects the emulation of the load. Therefore, the electrical noise in the Vgs may significantly affect the accuracy of the electronic load using the linear regulator. The hardware implementation is required to analyse this effect, which is out of the scope of the study. The electronic load using the linear regulator and boost converter are simulated separately with the Rref is stepped-up from 20 Ω to 80 Ω at 0.03 s and stepped-down from 80 Ω to 20 Ω at 0.06 s. The simulation is conducted to ensure the electronic load transient response does not affect the experimental result during load emulation. The desired response for the electronic load is the Ii changes instantaneously. By referring to Figure 8, the electronic load using the linear regulator able to change instantaneously. However, the electronic load using the boost converter has a slow transient response. Assume that the steady-state time, ts, is defined as the time taken for the parameter to achieve within 2% of its final value, the ts during stepped-up load is 9.2 ms. While the ts during stepped-down load is 12.9 ms. Figure 7. The e% against Rref for the linear regulator and boost converter in the DC electronic load application Figure 8. The transient response of Ii when the load is stepped-up from 20 Ω to 80 Ω and stepped-down from 80 Ω to 20 Ω The delay during the load change is insignificant if the power converter connected to the electronic load has a slow response. However, the load emulation becomes inaccurate if the power converter connected to the electronic load has a faster response compared to the electronic load. The slow response is due to the requirement of the boost converter to has a large L, which reduced the Ii ripple. To avoid this problem, a higher fs is needed. Nonetheless, it may result in a higher switching loss. Which increase the heat generation at the power switch in the boost converter. If the transient response result is not collected for the experiment, the proposed electronic load can be applied to the experiment.
- 7. ISSN: 2088-8694 Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 12, No. 3, September 2021 : 1720 – 1728 1726 The power dissipation for the boost converter is mostly at the resistance. While the power dissipation for the linear regulator is mostly at the MOSFET. This is an undesired situation especially for high power load emulation since the MOSFET has limited safe operating area, especially during DC operation. The temperature is also a problem faced by the linear regulator based electronic load. Since the power dissipates mostly at the MOSFET, the temperature of the MOSFET increases significantly. This may lead to the failure of the MOSFET and the operation of the electronic load stops. The temperature increase also changes the Vgs significantly, thus a closed-loop system is needed to maintain the emulation of the load. 4. CONCLUSION In general, the boost converter able to be used as the DC electronic load. Since the temperature is not significantly affecting the operating point, the open-loop system is an option. The power dissipation is located to the output resistance and not at the power switch. However, the electronic load using the boost converter is inferior compared to the electronic load using the linear regulator. When the temperature and electrical noise effects are discounted, the accuracy of the electronic load using the boost converter is lower compared to the electronic load using the linear regulator. This is due to the current ripple problem faced by the boost converter. The transient response of the electronic load using the boost converter is lower compared to the electronic load using the linear regulator. This is due to the large inductor needed to maintain a low current ripple. To summarise, the boost converter is suitable to be implemented for the DC electronic load. Nonetheless, it has lower accuracy and slower response when compared with the linear regulator. 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- 9. ISSN: 2088-8694 Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 12, No. 3, September 2021 : 1720 – 1728 1728 Chee Wei, Tan (M’11–SM’17) received his B.Eng. degree in Electrical Engineering (First Class Honors) from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), in 2003 and a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering from Imperial College London, London, U.K., in 2008. He is currently an associate professor at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and a member of the Power Electronics and Drives Research Group, School of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering. His research interests include the application of power electronics in renewable/alternative energy systems, control of power electronics and energy management system in microgrids. He is also a Chartered Engineer registered with Engineering Council, UK, a professional engineer registered with Board of Engineers Malaysia and a professional technologist registered with Malaysia Board of Technologists. He is actively participating in IEEE activities and conferences, which he is also the chair of the IEEE Power Electronic Society (PEL) Malaysia Chapter for year 2018. He was awarded the Malaysia Research Start Award (High Impact Paper – Engineering and Technologies) 2018 by the Ministry of Education Malaysia. Tole Sutikno, Associate Professor in Electrical and Computer Engineering, Universitad Ahmad Dahlan (UAD), Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He received his B.Eng., M.Eng. and Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering from Universitas Diponegoro (Semarang, Indonesia), Universitas Gadjah Mada (Yogyakarta, Indonesia) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (Johor, Malaysia), in 1999, 2004 and 2016, respectively. He has been an Associate Professor in UAD, Yogyakarta-Indonesia since 2008. His research interests include the field of power electronics, industrial applications, industrial elecctronics, industrial informatics, motor drives, FPGA applications, intelligent control and digital library. Mohd Junaidi Abdul Aziz was born in Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia, in 1979. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in 2000 and 2002, respectively; and his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, England, UK, in 2008. Currently working as Associate Professor, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, UTM. His current research interests include power electronics converter, battery management system in electric vehicles and battery charger.